Category: Radio

Abstract

Wireless sensor networks (WSN) are a recent class of distributed systems that consist of sensors. These sensors are essential in monitoring environmental or physical states, like temperature, sound, movement, vibration, or pollutants. As compared to most computers, which primarily rely on data supplied by users, sensor networks take into consideration the surrounding environment. This new concept has given rise to many new protocols that are specially designed for WSN, in which energy effects are considered. Consequently, much attention is given to routing protocols because they tend to be different depending on the network and application design. This paper analyses the various routing protocols for sensor networks and gives a categorization for the different methods pursued. Thus, the three main classes of routing protocols discussed in this research are data-centric, hierarchical, and location-based. Every routing protocol is evaluated under the necessary category. The research concludes with a general comparison and discussion of research issues.

Introduction

The growth of wireless sensor networks has motivated many researchers to take the advantage of sensor opportunities. WSN is now used in several industrial applications, such as process monitoring, machine health monitoring, and traffic control (Ramesh et al. 2006). In sensor networks, micro-sensors are normally developed with information processing and communication abilities. The sensing route determines the light that surrounds the sensor environment and transmits the ambient into electric signals. Transforming such signals enables the network system to know the characteristics of the objects or events occurring in the environment. The sensor then sends the collected information to the sink (command center) through a transmitter. The reduced cost and size of sensors due to technological innovations has increased the interest of researchers in expanding the use of unattended sensors. This has motivated serious research in recent years addressing the possibility of cooperation among sensors in processing data and the management of the sensing events and flow of information to the sink. A normal structural design for such shared distributed sensors is a network designed in an ad hoc manner, consisting of wireless links.

Networking idle sensor nodes are deemed to have a lot of impact on the reliability of most civil and military applications like safety, surveillance, and disaster administration. These systems work on data collected from different sensors to monitor activities in a specific area. Conversely, sensor nodes are restrained in energy distribution and bandwidth. Such limitations combined with a usual operation of many sensor nodes have created many issues in the design and organization of sensor networks. These problems enhance energy consideration at all the networking protocol layers. At the network layer, the main consideration is to find methods of setting up an energy-efficient route and reliable transmission of data from the sensor nodes to the command center so that network survival is sustained (Akkaya & Younis 2003).

Moreover, due to many features that differentiate sensor networks from modern communication and wireless ad hoc networks, routing in WSN is very challenging. Firstly, it is difficult to develop a global addressing scheme for the implementation of many sensor nodes. Thus, standard IP-based protocols cannot be used in sensor networks. Secondly, most applications of sensor networks require the flow of information from multiple sensor nodes to a specific sink, as opposed to classic communication networks. Thirdly, the data traffic produced has many redundancies because different sensors may give the same information in the environment. Such repetition needs to be dealt with by the routing protocols to enhance energy and bandwidth use. Fourthly, sensor nodes are restricted in regard to transmission power, energy, and processing ability, thus necessitates proper resource administration.

As a result of the mentioned differences, many new algorithms have been designed to address these challenges. These algorithms or rather routing mechanisms have taken into consideration the features of sensor nodes together with application and network requirements. These routing protocols can be categorized as data-centric, hierarchical or location-based. However, there are few protocols which are based on quality of service (QoS) knowledge. Data-centric protocols are based on query and rely on naming scheme used in data transmission. Hierarchical protocols try to cluster the nodes so that cluster heads can perform some estimates and lessening of data so as to save energy. Location-based protocols use the information from a location to route data to the realistic point in order to save energy (Raghavendra et al. 2004).

Therefore, this paper discusses the three categories of routing protocols for sensor networks. The aim is to compare and evaluate the routing protocols and discuss issues regarding the research of WSN routing protocols.

Data-Centric Protocols

Assigning global identifiers is difficult in many sensor networks due to the most number of nodes implemented. The absence of global identification together with arbitrary deployment of sensor nodes presents some difficulties in selecting a definite set of sensor nodes to be inquired. Thus, redundancy of data is paramount due to the transmission of data from every node. Since this affect energy consumption, it is possible to take into consideration the routing protocols that are able to determine a set of sensor nodes and efficiently use data aggregation in transmitting data. This has given rise to data-centric routing, which is dissimilar from conventional address-based routing in which routes are determined among addressable nodes in the network layer (Ramesh et al. 2006).

In data-centric routing, the command center (sink) transmits queries to several regions and waits for data from the sensor nodes residing in the regions. Because data is requested through querying, data-centric protocol is characterized by attribute based naming and there is data aggregation during relying (Rousselot 2006). Therefore, this section discusses in details the data-centric protocols.

Flooding and gossiping

Flooding and gossiping are standard methods for transmitting data in WSN without the assistance of routing algorithms and topology management. In flooding, each sensor node broadcasts data packets to the neighboring sensors until the destination is reached or a maximum number of packet relay is reached. Whereas, gossiping is an integrated version of flooding, in which the sensor receiving a data packet sends the packet to its neighbor after random selection of the destination, the selected sensor also picks another neighbor randomly to relay the packet to and the process continues.

Despite its simplicity in implementation and no need of state maintenance, flooding experiences implosion, overlap, and resource blindness. Implosion is as a result of redundant messages relayed to the same node, overlap is when different nodes sensing the same section send similar data packets to the same sensor node, and resource blindness is as a result of uncontrolled energy consumption. Implosion is avoided by gossiping since a random node is selected for packet transmission instead of broadcasting. Though, this results to delays in data propagation within the sensor nodes (Lee 2004).

SPIN – Sensor Protocols for Information via Negotiation

The SPIN protocol names the data packets using meta-data so as to enhance its event-driven capability. At the beginning of transmission, meta-data are interchanged among sensor nodes through a data advertisement system, acting as the main idea of SPIN. After receiving new data from the neighboring node, each node advertises the data to the interested nodes. Thus, any node in need of the data, acquires the data through sending a request message (Ramesh et al. 2006). This feature of negotiation of meta-data or high-level descriptors solves the problem of implosion, overlapping of sensing regions, and resource blindness experienced in flooding. In this case, high energy efficiency is experienced. However, there is no classic format for meta-data and it is deemed to be application specific. Three types of messages are common in SPIN protocol; they enhance the exchange of data among sensor nodes. These include: ADV message that enable a sensor node to advertise a certain high-level descriptor, REQ message that enable a node to request a particular data, and DATA message which carries the exact data (Akkaya & Younis 2003).

One of the benefits of SPIN is that it localizes the topological changes because every node is required to identify only its single-hop neighbors. Another advantage is that SPIN uses energy efficiently as compared to flooding due to the fact that redundant data is reduced. Conversely, the data advertisement mechanism of SPIN does not assure the delivery of data. For example, if the nodes that are in need of the data are located further from the source nodes and the close neighbors of the source nodes are not in need of the data, it implies that the data may not reach its destination. Thus, SPIN is not a proper choice for applications which need consistent data delivery, such as intrusion detection.

Directed Diffusion

This routing protocol diffuses data through sensor nodes by integrating the naming scheme of the data in its process. This is in a view to eliminate unwanted operations of routing in the network layer so as to save energy. Direct Diffusion advocates for the implementation of attribute-value pairs for data and uses an on demand strategy to query the sensors based on the data pairs. For the querying to take place, an interest is generated by a list of attribute-value pairs like duration, interval, name of objects, and so on. The interest is then broadcasted by a sink through its neighbors. A node acquiring the interest can store it for later use. In addition, the nodes have the capability to perform data aggregation. The stored interests are subsequently used to evaluate the received data packets with the interest’s values. Numerous gradient fields are held in the interests. A gradient is a response link from a source neighbor which transmitted the interest. It is described by the duration, data rate, and time of expiration generated from the established interest’s fields. Therefore, by exploiting interest and gradients, paths are generated between sink and sources. Many paths can be created in order to choose one by reinforcement. The sink re-transmits the original interest message through the chosen path with a minimal interval therefore reinforcing the source node to relay data more often (Raghavendra et al. 2004).

In addition, path repairs are achievable in Directed Diffusion. When a certain path fails, a new or alternative path should be created to connect the source and the sink. Lee (2004) asserts that multiple paths should be set in advance so that one of the alternative paths is selected without incurring searching costs. However, there is extra overhead of maintaining many paths by using low data rate, since a lot of energy is required. Directed diffusion is different from SPIN because it is characterized by on demand data querying strategy. Thus, the advantages of Directed Diffusion include on demand route setup which results to energy efficiency and it does not require a node addressing mechanism since all communication is neighbor-to-neighbor. However, Directed Diffusion cannot be applied in continuous data delivery since it is query driven. Consequently, the naming schemes incorporated in Directed Diffusion depend on applications and they should be explicitly defined every time.

Rumor Routing

Rumor routing is a variant of Directed Diffusion and is mostly projected for cases in which geographic routing strategy are not appropriate. In real sense, Directed Diffusion disseminates the query in the whole network when there is lack of geographic mechanism to diffuse responsibilities. However, in some instances the data requested from the nodes is minimal and therefore the flooding concept is not necessary. A different approach may be employed, in which the events are flooded when the number of events is small and there exists a significant number of queries. Rumor routing act in event and query flooding. The notion is to route the query to nodes that are experiencing a certain event as opposed to flooding the whole network to acquire information on the current events (Ramesh et al. 2006).

The rumor routing protocol incorporates old packets, called agents to flood events within the network. Once a node determines an event, it appends it to its local table and develops an agent. Agents relay in the network in order to transmit information regarding local events to remote nodes. After a query for an event is generated by a node, the specific nodes that are familiar with the route can react to the query by using its event table. Therefore, the cost of communicating to the entire network is generally reduced. Only one path is used for transmission of data between source and destination as compared to Directed Diffusion in which data is sent through many paths at low rates. According to Akkaya and Younis (2003), rumor routing has the capability of ensuring that energy is saved and can as well deal with failure of nodes. Though, rumor routing protocol functions well when there is minimal number of events. If the number of events is large, the cost of sustaining agents and event table in every node may be difficult to pay off if there is less interest on the events from the sink.

