Category: Radio

Abstract

Wireless networks have higher flexibility as compared to wired networks due to the lack of trunking and cabling in the networks. Both desktop computers and laptops can be fitted with wireless cards which enable the machines to be connected to the net. To connect the machines, various protocols are applied to enhance the proper connection of various standalone machines. Wireless networks have their problems at the same time when compared to wired networks.

When wires are used, some protocols like the Ethernet are allowed to use dedicated wires which go hand in hand with the dedicated medium that can avail the transmission and consequent reception of data. This allows the network to be able to transfer data at a higher rate than the wireless networks. In the case of the wireless networks, the radio frequency in which the network is tuned is the only medium. This limits the mechanisms which the network is using for access control (MAC) (Butala, Tong 2005).

In all networks, CSMA (Collision Sense Multiple Access) is used to access the network medium. Wired networks use collision sense multiple access with collision detection (CSMA/CA) whilst the wireless networks use collision sense multiple access with collision avoidance (CSMA/CA) (Ergen, Lee, Sengupta, 2003). The key difficulties of wireless data transmission are the encoding of the data, speed of transmission, access of the hidden nodes through stations (hubs), overcoming of the cyclic transmissions caused by transmission errors and failures. The offered technologies and protocols involve the key solutions of the stated problems, however, some of them originate from other problems. Hence, the paper aims to assess the data transmission protocols and define the weaknesses and strengths of each protocol.

Token-based protocols

Token-based access control protocols have been there for some time now. Some protocols that put into practice a comparable access control system are the Frottle which is open source, as well as Wireless Cyclic Token Protocol (WiCTP), Wireless Token Ring Protocol (WRTP). These protocols generate a master/main node that is used to control the access to the network medium by bringing into play a token that is switched over between the nodes on the particular network.

Client nodes queue the data packets that they are obliged to send. At the time that they receive the tokens, they send the queued packets by the data that is contained within that token. This technique is very straightforward and successfully eliminates the concealed node crisis at the same time as increasing the stability of the network since two nodes cannot move at any one point in time.

System models of the data transmission networks may vary, however, the key aim of the network is to perform the reliable and stable data-transmission process. Because MAC, Data Base Management, Admission Control and Information Access Management are the key aspects of the wireless network creation, most of the existing protocols involve these aspects as the basic features for reliable work. Nevertheless, some of them are not suitable for wide application and data coordination, due to various reasons. These reasons are closely linked with the multitude of parameters that need to be adjusted for any particular data-transmission instance, which is not suitable for everyday use.

Frottle

As in the case of Frottle, expansion of WiCCP seems to have come to an end. The latest release accessible as of 2004 is version 0.5, accessible as both a Linux kernel module and also as a Windows XP driver. Thus, it is further attractive to wide-ranging users seeing that Linux is not required to utilize the protocol. Unfortunately, the Windows driver only sustains the client mode, but this is still a bit more preferable to Frottle, which has many supplementary dependencies.

This is a Linux-only execution of a token-based access control mechanism. It at present relies on the Linux kernels IPtables abilities of packet filtering to control the access to the network, and it uses the Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) stack to be in touch between the master and also the clients. It runs as a userspace application and utilizes the IPtables QUEUE rule which is set to queue some packets for transfer (Luo, Lu 2005).

The Frottle wrap-up communicates amid the master and the client nodes using TCP/IP port 999. This is a key disadvantage, in view of the fact that its reliance on both TCP and IPtables confines its portability. Without IPtables, Frottle has no efficient way of controlling the packet queuing, and also without a TCP/IP stack, it cannot correspond between the nodes. For any embedded structure wishing to run the Frottle protocol, they must have the TCP/IP stack and also the IPtables modules which should be compiled into the kernel, which adds to the size of that kernel spectacularly (Aad & Castelluccia 2001).

While TCP/IP would approximately certainly be amassed into any networked structure, IPtables can boost the required sizes by many KBs, a serious distress for almost all embedded systems. The Frottle wrap-up also lets unrestricted right of entry on port 999, a noteworthy weakness. If one more server runs a tune-up on port 999, a client who is part of the Frottle ring can be able to circumvent the token access control and hence directly access that service.

This can realize a spectacular drop in routine and in cases where that service is heavily in use, allows the hidden node problem to reappear. While port 999 is not in use by any typical network service, a client could have the capability to circumvent the access control on that network to be able to achieve a higher feat at the expense of the other users on that network. Frottle does not include auto-detection of the master nodes. Thus, each of the nodes must be set individually, and thus have at least one single network crossing point of the same subnet as in the master sequentially to swap over control packets.

This relentlessly limits the flexibility of that protocol, as any protocol with auto-detection of master nodes and no dependence on TCP/IP would efficiently allow numerous subnets on the identical access point. This would add to the number of probable network setups many times over. While Throttle has been on hand since 2003 in the month of August, development of the protocol seems to have come to an end, and at the moment, no new edition has been out (Yi-Sheng and Takawira 2004).

The results of a Frottle execution on a network are also for the most part subjective, with no firm results existing for assessment against the standard CSMA/CA access control mechanism. This, shared with its numerous execution disadvantages, leads users to try to find alternatives other than Frottle (Ergen et al 2001).

Because the key problem of Frottle technology is the solution of hidden node parts of the network, it should be emphasized that it is mainly used in widespread WLAN setups with numerous nodes, that are connected by the means of directional antennas and have high upload (the radius of such networks is 50M and wider). Hence, as it is emphasized by Yi-Sheng and Takawira (2008, p. 451): IEEE 802.11 is suited for bridging the last mile for broadband access only to a very limited extent. Newer standards such as WiMAX assign time slots to individual stations, thus preventing multiple nodes from sending simultaneously and ensuring fairness even in over-subscription scenarios.

In the light of this statement, it should be emphasized that IEEE 802.11