CADR – Constrained Anisotropic Diffusion Routing

This is a data-centric protocol that aims to be a general type of Directed Diffusion. In this mechanism, two methods are proposed: “information-driven sensor querying (IDSQ) and CADR” (Akkaya & Younis 2003 p.333). The notion is to query the sensor nodes and route data packets so as to exploit the information gain, whilst reducing the bandwidth. This is attained by triggering only the sensors that are near a certain event and dynamically changing the data routes. The main distinction from Directed Diffusion is the concern of information gain and transmission cost. In CADR protocol, every node analyses an information/cost aim and directs data derived from the local information/cost gradient and end-user needs. In IDSQ, the querying node is able to establish which node is capable to give the essential information whilst conserving the energy cost. Moreover, IDSQ is deemed to be a complementary optimization technique since it does not explicitly define how the query and information are directed among sensors and the sink. Because of its ability to diffuse queries using a set of information mechanism, the CADR is more efficient than Directed Diffusion in regard to energy conservation (Lee 2004).

Hierarchical Protocols

Most communication networks take into account the scalability of the network, thus wireless sensor networks are not left behind. A network which is single-tiered can make the gateway to experience data overload due to the increased sensors density. This problem may cause delays in communication and poor tracking of events. Consequently, single-tier architecture does not give an option of increasing the number of sensors in the network because of inability to cope with increased load. In order to enable sensor networks to experience the concept of scalability, networking clustering has been followed in some routing protocols (Zhao & Guibas 2004).

Hierarchical routing aims at controlling the use of energy by sensor nodes through the task of incorporating the nodes in communicating severally within a certain cluster and by enabling data aggregation and fusion in a view to minimize the number of messages relayed to the sink. The formation of a cluster is normally derived from the energy reserve of nodes and the nearness of the sensor to the cluster head (Akkaya & Younis 3003). Therefore, this section analyses the hierarchical routing protocols.

LEACH – Low-Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy

LEACH is one of the major hierarchical routing protocols used in WSN. The LEACH algorithm creates clusters of sensor nodes in regard to the strength of signals acquired and use local cluster heads like routers to the sink. In this case, energy is saved due to the fact that transmissions are performed by the cluster heads fairly than all sensor nodes. The best possible number of cluster heads is projected to be five percent of the number of all nodes. The cluster performs data processing including data fusion and aggregation. They also alter dynamically over time so as to control the energy loss of nodes. This resolution is carried out by a sensor node selecting a random value between 0 and 1. The node is made a cluster head for the current transmission if the value is less than the following equation (Akkaya & Younis 3003 p. 335).

T (n) = { p / 1 – p * (r mod 1/p) if n € G, { 0 otherwise, p is the expected percentage of cluster heads, r is the present round, and G is the number of nodes which have not acted as cluster heads for the previous 1/p rounds.

LEACH experiences a high factor (4-8) in reduction of energy dissipation as compared to direct communication and the least transmission routing protocol. The nodes in the sensor networks expire randomly and lively clustering enhances the system operation. Another advantage of the LEACH algorithm is its distribution capability, which needs no global network knowledge. Yet, LEACH employs a single-hop transmission in which each node is able to relay directly to the cluster head and the sink. Thus, LEACH is not appropriate to networks implemented in large regions. Consequently, dynamic clustering results to extra overhead, which may reduce the gain in energy consumption (Ramesh et al. 2006).

PEGASIS and Hierarchical – PEGASIS: Power-Efficient GAthering in Sensor Information Systems

PEGASIS is a hierarchical clustering protocol that improves the capability of the LEACH protocol. PEGASIS creates chains rather than multiple clusters. Each node relays and obtains from a neighbor and only a single node is chosen from the chain to act as a transmitter to the sink. Collected data packets move from one node to another, they are aggregated and finally transmitted to the sink (base station). According to Zhao and Guibas (2004), the chain is constructed through the incorporation of a greedy algorithm. PEGASIS is more efficient than the LEACH because it eliminates the overhead that is as a result of dynamic clusters in LEACH algorithm and by the method of transmission and reception reduction by employing data aggregation. Though, PEGASIS creates excessive delay for remote node on the chain. Furthermore, the single chain selected may fail.

Hierarchical-PEGASIS is an improvement to PEGASIS. Its main objective is to minimize the delay acquired for packets in the process of communicating to the sink and suggests a solution to the data collection problem by taking into account the energy and delay metric. Concurrent transmissions of data are aimed at, so as to reduce delays. To prevent collisions and signal obstruction among the sensor nodes, two techniques have been researched. The first technique involves signal coding, i.e. CDMA. The other technique enables distant nodes to transmit simultaneously (Rousselot 2006). Even though the PEGASIS algorithms eliminate the clustering overhead experienced in the LEACH algorithm, they also need dynamic topology modification because energy of the sensor is not kept.

TEEN and APTEEN

Threshold sensitive Energy Efficient sensor Network protocol (TEEN) is specifically developed to deal with abrupt alterations in the sensed parameters like sound. TEEN aims at employing a hierarchical algorithm and the data-centric protocol so as to increase responsiveness. The WSN structure is designed according to the hierarchical ordering in which closer nodes create clusters and the mechanism proceeds to the second level until the sink is found. The APTEEN (Adaptive TEEN) protocol extends the features of the TEEN algorithm. Its objective is to detect periodic data collections and to respond to time-critical events. APTEEN acts on three distinct query types: historical, one-time, and persistent. However, the main disadvantages of these mechanisms are the overhead and difficulty of creating clusters in several levels, and maintaining the attribute-based query identification (Etefia 2004).

Location-Based Protocols

Most routing protocols used in the WSN need site information for sensor nodes. This information is required mainly to estimate the distance between two sensor nodes in order to aggregate the energy being consumed. Location information can be used in a more reliable method because sensor networks do not have a classical addressing scheme and they are distantly located in a certain area. Thus, if the location information of a particular sensor is known, a query can be dispersed in that region only, so as to reduce the number of transmissions (Raghavendra et al. 2004). Therefore, this section looks at some of the location-based protocols.

MECN and SMECN

Minimum energy communication network (MECN) protocol creates and sustains a minimum energy networks for WSN by exploiting minimum power GPS. MECN presumes a master-location as the information sink, which is normally applied in WSN. This protocol determines a relay region for each sensor node. The identified relay region contains nodes in the neighboring region in which transmission that takes place within the nodes in the area is more energy efficient as compared to direct transmission. Determining the efficient paths is performed by the means of a local search for each node, taking into consideration its relay region (Akkaya & Younis 2003). Furthermore, MECN can be able to reconfigure itself and therefore it can be able to withstand node failure or implementation of new nodes.

The Small MECN (SMECN) extends the functioning of MECN. In MECN, it is presumed that each sensor node can be able to relay to every other node, which is generally not possible in most cases. The SMECN considers other factors that affect the transmission of data packets. Though, the network is seen as fully connected like the MECN. The relay region created by SMECN is generally smaller than the one developed by MECN. Consequently, the number of propagations for relays will decrease. This implies that SMECN uses less energy than MECN and the cost of sustaining the network is low. Though, constructing a smaller network with few nodes presents more overhead in the protocol (Akkaya & Younis 2003).

GAF – Geographic Adaptive Fidelity

This is a location-based protocol that is mainly used in mobile informal networks, but can be used in WSN also. GAF turns off the inactive nodes within the network without interfering with the network functionality. It then creates a virtual grid for the region in use. Every node relates itself with a point in the virtual grid by the use of GPS-indicated site. Nodes residing in the same position are regarded as having similar cost of packet transmission. This similarity is dealt with by ensuring that some nodes are inactive so as to save energy. Therefore, this protocol is deemed to enhance the lifetime of the network when the number of nodes increases.

In addition, nodes in the network change their states from active to sleeping in order to maintain a balanced network operation. According to Zhao and Guibas (2004), GAF defines three states for the nodes: discovery, for establishing the neighboring nodes in the grid, sleep, when the node is inactive, and active, when the node is involved in transmission. Despite its categorization as a location-based protocol, GAF can be regarded as a hierarchical algorithm. Thus, for every grid area, a representative node is considered a leader to relay data to other sensor nodes (Ramesh et al. 2006).

GEAR – Geographic and Energy-Aware Routing

GEAR takes into consideration the energy aware and environmental aware neighbor choice heuristics to transmit a packet to a destined region. The notion is to minimize the number of interests in Directed Diffusion through taking into account a specific area instead of sending the interests to the entire network. Thus, energy is conserved since GEAR enhances the capability of Directed Diffusion. Furthermore, GEAR ensures that every node is able to maintain two types of costs. Firstly, the estimated cost of reaching the sink through the neighboring nodes. This is an integration of outstanding energy and distance to destination. Secondly, the learning cost takes into consideration the transmission around holes (no closer neighbors) in the network. In essence, GEAR consists of two stages: transmitting packets towards the target area and relaying packets within the site (Etefia 2004).

Conclusion and Research Issues

Many researchers have continued to take interest in routing protocols in the recent years. This has been able to generate new challenges as compared to the conventional guided networks. This paper has compared and evaluated the recent research of routing protocols in wireless sensor networks. The protocols were categorized into three main groups, that is, data-centric, hierarchical, and location based. Data-centric protocols are algorithms that name the data and query the sensor nodes on some parameters of packet data. Many researchers follow this mechanism since clusters and specialized nodes are not required as compared to hierarchical and protocol-based networks. Though, the naming schemes used in data-centric protocols may not be suitable for compound queries and they normally rely on applications. A more reliable scheme is the most burning issue that requires research in this category of routing.

Alternatively, the hierarchical protocols categorize sensor nodes to reliably route the sensed data to the destination. The cluster heads are in other times selected as dedicated nodes that are less limited to energy. A cluster-head analyses the data and transmits it to the destination on behalf of the other nodes that reside within the group. The main research issue in hierarchical protocol is how to create clusters that optimize the energy consumption and modern communication metrics. Consequently, location-based protocols use the location information of a sensor node to create a communication region. The major research issue that needs consideration in this category is the proper use of location information so as to help in energy efficient transmission. Though, the performance of these protocols is better in terms of energy conservation, there is need to create protocols that address issues like quality of service (QoS). Another major issue in routing protocols is the accounting of node mobility. Most of the present protocols presume that the sensor nodes are stationary, thus there is need to consider mobility in complex networks. Furthermore, WSN requires further research so as to create routing protocols that are able to combine guided network with wired networks.

References

Akkaya, K & Younis, M 2003, A survey on routing protocols for wireless sensor networks. Web.

Etefia, B 2004, Routing Protocols for Wireless Sensor Networks, Web.

Lee, W 2004, Overview of Sensor Network Routing Protocols, Web.

Raghavendra et al. 2004, Wireless Sensor Networks, Springer, New York.

Ramesh et al. 2006, ‘Data-Aggregation Techniques In Sensor networks: A Survey’, IEE Communications Surveys, vol. 8, no. 4, 2006.

Rousselot, J 2006, Dynamic Networks: Routing Protocols for Wireless Sensor Networks, Web.

Zhao, F & Guibas L.J 2004, Wireless Sensor Networks, An Information Processing Approach, Morgan Kaufmann Publishers, San Francisco.

Abstract

Over the recent past, the concept of using wireless sensor networks has gained popularity in the world of technology, because of the numerous applications and systems, which are dependent on it. Although this is the case, just like any other technological idea, this technology has its own challenges, which in most cases result, because of insufficiency of energy and scarcity of non-renewable resources.

However, to curb these challenges, numerous developments, for example, the convergence of computing and communications and the coming up of low-power VLSI, has made this innovation a reality. This paper will discuss what the technology of wireless sensor networks entails and its common topologies and applications.

Introduction

The wireless sensor network is primarily composed of spatially circulated independent sensors whose main function is to ascertain the level of physical quantities, for, example pressure, sound vibrations, the level of hotness or coldness, movements, and sometimes the amount of pollutants in the air (Stankovic, 2006, pp. 1-2).

Recently, it has established its way into a wider variety of applications and systems with infinitely varying requirements and distinctiveness. Wireless sensor networks primarily came into existence, because of the need of the armed forces to have systems that could help to know when an enemy is in their territories.

Later on, this technology stated to be used in a number of industrial and consumer applications such as industrial processing, monitoring and controlling of machines, and in hospitals as a mechanism of monitoring and controlling machines (Raghavendra, 2006, p. 17).

Wireless sensor networks are primarily comprised of numerous nodes, which in most cases depend on the size of the system. Every node is connected to one or more sensors (Raghavendra, 2006, p. 30-33). These sensors are primarily a form of network node with a microcontroller, radio transceiver, and a sensor node.

As a result of its importance, this technological innovation has become a real commodity in the present world; hence, the nature of significance it is given in the world today (Akyildiz, Melodia, & Chowdhury, 2009, p. 7).

Wireless Sensor Network Topologies

Point To Point Topology

This type of a topology is the simplest of all the topologies. It is a permanent link between two points. Every single sensor node under this system must have a different bent and protected couple of wire connection. Primarily, it is a type of normal telephony that relies on unrestricted mode of transferring signals among the duo.

As compared to others, it is very dependable, because it has one malfunction, which primarily involves the host itself. It is of two different kinds; dedicated, which is the easiest to understand and the user is permanently associated with the two endpoints, and switched that is also known as circuit or packet switching.

The latter is set up dynamically, after which it is dropped when it is no longer needed. It is costly, because it has a difficult configuration management and almost all the information processing is entirely done by the endpoints (Raghavendra, 2006, p. 34).

The Bus Topology

This topology is made in such a way that, every single node is interlinked to one bus cable and a information from the primary source moves in either way and this information must pass through all the sensors, which are attached to it up to that time that the information will reach its designated endpoint (either a node or a device).

If for instance the machine signal does not match the projected address of data, the sensors will ignore the data (Kosmerchock, (n.d), pp. 1-2). This topology is easy to implement, install and extend.

Also, it is less expensive, easy to manage and cost effective, since it uses a single cable. However, it is limited to the length of cable and number of connections; hence, it makes one to work with a limited number of nodes (Kumar, 2009, p. 9).

The Star Topology

Under this topology, network nodes are connected to a central hub with a point to point connection. The network does not necessarily look like a star as the name suggests, but all the nodes of the network must be connected to one central device. Therefore, all the information that traverses the network has to pass through this central hub, because the hub acts as a signal repeater (Akyildiz, Melodia, & Chowdhury, 2009, p. 10-11).

This topology is considered as the easiest to design, because it has better performance, since it does not allow passing of data packets through an excessive number of nodes. It also isolates all devices in the network; hence, preventing non-centralized malfunction from disturbing the whole network.

However, failure from the central hub renders the whole network useless, since there is a very “high dependency of the system on the functioning of the central hub” (Kumar, 2009, p. 15).

Ring Network Topology

It is an organisation that is almost circular; whereby, information is transmitted in one course, because each node helps to repeat the signal. This is the case because the signal has to remain strong up to when it reaches its required destination.

It is mad in such a way that all the required data travels in using a single path, and every node does the work of duplicating the signal up to that point when the required information arrives at the targeted point. Therefore, each sensor is made up of a receiver, which is required to receive the signal and a transmitter that should convey the information to the subsequent sensor in the system.

It is considered to be the most orderly network, because it performs better than a bus topology under heavy network load and it does not require any central node to manage the connectivity between computers (Raghavendra, 2006, p. 41).

The most recent ring topology has a back up ring that boosts the main ring in the system. Setbacks of this network are that, the information delays and malfunctioning of one of the nodes can affect the whole system.

The Mesh Topology

This topology was originally developed for military applications, but over the past decades, its cost, size and power rations have made it to be used in radios (Akyildiz, Melodia, & Chowdhury, p. 18). This type of networking involves every node on the system being able to capture and spread its own data and serve as a transmitter to other nodes at the same time.

In other words, it must collaborate in order to propagate its own data in the network. This kind of system can only be designed by employing a flooding or routing technique. Either way, all the available paths must allow continuous connection and reconfiguration in both broken and blocked paths, which are commonly called healing algorithms.

The only disadvantage with this network is that, it is has a wizzy distal courier and delays in the system (Kosmerchock, (n.d), p. 3).

Tree Network Topology

It borrows the idea of the star topology, but is a central root node say, which is ranked highest and it is connected to one or more nodes in such a way that each of them is one level lower in the hierarchy. Hence, it has a point to point link between each of its nodes (Akyildiz, Melodia, & Chowdhury, 2009, p. 19-20).

The set up of this topology is very organised in such a way that, every single node in the system has a unique number of nodes, which are interlinked to it, at the lower point of the organisation. As a result of this unique connection, sometimes the tree topology is defined as a combination of the bus and star topology. So far it is the most preferred type of network (Raghavendra, 2006, p. 45).

Applications of Wireless Sensor Networks

Wireless sensor networks have a variety of applications, which have completely revolutionized the world. One of the main applications is in area monitoring. This technology is the most common application that is used to monitor movements, more so in restricted areas. For instance, the military apply these sensors as a method of identifying an opponent’s invasion, while other individuals apply it to examine a geo-fencing.

This technology is also of great significance when it comes to checking air pollution, because it has been applied in numerous urban centres to check the amount of dangers, which may result due to these harmful substances in the air. Another common application is the use of this technology in forest fire detection.

The nodes are installed in the forest to monitor the situation in case of a fire; whereby, using the nodes, it is possible to control humidity, gases, and the temperature that is produced forest fires. On the other hand, this technology has found wide application in green houses.

In conservatories, the wireless network sensor nodes can be used in controlling the temperature and humidity levels; whereby, they are set in a way that they are able to notify the manager through e-mail or a phone text message in case any of these parameters fall below or rise above certain required levels (Mattern and Romer, 2004, pp. 4-8).

Conclusion

In conclusion, although this technology has it its own disadvantages, wireless sensor networks have numerous applications that are very important in the world today. As research studies show, the future of wireless sensor networks is promising, as there are numerous researches undertaking to reduce any delays and expenses that are associated with this development (Raghavendra, 2006, p. 56 and Kumar, 2009, p. 4).

In order to make this technology more efficient than it is today, it is necessary for engineers and the involved parties to do more research work and implement measures, which should ensure that lower-power communication hardware, micro-controllers, and better energy saving devices are made.

Reference List

Akyildiz, I. F., Melodia, T., & Chowdhury, R. K. (2009). A survey on wireless multimedia sensor networks. Broadband and Wireless networking Labaratory, School of Electrical and Computing Engineering, Georgia University of Technology.

Kosmerchock, S. (n.d). Wireless Sensor Network Topologies. Web.

Kumar, S. (2009). Considerations in Wireless Sensor Networks for Telemedicine. Proceedings from SPIE ITCOM Conference, Sept 2003-2009.

Mattern, F. & Romer, K. (2004). The Design Space Of Wireless Sensor Networks. Institute of Pervasive Computing. Retrieved from <http://www.vs.inf.ethz.ch/publ/papers/wsn-designspace.pdf>

Raghavendra, S. (2006). Wireless Sensor Network Environment. New York: Springer.

Stankovic, J. A. (2006). Wireless Sensor Networks. University of Virginia. Retrieved from <http://www.cs.virginia.edu/~stankovic/psfiles/wsn.pdf>

This shift from paper based on electronic record keeping is very well informed. Adopting wireless and mobile technology will improve the doctors and nurses’ efficiency and lessen their workload. However, this technology comes with a number of challenges and risks (Kim, 2010). Some of these risks affect the patients’ wellbeing. This makes mitigation of these risks a priority. Here is a detailed report on the risks involved in this shift and recommendations on how to mitigate them.

Wireless networks in this case can be used with such handheld devices like PDA phones, PDAs, handheld PCs, laptops, and tablets. The first risk that is specific to wireless technology is infiltration of an access point. If the access point of a wireless network is left unsecured, unauthorized people can gain access to the network’s resources. This can in turn pose a risk to the integrity and confidentiality of patients’ information.

Wireless devices that are not secured increase the chances of a hacking. If a hacker accesses a wireless device, it makes it easy for him/her to gain entry into the network’s resources using an unsecured interface. In addition, unsecured devices are susceptible to MAC flooding attacks (Alexander, 2009). These kinds of attacks affect the network’s performance. Wireless networks also come with the risk of jamming.

This occurs when there are other wireless networks operating within the same area. Overlapping frequencies are the main cause of jamming wireless networks. Hand held devices come with the risk of man in the middle attacks. This happens when an attacker forces another device between an end device and the access point.

This attacker can then be able to access the network resources. This is because the attacker records every transaction done by the end device through the network. Wireless networks use authentication methods that can be compromised. The WEP keys that are used by most wireless networks can be compromised through monitoring or sniffing attacks. When this happens, the encrypted data sent through the network can be decrypted.

Each of the above problems can be mitigated using several measures. The first measure involves putting in place an efficient user authentication method. Several internet security standards recommend different authentication methods. Any of these methods can be used depending on the required security level. Another way of minimizing security risks is using higher-level protocols to secure network resources.

An example of such is the virtual private network protocol. Avoiding unnecessary coverage of a wireless network minimizes the risk of intrusion. Wireless networks that can be detected away from their intended range can easily fall prey to attackers. All ‘hardware devices should be properly secured limiting their accessibility only to a network administrator.

The office in this case consists of three doctors and two nurses. Its location is in the midst of other offices. Therefore, it is recommended that an extensive site survey be conducted before deploying the wireless network. This will make sure all sources of interference are discovered beforehand because they may later affect a network’s performance. They should also make sure that all the equipment used for the wireless network is within their jurisdiction.

This reduces the chances of attacks instigated through hardware access. The doctors should also make sure that the type of authentication used is robust. The technology and devices used should be up to date. This is because outdated technology poses a higher security risk (Retterer, 2004). Implementing wireless networks and purchasing mobile devices is not cheap. Therefore, this office should make sound financial considerations before embarking on this shift.

References

Alexander, J. (2009). Securing your wireless network. AAOS Bulletin, 51(2), 23-25.

Kim, D. ( 2010). Fundamentals of Information Systems Security. Boston, MA: Jones & Bartlett Learning.

Retterer, J. (2004). Securing wireless technology for healthcare. Journal of AHIMA, 75(5), 56-58.

Introduction

Event management systems involve the optimization of the planning and implementation of various events. RFID bands are the most widely used technology for human flow management and automation of a number of site processes. RFID bands help reduce event costs and also provide access to information that can be used in various ways. In particular, the technology allows the introduction of contactless payment and fast authorization, which significantly reduces queues. However, this tool assumes a number of privacy and security concerns, including the possibility of personal data leakage.

Analysis

Chosen Use Case

The use case for the report is chosen adults at trade shows. In recent years, RFID bands have been actively used to improve the quality of event data management, as they provide a number of useful features. First of all, the technology allows optimizing the entrance of participants to such events, significantly reducing the scanning time at the entrance (8 benefits of using RFID, n.d). Observing the traffic and movement patterns of people can also help transform the site to suit their needs. This is important when calculating resources since “the food and beverage counts hosts receive from caterers are often inaccurate” (RFID at trade shows, n.d). By assessing the flow of people at the event, one can fix mistakes as quickly as possible or notice key aspects for future events.

It is also crucial that RFID bands provide a contactless payment option for purchasing goods at the event site. This aspect has a great positive impact on trade since cashless transactions tend ” Additionally, the technology allows attendees to be “involved in clever activation campaigns “to encourage patrons to spend more (up to 30%!)” (The beginner’s guide, 2018). RFID bands provide benefits for event attendees, not only for organizers, including better communication with sponsors and each other (Bowler, 2016). However, this technology provides sponsors and organizers with data collection tools that can be used not only to optimize the event but also in future product development.

Types of Personal Data

With regard to working with personal data, it is important to pay attention to how the classification of its types occurs. In particular, there is a distinction between personally identified and non-identified data (Karygiannis et al., 2007). Personal information includes an “individual’s full name, social security number, passport number, financial account or credit card numbers, and biometric data such as fingerprints” (p. 91). However, such data as gender, religious beliefs, city of residence, and others are not considered as personal, as they are common to many people. Nevertheless, the combination of such personally unidentified data can still characterize a specific person, which makes them private. Thus, when working with RFID, it is necessary to take into account both direct and indirect identification obtained through personal data.

The use of RFID bands in trade shows is to track people’s activity and collect various types of information. First of all, the technology predominantly uses tracking information about the event attendee. This type of information involves tracking the location of a person on the site to generate statistics on the human flow and track patterns of their movements. This type of information can also include contact details such as name, email address, and phone number (Tappit launches new RFID, 2019). Such data is most relevant for children’s events but can also be used on trade shows to locate individuals or groups. External information collected by RFID bands includes identification, behavioral and demographic data. The internal information that the technology collects includes preconceptions, which are especially well tracked through the participation of attendees in activities. RFID bands are also involved in the collection of financial data, as it involves the use of contactless payments. In particular, this type can include information about transactions and a person’s bank account.

Finally, the technology also collects social information about attendees, as it tracks social networking and human communication at the event venue. This type can also include professional information, which also plays a significant role in the formation of statistical reports. Thus, all collected, stored, and transmitted data is solely related to the description of aspects related to the event and the relationship between sponsors and attendees. RFID bands can either be personalized and use the profile of the attendee preloaded on the device, or they can act as a digital key and use the information stored in the database (Bennett, 2013). This aspect raises concerns related to the reliability of the safety of personal data that may be collected and transmitted.

Compliance Issues

For the implementation of the technology in the framework of public events and exhibitions, RFID must be compliant with various regulations. First and foremost, the use of the technology must be consistent with RFID usage policies, which can include a range of different regulations. The most significant issue is compliance with technical specifications, which “address privacy issues associated with the tag identifier formats and the potential disclosure of information based solely on the tag identifier format selected” (Karygiannis et al., 2007, p. 64). Therefore, the use of RFID bands on trade shows must meet technical requirements regulated by various documents.

The second most important compliance issue is the need to ensure IT security in accordance with the protocols. This aspect includes “network, database and application security in the enterprise and inter-enterprise subsystems” (Karygiannis et al., 2007, p. 64). Thus, within the framework of the event, it is necessary not only to use certified technology but also to ensure the privacy of data throughout the site. This requirement implies the availability of a reliable IT security system, which must be provided by the organizers.

Within the framework of trade shows, the collected information can be used not only to optimize the event but also by sponsors, which is the third compliance issue. When using RFID bands, it is necessary to coordinate the types of data collected and their use with external organizations, as well as participants in the event. All parties involved should be informed about what data will be collected and for what purposes. Without the consent of all parties, the use of RFID technology cannot be compliant.

Another significant compliance issue is the need to provide employees with sufficient skills and knowledge to work with RFID technology. In particular, this aspect affects IT security, which needs to be paid special attention to when training specialists. In particular, strategies need to be developed to identify unauthorized use of bands, as well as who to report violations that occur. Thus, consultancy support should be provided in all aspects of operation and technology implementation.

The most significant of the compliance issues is the aspect related to the storage, transfer, and use of personal data of attendees. Data privacy is one of the top concerns associated with RFID wristbands. This is especially relevant for the use of cantata and payment information of people, which is relevant for the use of contactless payments. When making and tracking mobile purchases, buyers leave their personal information and also participate in the tracking process. All these manipulations affect the privacy issues of their personal data, which may be at risk. Thus, this compliance issue is a priority for addressing when working with technology.

Privacy and Security Issues

The main privacy and security issue is the potential for leakage of attendees’ personal information. This aspect is relevant as it is inextricably linked with the principle of operation of RFID bands. In particular, when entering the event site, a person needs to identify himself, which leads to the provision of personal information. The data that the attendee provides can be potentially sensitive, especially when combined with other collected information. Security flaws can lead to data leaking, which is the main problem. Another privacy issue can be tracking the location of a person while at the event site. In particular, although RFID bands work when located close to the immediate source of the signal, there is a risk of copying it. Such manipulations can lead to the fact that strangers can track people’s behavior patterns, which leads to the collection of personal information.

Another significant threat to privacy is the disclosure of information about transactions and accounts of attendees. In the context of contactless payments, cybercriminals, in the presence of imperfections in the security system, may be able to intercept such information. This aspect leads to a significant threat since such data have a special priority within the framework of trade shows. The described privacy issues are associated with security issues that exist when working with RFID technology.

First of all, the most common threat is hacker attacks to intercept the information. One such issue can be denial-of-service (DoS) attacks, which exploit vulnerabilities in the RFID reader and end server. In this case, tags of bands can lose contact with the reader, which will lead to a complete stop of the system. Within the framework of events, such an attack will be critical, as it paralyzes the activities of the entire trade show. Sniffing is also a significant threat to RFID technology, as it allows attackers to use their own reader as their primary reader. This is due to the absence of the reader verification process, which allows you to receive a signal, and therefore information, on an identical device. Thus, the main concern of the organizers, in this case, is to ensure the security of the RFID network from outside interference. Attention not only to IT but also to physical security will ensure the privacy of the data of attendees.

Laws, Regulations, and Standards

Currently, there are several laws and standards governing the use of RFID. First of all, it is FCC Part 15, which defines the technical standards that industrial, medical, and scientific RFID bands must meet (RFID basics – RFID regulations, n.d). The technology implementation is impossible without compliance with the requirements of this document. The Privacy Act of 1974 governs “the collection, use, maintenance, and dissemination of personal information about US citizens or aliens lawfully admitted for permanent residence” (Karygiannis et al., 2007, p. 97-98). This act obliges to ensure the security of attendees data, which could be personally identifiable. There is also the E-Government Act of 2002, which establishes procedures aimed at ensuring the security of personal data (Karygiannis et al., 2007). The act includes the need to assess privacy risks, inform all participants, and also establish a number of technical requirements for IT and Web security. Thus, these documents regulate both the technical aspects of technology implementation and the factors related to data protection. Without meeting the requirements described in them, the use of technology is impossible since it involves the collection of personal information.

Recommendations

To address the privacy and security risks, there are a number of steps that need to be taken before the technology is implemented. First of all, it is necessary to provide relevant training for employees to work correctly with RFID bands and security networks. The planning and implementation process should include the interaction of all participants to ensure the most secure system. With regard to the policies, special attention should be paid to the formation of a strategy in accordance with regulatory requirements. In the technological dimension, it is necessary to ensure the greatest awareness of the shareholders about the principles of RFID bands. Additionally, the company needs to work only with trusted and experienced contractors to avoid difficulties.

Conclusion

The use of RFID bands within trade shows provides significant benefits for event management. In particular, the technology allows you to optimize the flow of people, which speeds up their automation and ensures the collection of relevant statistics. It is also important that access to contactless payment is a positive aspect of the interaction of sponsors and attendees. The IT Governance Board is recommended to pay special attention to regulations related to technical requirements and privacy aspects. Additionally, it is necessary to provide relevant employee training and information to all shareholders.

References

8 benefits of using RFID wristbands for resorts & attractions. (n.d). ID&C.

Bennett, C. (2013). RFID wristbands vs NFC apps: What’s winning the contactless battle? Techradar.

Bowler, J. (2016).RFID wristbands – The good, the bad and the ugly.

Karygiannis, T., Eydt, B., Barber, G., Bunn, L., & Phillips, T. (2007). Guidelines for Securing Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) Systems: Recommendations of the National Institute of Standards and Technology [PDF file]. US Department of Commerce.

RFID at trade shows. (n.d). MetalCraft.

RFID basics – RFID regulations. (n.d). RFID4u.

Tappit launches new RFID wristband safety functionality. (2019). Tappit.

The beginner’s guide to RFID technology for events. (2018). Token.

Introduction

Day by day, the usage of wireless networks has been increasing across the world. We either come across or use wireless networks using various computer devices in our day-to-day activities. The need to make communication and transfer of data much faster and more efficient has necessitated the development of the wireless network. The wireless network is efficient and cost-effective, making it more popular across the world. The use of wireless networks, particularly in organizations, should be integrated for the reasons discussed in this report.

Benefits of Wireless Networks

The wireless network enables its users to be able to use the network with easy access. This is because it doesn’t require any cable or wire to be used. This makes it possible to communicate within the network while moving around without being disconnected. This results in the staff members working efficiently and hence improves the organization’s productivity (Karnik & Passerini, 2005). Installation of a wireless network is easier and faster compared to a cable or wire-based network. It brings down the usage of cables which can be difficult to set up and may also bring up the risk of tripping on them and falling. A wireless network is much cheaper to install than installing a wired network since it saves on the cost of purchasing the wires (Karygiannis & Owens, 2002). In most cases, the initial investment in installing a wireless network is high, but with time, the overall expenses become lower. In cases where the organization has to change the network, it will have to update the wireless network until it meets the new configuration.

Wireless networks are efficient since they allow improved and better communication of data (Karnik & Passerini, 2005). The data transfer between the network users is much faster than the cable and wire. The users of the network can also move around with their gadgets using the network since they are not limited by network cables. This makes the network more efficient in the organization’s activities. Wireless networks are flexible, making it easy for the organization’s members to use them efficiently. The employees can be able to work from home and be productive since they can have direct access to data through a wireless network (Karygiannis & Owens, 2002). Wireless networks allow wider reach than wired and cable networks. It can allow the organization to reach more users and be able to transfer information to wider places.

Drawbacks

Wireless networks normally have a lot of security issues if it is not installed properly or maintained in the right way (Karygiannis, 2002). Lack of good maintenance of the wireless network may lead to severe security threats. The wireless network does not require components like network cables and wire making it necessary to use a wireless adapter which increases the risk of hackers accessing the network. Hackers seriously threaten any organization’s network and can overturn a whole organization. Transfer of data through a wireless network is slower compared to a wired network. The speed of sharing data through a wireless network will depend on how far the receiver is from the sender.

The more the distance between them, the longer it will take for the data to be transferred. This makes the speed of sharing data less efficient when using a wireless network. Organizations in large spaces or buildings will experience low-speed transfer of data (Karnik & Passerini, 2005). A wireless network will not be efficient where large files are transferred and in big space buildings. Wireless networks are subjected to interference and jamming mainly due to external factors. External factors like radiation, fog, radio signals, dust storms, or any similar interference may cause the wireless network to malfunction. The wireless network can be prone to interference if other users or organizations are using wireless technology in the near area or within the same building.

The wireless network requires minimum knowledge of computers for the user to be able to use the network. People who may not have the required experience may face some challenges when using the network. If an inexperienced person installs the network, there is an increased risk of hacking. Therefore, the installation requires the hiring of experienced personnel. Wireless networks are usually inexpensive, but the cost of installation is very high (Karnik & Passerini, 2005). The installation of wireless networks may require specific equipment that may be expensive. These tags, along with extra costs in installing the wireless network. The installation of wireless networks requires high expertise, which still increases the cost of installation. Wireless networks have a minimum coverage area which is unsuitable for a large building.

Conclusion

This report describes the benefits and drawbacks of the wireless network in an organization. It is evident that integrating a wireless network in an organization has its advantages and disadvantages, and weighing the two; it can be said it will be beneficial for an organization to install a wireless network.

References

Karnik, A., & Passerini, K. (2005, April). Wireless network security-a discussion from a business perspective. In Symposium, 2005 Wireless Telecommunications (pp. 261-267). IEEE.

Karygiannis, T., & Owens, L. (2002). Wireless Network Security: US Department of Commerce, Technology Administration, National Institute of Standards and Technology.

Abstract

This paper explores the historical development of wireless networks. The essay also gives a detailed analysis of the physical infrastructure associated with wireless networks. The benefits of this technology for business organizations are also discussed. Some of the issues encountered by Cisco Systems after implementing the use of the wireless network are also analyzed. The paper concludes by describing the implications of wireless networks for different emergency agencies and the police.

Wireless Networks

Overview of Wireless Networks

Cardei and Du define a wireless network as “any computer connection that uses wireless data” (334). This method is embraced because it reduces the costs associated with cable systems. The common wireless networks include Wi-Fi connections and cell-phones. The history of wireless networks is “founded on the development of the first wireless telegraph” (Cardei and Du 336). Concepts of data compression emerged after Claude Shannon published his work in 1948.

The first Terrestrial Microwave Telecommunication System was designed in 1950. By 1977, cellular systems had been launched in Washington. From 1970 to 1990, new developments emerged, thus leading to the first mobile phone. In 1998, Nokia, Intel, IBM, and Ericsson joined hands to develop the first Bluetooth (Stojmenovic 12). This achievement made it possible for humans to exchange wireless data. In 1999, Wi-Fi Alliance was established to develop new technologies for wireless local area networking (WLAN). These developments created the foundation for future wireless networks.

Types of Wireless Networks

Wireless Networks (WLANs) allow computer users in different areas to share information through the internet. There are different wireless networks that are designed to complete various tasks and duties. Wireless networks make it possible for individuals to share or access information and applications without the use of data cables. Wireless networking also delivers freedom of movement and the ability to share ideas across the globe (Stojmenovic 17). The major types of wireless connections are presented below.

Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs)

This kind of wireless network allows computer users within a small environment, such as a campus, to have internet access (Stojmenovic 18). Three or more individuals can come together to form a common point of access. This network is used by individuals who want to share information within a small area.

Wireless Personal Area Networks (WPANs)

WPANs are used by individuals to connect several devices. This should be done within a small area, such as a house or office. The “connection makes it easier for the user to have internet access” (Stojmenovic 32). New technologies such as OFDMs and spread-spectrum make it possible for users to access the internet within a wider circumference.

Wireless Mesh Network

This kind of wireless network is not widely used. The “network system is usually composed of radio nodes arranged to form a mesh typology” (Negus 2). The nodes work together to increase performance and efficiency. The networks have “the ability to reroute whereby a node can support those around it” (Negus 3).

Wireless Metropolitan Area Networks (W-MAN)

Several WLANs can be interconnected to form a wider system. This kind of connection is given the name W-MAN (Stojmenovic 42). The WLAN connections within the system can share information and applications.

Wide Area Networks (W-MAN)

Wireless WAN is “a connection that covers a wide area” (Negus 4). A good example is a connection serving two neighboring suburbs or cities. A firm can use W-MAN to connect its businesses in different cities (Negus 4). This connection is characterized by several “access points, bridging relays, and Base Station Gateways” (Negus 4).

Space Network

This wireless network evolved due to the needs and issues associated with space exploration. The communication between spacecraft and control centers is essential. Spacecrafts are therefore fitted with Wireless Space Network (WSN) in order to relay information back to planet Earth (Hultell, Johansson, and Markendahl 2). A good example of this network is the one managed by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA).

Global Area Network (GAN)

The current proliferation of technology has made it possible for different nations and continents to share information. The development of GAN makes global communication possible. GAN is, therefore, a connection aimed at supporting wireless data across the globe (Negus 6). The use of “terrestrial wireless LANS have been observed to promote communication over large coverage areas” (Stojmenovic 76).

Aspects of Wireless Technology

Every network connection is defined by various hardware components and software applications. Such components and devices make it easier for different organizations to be connected. Several components should be considered in order to have an effective wireless connection (Szabo, Horvath, and Farkas 3). This means that the system should have various aspects, such as hardware, software, protocols, and physical infrastructures.

Protocols

Stojmenovic defines “an internet protocol as a communications protocol within the internet suite that relays data-grams across networks” (82). This routing function is critical because it makes internetworking possible. This protocol is, therefore, can be described as the internet (Hultell et al. 3). That being the case, there are different protocols associated with the wireless network. For instance, the Long Term Evolution (LTE) is a powerful communications protocol used to network mobile phones. The other common protocol for wireless connections is Wi-Fi. Bluetooth is another protocol that has been in use since the 1990s. However, Bluetooth functions within a distance of fewer than 10 meters (Szabo et al. 6).

Hardware

Different hardware components should be utilized in order to have an effective wireless network. Some of the typical hardware devices or components utilized to support wireless networks include computers, switches, phone lines, and cables (Szabo et al. 6). The physical hardware should be organized effectively in order to ensure the system functions effectively. Every device on the network system should have an adapter (Hultell et al. 3).

This means that computers and devices capable of accessing wireless internet have such adapters. Wireless routers are also used to ensure wireless networks work effectively. Such routers work as access points for effective internet access. Wireless antennas are also useful because “they increase the capability of every wireless radio signal” (Szabo et al. 7). Wireless repeaters are also used to compose the hardware system of a wireless network. Such “repeaters offer two-way relay for radio signals” (Hultell et al. 3).

Physical Infrastructure

The physical infrastructure is critical towards ensuring the integrity of every network system. This infrastructure defines the physical layer of the network. The infrastructure therefore encompasses everything that makes connectivity possible. The infrastructure might include interconnected elements. These Network Elements (Nes) can be “assembled by a specified internet provider or be supplied by a manufacturer” (Hultell et al. 3). Many systems have numerous interconnected elements. Different components are required in order to complete the wireless network system. Such components include connectors, closures, and cables (Hultell et al. 6).

Features of Wireless Networks that Can Benefit a Business

Experts believe that business organizations can benefit from the use of wireless networks. This is the case because wireless network improves connectivity and boosts the level of productivity (Cardei and Du 338). Wireless connection makes it easier for different individuals to have access to different documents, resources, and emails. The features presented below can benefit many businesses.

Location Flexibility

Workers in a company that uses wireless network have uncontrolled access to the internet. They can access a wide range of applications, files, links, and documents thus improving the level of productivity. The workers can move from area A to B while having access to the internet (Szabo et al. 6). That being the case, the employees in the organization can collaborate in order to achieve the targeted results.

Mobile Connectivity

As mentioned earlier, wireless network is advantageous for businesses because employees can roam without losing connectivity. Some businesses can operate in regions that do not have access to wired internet connection. Wireless LAN can make it possible for companies to manage their inventories and operations. This opportunity makes it possible for businesses to operate effectively (Stojmenovic 93). Wireless access can be used to support the performance of different departments without using wired connections.

Reach and Coverage

Wireless network increases the level of coverage and reach. Individuals in an organization can access internet without having to move to a fixed computer. Employees can access different types of information from the main server (Hultell et al. 7). Colleagues and stakeholders will also benefit from the internet coverage. The increased level of mobility makes it possible for every worker to focus on the targeted business goals.

Adaptability

The other important aspect of wireless network is adaptability. Businesses can adapt new typologies depending on the anticipated traffic rates. The company can consider new infrastructures depending on the targeted changes and goals (Negus 6). New nodes can also be added in order to produce the targeted goals. The concept of adaptability therefore makes it possible for businesses to support the changing needs of their workers. New network demands are easily addressed using wireless connections.

Cost Effectiveness

The use of wireless technology is something that reduces costs for companies and businesses. Wired networks required numerous resources and skilled labor to implement. Such networks should also be maintained in order to function optimally. Unlike wired connections, wireless network is easy to maintain. The “system does not require extra costs to scale up” (Hultell et al. 7).

Case Study: Successful Implementation of Wireless Technology

Cisco Systems

The case study of Cisco Systems Incorporation shows how wireless network can support the goals of many businesses. Cisco implemented the use of wireless connections in 2000 (“Wireless Case Study: How Cisco WLAN Became Primary Corporate User Network” par. 3). The ultimate objective was to address the changing demands of many workers. The company wanted the use the technology to support the existing wired connections.

Within two years, more employees were using wireless connections to access the internet. The IT department conducted a study in 2005 to determine the unique aspects of wireless networking. The use of WLAN was observed to be beneficial. Consequently, the firm redesigned the wireless network to become the major access point (“Wireless Case Study: How Cisco WLAN Became Primary Corporate User Network” par. 4).

Several advantages were observed regarding the use of wireless network at Cisco Systems. For example, more people believed that WLAN was effective and easy to use. As well, the survey indicated that more employees became more productive than ever before. The productive time was observed to increase significantly thus making it possible for the firm to achieve its business goals (“Wireless Case Study: How Cisco WLAN Became Primary Corporate User Network” par. 2).

The company’s engineering and marketing departments recorded positive outcomes. This case study therefore shows clearly that employees can use wireless network to communicate with each other. The use of wireless network at Cisco is something that has continued to increase productivity.

Issues Faced

The company faced a number of issues before implementing the use of wireless network. The first issue to consider was the initial costs associated with the implementation process. The company spent a lot of money to implement the system. Cisco Systems has been designing and marketing a wide range of networking devices (“Wireless Case Study: How Cisco WLAN Became Primary Corporate User Network” par. 5).

This position made it easier for Cisco Systems to implement a powerful wireless network. The pioneers of the project also considered its feasibility. From the very beginning, the company used wired network to support its workers. In 2002, a survey was conducted to establish the major issues and opportunities associated with the use of wireless network. Cisco Systems decided to support and implement wireless network as the best mode of internet access in 2005. This move led to numerous benefits for the organization.

Effectiveness of Wireless Networks for Emergency Services and the Police

Wireless networks have been associated with exchange and sharing of information (Stojmenovic 41). Regions that have access to wireless networks can respond to emergencies within the shortest time possible. Cities with wireless networks make it easier for individuals to communicate with the relevant agencies whenever there is a disaster. Stojmenovic argues that “wireless connections improve the speed of response to various disasters or emergencies” (56). Individuals who have access to the internet can respond to various incidents within the shortest time possible.

Experts believe that wireless network is one of the best tools for dealing with various incidents. Emergency medical services (EMS) providers, firefighters, and the police play a significant role towards supporting the safety of many citizens (Negus 7). Wireless networks make it possible for these agencies to support the needs of different citizens. Individuals in a region with free wireless connection will be able to inform the right authorities. Wireless connections make it possible for responders to manage their resources and tools. They can also share their ideas with different stakeholders in order to respond to various emergencies.

The government should therefore provide cost-effective wireless connections to different cities and organizations. More people should also be sensitized about the importance of wireless networks. They should be ready to communicate with different emergency agencies in order to get the best support (Szabo et al. 6). This move will make it possible for different agencies and civilians to share information. Such agencies will get quality information that can be used to respond to different emergencies. This move has the potential to safeguard the lives of more people (Stojmenovic 87). Wireless networks are powerful lifesaving tools that can support the safety and health needs of more people in the country.

Works Cited

Cardei, Mihaela and Ding-Zhu Du. “Improving Wireless Sensor Network Lifetime through Power Aware Organization.” Wireless Networks 11.1 (2005): 333-340. Print.

Hultell, Johan, Klas Johansson and Jan Markendahl 2013, Business models and resource management for shared wireless networks. Web.

Negus, Kevin. “History of Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs) in the Unlicensed Bands.” Information Economy Project 1.1 (2008): 1-13. Print.

Stojmenovic, Ivan. Handbook of Wireless Networks and Mobile Computing. New York: Wiley, 2002. Print.

Szabo, Csaba, Zolta Horvath and Karoly Farkas 2014, Wireless Community Networks: Motivations, Design and Business Models. Web.

Wireless Case Study: How Cisco WLAN Became Primary Corporate User Network 2016. Web.

Introduction

Wireless networks infrastructure is very widespread in the individuals’ and organizational usage. Today many laptops are designed to include the pre-installed wireless cards, thus this technology becomes more and more popular. As well the ability to enter a network through mobile connection has had great advantages for the customers. But notwithstanding the easiness of utilizations the wireless networks meet with various and risk since they can be easily broken into and wireless technology may be utilized to crack the wired networks. This paper, therefore deals with the crucial issue of wireless networks security. First we will discuss the main risks connected with utilization of wireless networks and then outline major instruments to ensure their security.

Security risks

When wireless technology was first introduced there existed not much risks and dangers for their security. But as they become more widespread at the corporate level the risks had covered wireless protocols and encryption standards and methodic. The intrusion and cracking to wireless networks also became easier with the dissemination of Windows- and Linux-based plug-ins and tools which are available on the Internet (AIrDefence Inc., 2004).

Another problem is that some companies and organizations do not have concern in wireless security due to the fact that they do not use wireless network. But as META Group () estimated, 95% of all laptop computers purchased in 2005 are equipped with wireless, thus security problems may occur due to their connection to common corporate network.

Categories of unauthorized access to wireless computer networks.

There are several categories of unauthorized access to such networks:

• Accidental association – occurs when computer for some reason uses wireless network access point from another company or organization that is using wireless technologies.
• Malicious association – connection to the organization’s wireless network through the cracking laptop. The technology of such a cracking is designed to make the wireless card look like some company’s access point. Wireless networks operating at the Layer 1-3 have such protections as authentication of network, but unfortunately virtual private networks (VPN) do not have such barriers. Wireless networks 802.1×authentications have considerable level of security but still are very vulnerable to cracking (Sandler, 2005).
• Ad-hoc networks – do not have access-point between them and thus have not very good protection.
• Networks of non-traditional nature – Bluetooth and other personal networks can also be regarded as potential object of cracking due to the low level of security protection. The security protection is needed even for wireless printers and barcode readers. But this is not so difficult to provide as for the latter types of networks.
• Identity theft – happens when a cracker has a possibility to identify MAC address and obtain server network computer privileges.

Among other types of security risks one should mention attacks called ‘man in the middle’, which are realized through ‘de-authentication attack’ which forces wireless network computer to reconnect to cracking laptop access point; A Denial-of-Service attack (DoS), which happens when an attacker continuously bombards network access point with various false requests, connection messages and other commands. Thus, authorized users do not have access to the network which can result in its complete collapse. These intrusions rely on the abuse of such protocols as EAP – Extensible Authentication Protocol.

Security measures

The main measures to secure organized wireless networks have several steps: 1. wireless LAN instruments and devices should be properly secured; 2. all users must be properly prepared; 3. the wireless networks should be properly monitored for breaches.

Among the concrete measures of providing wireless network security one should mention MAC filtering which provides administrator with possibility to give access only to those computers that have certain MAC IDs. Another tool is Static IP addressing which allows ensuring that undefined and unused IP addresses would not log in the wireless networks. Besides such tools there exist special language of wireless networks’ encryption called WEP encryption (Hoover, 2005, July). While it can prove useful in some cases there many deficiencies and breaches that can be circumvented by crackers using open source cracker’s software. The drawback of this encryption mechanism were later corrected in WPA (Wi-FI Protected Access), which uses TKIP encryption algorithm and WPA 2 the main advantage of which is the introduction of the AES-CCMP algorithms as a necessary feature, which ensured creation comprehensive wireless networks security mechanism.

Besides this, different security protocols are used for the wireless networks LEAP, PEAP and TKIP which are designed to provide the secure transport of data, encryption keys and various passwords.

Some mechanism such as USB tokens, software tokens and smart cards are used for high security networks, which require highly sophisticated and strict procedures for authorization and authentication.

References

1. AIrDefence Inc. (2002-2005). Wireless LAN Security: What Hackers Know That You Don’t A white paper by AirDefense, Inc. AirDefense, Inc.
2. Hoover, M. (2005, July). Network Security: The New Perimeter; Security Threats Can No Longer Be Contained in the DMZ. How Do You Protect Every Resource, and Every User’s Traffic, No Matter Where It’s Coming From?. Business Communications Review, 35, 40.
3. Sandler, I. (2005). Road Warriors on Trojan Horses: Ensuring End User Compliance Reduces the Cost of Network Security. T H E Journal (Technological Horizons In Education), 33(1), 48.

Introduction

Satellite radio is an early 2000s development and is defined as a broadcasting satellite service. Such services disseminate information by transmitting a signal through space stations. Considering the extent to which this type of transmission increases the scale of the signal, it is not difficult to imagine the demand for Sirius radio. Such satellite radios are usually intended for drivers of cars and other motor vehicles. Their main advantageous difference is expressed in a higher signal transmission strength compared to terrestrial radio, where the signal is still inside the Earth’s atmosphere.

Sirius and XM

Sirius and XM really made a splash, changing the idea of ​​technological possibilities when listening to music and transmitting information. Sirius satellite radio was launched not only in the US but even on the Baikonur space station in Kazakhstan, making coverage even wider. First of all, this radio did not receive much coverage, but during the 2000s, Sirius began to infiltrate the American media space at the corporate level (McLean, 2001). The largest automotive corporations sensed the possibility of profitable mutual integration and invested hundreds of millions of dollars in order to install satellite receivers in new car models. It can be assumed that the principle of large-scale investments at the multi-corporate level worked in this way – this phenomenon, with such support, could not but revolutionize the media space. The actual one-time contribution was also beneficial in order to make a technological breakthrough – after the installation of satellites and the launch of new machines for mass production, Sirius required significantly less financial support and recouped the money invested.

Principles of Success

Sirius and XM Satellite Radio were the first satellite stations to challenge traditional radio. Their principle of success was diversity, quality of access provided by a moderate monthly fee, and the possibility of choice. The eclecticism of satellite radio is reminiscent of the great possibilities of cable TV – the analogy is apt enough, given the temporary furor created by cable TV around the same era. XM Satellite Radio not only provides music from over 70 channels, but also broadcasts news, sports, comedy and drama, and talk radio. For larger market areas, for example, for large cities, weather and road conditions are additionally broadcast. However, the range and accuracy of satellite radio extend beyond mere entertainment or even business. This company provided a separate service for data exchange between pilots and meteorological observers. A separate advantage of XM radio over other radio stations was the expanded launch of talk shows at the beginning of the 2000s. Opening specials for such stars of American pop culture as Oprah Winfrey or Howard Stern could not fail to attract a lot of attention from the audience (Jacobs, 2020). In the zero years, the company entered into a number of contracts not only with motor, but even with spacecraft manufacturers, which indicates the rapid growth in the use of this technology.

Connection with traditional FM Broadcasting

At the same time, the commercial benefit of XM additionally lies in the admission of radio stations from the terrestrial coverage to its roster. Contracts with Salem Communications, the largest platform for the production of family and Christian content, and Spanish Broadcasting, could not fail to bring tremendous demographic coverage to satellite radio. The merger of Sirius and XM Radio into a single company gave them a chance to level mutual financial miscalculations and collaborate in order to continue to challenge ordinary radio. These companies did not so much mean the death of traditional radio as its evolution into a new, more fluid and elegant form. The danger of SiriusXM for standard radio lies in the similarity of the principles of operation, but the lack of advertising and the breadth of the signal. Because of this, an older male audience, who often travels in cars, prefers this format and is ready to pay for it. SiriusXM takes into account the ability to interact with its system everywhere outside of cars – so Sirius uses aggressive marketing tactics. The company is acquiring podcast producers on a massive scale, including the recent acquisition of growing online streaming service Pandora.

Sirius XM vs. Spotify

The main difference between the types of playback and financial models of Sirius and Spotify lies in the principle by which the listener selects the music played. In the case of Sirius, the listener has access to a large number of radio stations and podcasts, quite accurately calibrated to suit various and most sophisticated tastes. However, at the same time, the listener refuses the need to constantly choose the listening experience, thus preferring the already prepared audio program. This seems all the more justified in the context of the needs of radio on the road, where a pleasant surprise and guessing the mood of the listener is valued more than the ability to constantly select a single song and compile an individual playlist. Although the main issue of the presentation is the pressure of broadcasters such as Sirius XM on traditional forms of radio broadcasting, the very viability of this new type of radio may also be called into question. Modern era streaming services such as Spotify pose a major threat to Sirius. This conflict of interest is further highlighted by comparing the stock of this company with new players in the music broadcast industry (Darwin, 2021). Sirius XM’s share price has grown very little compared to corporations such as Apple Music and Spotify.

Conclusion

However, for a number of reasons, this company is unlikely to be completely ousted from the market in the near future, since it offers a number of unique services and perks. Free, ad-supported streaming services are certainly gaining popularity, but it’s undeniable that there is a large segment of people who want to listen to music for the full experience. Sirius at a reasonable price offers the opportunity to enjoy music without interruption, which attracts listeners. However, it should be noted that the free services of Sirius are not profitable for the company, and they receive most of the money from full-fledged subscriptions, which, by the way, the company focuses on. Sirius XM earns approximately $149/year from each subscriber, which only indicates the staying power of this phenomenon.

References

Commercial Break. (2022). Sirius Commercial.YouTube. Web.

Darwin, M. T. (2021). Difference Between Spotify and SiriusXM.YouTube. Web.

Jacobs, F. (2020). 10 reasons why SiriusXM is broadcast radio’s public enemy #1.Jacobs Media Strategies. Web.

McLean, B. (2001). Satellite killed the radio star: Two upstarts, Sirius and XM, plan to rock the radio world. Will their satellite-based service be the next DirecTV or the next Iridium? Stay tuned.CNN Media. Web.

Historical Strategic Issues

When it comes to wireless carriers in the United States the most common historical strategic issues revolves around price, performance, and customer service.

The key players in this industry had to mindful of all three factors because the consumers in the U.S. market can easily switch to another carrier if they are not satisfied with the value they are getting for their money and the kind of service that they believe they deserve.

Take for example the ability to SMS or to text one another. There was a time when this type of service was non-existent in North America (Gow & Smith, p.58).

The key players in the industry had to balance all three in order to increase their market share. Their strategists cannot afford to simply focus on price because their competitors are willing to lower their own prices as well in order to attract more customers and yet at the same time make their offer much better by improving the customer service aspect of the business.

Among the key players in the industry, a reliable service is already a given, and yet users of wireless communications technology are also looking for cheaper rates and if possible the capability to buy a mobile phone at a lower cost.

The price of the plan or the service is affected by the operational costs incurred by the wireless carrier. Thus, streamlining the operations and finding ways to lower overhead costs is a permanent fixture of a company-wide strategy. There are many things to consider in this regard such as technology and regulations stipulated by the Federal Government.

There is a need to acquire the appropriate technology in order to maintain a certain level of performance. This is a major source of expenditure for the company. Furthermore, new laws regarding tariffs and other forms of taxes can easily limit the capability of wireless carriers to offer cheaper plans and better rates for their consumers.

In order to maintain quality service, wireless carriers had to be contented with relatively lower profit margins (Abell, p.1). This explains why the wireless carrier business is a very competitive industry. Key players in this industry may be forced to accept a smaller profit margin. On the bright side, these firms are not expected to slow down in the next few years because of the phenomenal growth in the number of people using mobile phones (Kavoori & Arceneaux, p.155).

Key Players and their Operations

According to a respected market research agency there are four major players in the wireless telecom carrier industry and these are: Verizon Wireless; AT&T Inc.; Sprint Nextel Corporation; and Deutsche Telekom AG (IBISWorld, p.1). The rankings change all the time because of the competitive nature of the industry there is a constant need to do mergers or buy-out the competition. But as of March of March of 2011 AT&T is considered the largest wireless company in the United States (Abell, p.1).

AT&T earned this distinction when it decided to purchase T-Mobile USA from Deutsche Telekom for $39 billion and as a result the combined entity is now one third larger than former number one Verizon Wireless (Abell, p.1). The significance of this new development is seen in how AT&T has now more than twice the subscriber as Sprint Nextel (Abell, p.1). Nevertheless, AT&T cannot afford to rest on its laurels so to speak because subscribers can easily change carriers if they believe they can get a better deal.

Strategic Change

Consumers should expect constant change when it comes to the strategies employed by wireless carriers. Strategic change is always dependent upon price, performance and customer service; there is a need for constant adjustment in order to please as many subscribers as possible. It is imperative to retain loyal customers while at the same time attract new subscribers and take a bigger piece of the market.

Wireless companies had to skillfully balance price, performance and customer service. The CEOs of these firms knew very well what is expected of them and it is to deliver the best value to increase the profitability of the company and achieving all of that without spending too much.

The most dreaded scenario is to see loyal subscribers transfer allegiance to another wireless company. When it comes to the price war it can be argued that wireless companies already demonstrated their willingness to lower the price of their plans. Thus, the crucial battle is all about performance and customer service. The significance of these two factors can be seen when a wireless company begins to experience success and the increased number of subscribers puts a toll into their infrastructure.

As a result the most common strategic change taking place in recent years is the ability to consolidate, to merge with other companies and to buy-out the competition. According to one analyst the primary reason why AT&T had to acquire T-Mobile USA is due to its connectivity issues and the perception that it is not a reliable wireless company (Abell, p.1)

This is of course due to the fact that AT&T has an existing business partnership with Apple and this has resulted in the 80-fold increase in its wireless-data usage (Abell, p.1). By acquiring T-Mobile USA, AT&T hopes to address this perception problem.

Strategic change in the U.S. wireless carrier industry is heavily affected by the mobile phone phenomenon (Grant & Meadows, p.316). Consider the following research findings: “Adolescents use the cell phone to network with peers. For adults, family and security drive use” (Grant & Meadows, p.316).

The mobile phone is not only a communication tool but has now become a mobile computer and in turn became a reliable source of news, information, entertainment, social networking using wireless applications and the World-Wide-Web to interconnect and download information.

In addition, the mobile phone has become a status symbol and an extension of the self. For instance, “adolescents are the most active in reinventing wireless technology as a personal medium and a social prop for self-presentation … fashion attentiveness affects the purchase, use and replacement of cell phones” (Grant & Meadows, p.316).

This observation was corroborated by an interesting discovery made a research group. In their study they found out that Verizon Wireless is the leader when it comes to customer service and performance in 2008 (Carton, p.1).

Respondents were interviewed with regards to dropped calls. Respondents also provided feedback when it comes to cellular service provider satisfaction rating. In both instances Verizon Wireless came on top and yet subscribers are switching over to AT&T.

The major reason why AT&T has more subscribers than Verizon Wireless in 2008 is attributed to what the company can offer in terms of mobile phones. AT&T subscribers can choose a deal where the company enables them to own an iPhone and this is the main reason why revenue is up.

Strategic change must be focused on price, performance and customer service. But competitors in the wireless carrier industry must also focus on how they can provide better phones on top of the great deals they are offering their subscribers and potential clients. These firms had to realize that “the cell phone is characteristically identified with new modes of mobility, personalization, identity, and individual and group relations” (Kavoori & Arceneaux, p.155).

This is nothing new because Nokia in the past decade made a statement with regards to their unconventional designs and made the realization that mobile phones must be associated with lifestyle and emotional appeal (Gow & Smith, p.60). This is a feature of the wireless communication business that should become a major focus of strategic change.

It is therefore crucial to consider how a wireless carrier can provide more services related to the personalization of the mobile phone. Subscribers are no longer contented with having a mobile phone. They also wanted the device to express their identity and personality. The ability to download applications to enhance the usability of the mobile phone should be a major source of income for telecom companies.

Strategic change must be done in such a way that a firm continues to eliminate any form of waste; it is imperative to streamline operations to increase the profitability of the company. On the other hand these firms must realize the power of the consumers to switch carriers in an instant.

This is the beauty and challenge of wireless communication technology. It is no longer enough to provide a reliable communication platform it is also important to understand how mobile phones had revolutionized 21^st century living and therefore all the CEOs working within this industry had to acknowledge that style and substance goes hand-in-hand when it comes to wireless telecommunication services.

Works Cited

Abell, John. AT&T to Buy T-Mobile, Becomes the No.1 U.S. Wireless Company. Web.

Carton, Paul. Verizon Wireless Leads in Performance, but AT&T Takes Market Share. 2008. Web.

Gow, Gordon and Richard Smith. Mobile and Wireless Communications: An Introduction. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2006.

Grant, August and Jennifer Meadows. Communication Technology Update. Vol. 10. MA: Focal Press, 2006.

IBISWorld. Wireless Telecommunications Carriers in the US. Web.

Kavoori, Anandam and Noah Arceneaux. The Cell Phone Readers: Essays in Social Transformation. New York: Peter Lang Publishing, 2007.

Introduction

The 20^th century is characterised by a lot of political activities that led to democratization of many societies. People have gained significant access to certain rights and privileges. One of the most important rights that people enjoy today is the access to information, which is essential because it enables people to identify and demand for other rights.

Although the advocates of the right to information insist that everyone should be well informed, some people have claimed that such rights can cause serious challenges if not regulated (Edwardson, 2008). For this reason, several governments have put in place measures to ensure that rights are enjoyed in a manner that protects other aspects of life.

This paper discusses the functions, composition, scope of operation, financing and source of authority of the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC) (Edwardson, 2008).

Establishment of CRTC

CRTC was created in 1976 after the parliament of Canada enacted the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission Act (1976).

Before CRTC came into being, its functions were performed by the Canadian Radio-Television Commission established in 1968 to take over from the Board of Broadcast Governors. CRTC is answerable to the Minister for Heritage who in turn reports to parliament (Dunbar & Leblanc, 2007).

Purpose of CRTC

The overall role of CRTC is to facilitate fairness and quality in the country’s communication sector (Edge, 2013). These functions are clearly spelt out in the Broadcasting Act (1991). In addition, some functions are outlined in the National Transportation Act (1996) as well as the Railway Safety Act (1985).

One of the main functions of the CRTC is to ensure that Canadians own and control most of the country’s broadcasting firms. The designers of this function aimed at protecting the Canadian culture, politics, social fabric and economy from foreign infiltration (Edge, 2013).

In this case, it is believed that broadcast communication was one of the factors contributing to the country’s cultural degradation by exposing citizens to foreign cultures. The commission is also expected to ensure that there is high quality and exhaustive programming that fully utilizes Canadian talents and other local resources (Edge, 2013).

Speaking about media, it should provide a platform for people to give their opinions about the matters of public interest (Edge, 2011). In this case, CRTC is expected to ensure that everyone is given a fair opportunity to build his or her views.

For example, during the time of election campaigns, candidates could use broadcast media to reach the electorate. The commission should guarantee that all candidates get equal opportunity to use broadcast media without bias (Edge, 2011).

CRTC requires that broadcasting companies cover all parts of Canada using the two official languages in this country (Edge, 2011). The commission also mandates broadcasters to always remain updated on the advances in technology. With regard to telecommunication, CRTC has the mandate to protect the public by ensuring that charges for communication services are fair and affordable.

CRTC Stakeholders

Stakeholders are people who are either directly involved in the activities of an organisation or not involved but affected by such activities (Armstrong, 2010). With this in mind, CRTC has several stakeholders. As Armstrong (2010) points out, some of the directly involved stakeholders are the commissioners and members of the secretariat. Appointment of commissioners is arranged by the Governor-in-Council.

Moreover, they are expected to be in office for a maximum period of five years. The commission is expected to come up with policies and regulations to be used in implementation of its mandate. The Governor-in-Council appoints the chairperson with the mandate to control all the affairs of the commission (Armstrong, 2010).

The chairperson is assisted by two vice chairpersons, one of whom takes over his or her responsibilities in an acting capacity in the absence of the chairperson. CRTC is comprised of thirteen commissioners maximum. The secretariat is responsible for implementation of all the commission’s policies. At the beginning of the financial year 2012-2013, CRTC had a human resource base of 448 employees (Edge, 2013).

The Canadian broadcasting and telecommunication firms that are controlled by CRTC are stakeholders in the commission. The policies formulated by the commission are designed to manage functioning of these firms. In this case, it is expected that such policies are designed to govern broadcasting and telecommunication organisations in a manner that enhances quality and fairness (Armstrong, 2010).

The organisations mentioned above serve the public. In its turn, CRTC guarantees that communication firms provide quality services without imposing unfair prices. On a similar note, the Canadian government is another stakeholder in CRTC, which is a state agency mandated by the government to carry out some functions.

The government is expected to protect the public against unscrupulous businesspersons who offer poor services and charge high tariffs (Armstrong, 2010). The government also needs to act in favour of the country’s culture against infiltration by foreign values. This implies that the government will also fail if the commission fails. In this regard, the government owns the commission on behalf of Canadians.

Funding

CRTC is majorly funded by the government of Canada. The commission projects allocation of $53.1 million for the financial year 2013-2014. Out of the total amount, $17.6 million (33.14%) is planned to be spent on managing broadcasting. Another $17.6 million (33.14%) will be dedicated to telecommunications’ sector and $17.9 million (33.71%) is allocated for internet services (Winseck, 2010).

Scope of CRTC Operations

CRTC controls all the broadcast and telecommunication activities in Canada. The commission formulates and implements policies to achieve the objectives that led to its creation (Winseck, 2010). It is worth noting that the functions of CRTC are not as broad as the functions of its equivalent in the US (Federal Communications Commission).

For instance, disputes regarding broadcasting of unworthy contents are handled by the Canadian Broadcast Standards Council, abbreviated as CBSC. However, unsatisfied parties can refer the matter to CRTC for determination. Allocation of frequencies is also under the jurisdiction of CBSC (Armstrong, 2010).

One of the well-known functions of CRTC is management of cable television broadcast pricing. Today, this function is almost overtaken by events because too much competition from satellite broadcasters has kept prices at minimum levels (Armstrong, 2010).

CRTC also exercises control on the distribution of signals. In this case, the Broadcasting Act requires that locally owned broadcasting channels are given more priority as compared to foreign channels.

This requirement is designed to protect small Canadian broadcasting firms that may not be able to compete with large broadcasters from the United States. It also protects the country from too much foreign advertisement because some of the advertised products may be competing with the locally produced goods (Armstrong, 2010).

CRTC also regulates internet communication processes like covering audio and video contents. The commission has recently been investigating whether streaming of information on internet affects the rate of television and radio subscriptions in the country. Thus, it is expected to take measures if it finds that internet news affects radio and television subscriptions negatively (Edge, 2013).

In addition, CRTC exercises some control on landline telephone services in Canada. Traditionally, provision of landline services has been a privilege of only 2 main providers, in particular Bell and Telus (Armstrong, 2010). Due to some protection, the two service providers have been delivering very poor services. To enhance quality, the commission should stop protecting and encourage more competition.

Although CRTC is expected to control the amount of money charged by mobile service providers, complaints have been raised concerning its performance because some firms are charging people differently for the same services. Consequently, people claim that there is some bias in accessing mobile services yet the commission is mandated to facilitate fairness.

This inefficiency has been attributed to the confusion caused by existence of other bodies such as CBSC that deal with communication in Canada. It has been suggested that all communication issues are handled by one body to enhance efficiency (Armstrong, 2010).

CRTC also supervises the change of ownership of broadcasting firms that aims at ensuring that much ownership remains in the hands of Canadians (Murray, 2001). Therefore, according to the communications Act, pending transfer of ownership has to be taken to the commission for approval.

Impact and the Future of CRTC

The creation of CRTC had positive intensions. While most of the objectives have been achieved, efforts are still needed to fully streamline the functioning of the communication sector. CRTC has been successful in limiting foreign ownership of communication organisations in Canada (Edge, 2012). However, too much protection of local firms reduces competition and, consequently, sets a stage for a monopoly.

Under such circumstances, service providers offer poor services and increase charges. According to Armstrong (2010), this is the reason why some providers charge unreasonable prices. In addition, the current situation also raises questions regarding the effectiveness of CRTC given that price regulation is a part of its mandate.

CRTC and CBSC should be merged so that there is one body responsible for addressing all matters related to communication. After merging, the body should operate under one ministry and receive more support from the government.

The commission may also be affected by the current efforts to minimise trade barriers from the countries’ sides. Denying opportunities to foreign companies is against the spirit of globalisation (Armstrong, 2010).

Conclusion

Communication has the ability to change people’s perceptions. This is the reason why it is necessary to control the kind of information that reaches the public. In this regard, CRTC is put in place to ensure that the Canadian culture and values are protected against dilution. The commission also supervises pricing in the communication industry to protect the public against unscrupulous businesspersons.

It also ensures that services offered by media houses are of unquestionable quality. However, with the increasing need for globalization, it is expected that international politics may affect functioning of the commission, which operates alongside other state agencies that deal with communication. Effectiveness may not be realised if such bodies are not merged.

References

Armstrong, R. (2010). Broadcasting Policy in Canada. Toronto, Canada: University of Toronto. Broadcasting Act, the (S.C. 1991, c. 11).

Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission Act, the. (1976, c. 49, s. 1).

Dunbar, J.E., & Leblanc, C. (2007). Review of the regulatory framework for broadcasting services in Canada. Ottawa, Canada: CRTC.

Edge, M. (2011). Convergence after the collapse: The catastrophic case of Canada. Journal of Media, Culture & Society, 33(8), 1266-1278.

Edge, M. (2012). CRTC, no longer for sale? Astral Media ruling reverses rising tide of ownership concentration. Suva, Fiji: The University of the South Pacific.

Edge, M. (2013). Public benefits or private? The case of the Canadian Media Research Consortium. Canadian Journal of Communication, 33(10): 52-53.

Edwardson, R. (2008). Canadian content: culture and the quest for nationhood. Toronto, Canada: University of Toronto.

Murray, C. (2001). Wellsprings of knowledge: Beyond the CBC policy trap. Canadian Journal of Communication, 26(1), 31-53.

National Transportation Act, the (S.C. 1996, c. 10).

Railway Safety Act, the. (R.S.C., 1985, c. 32).

Winseck, D. (2010). Financialization and the crisis of the media: The rise and fall of (some) media conglomerates in Canada. Canadian Journal of Communication, 35(2), 365-393.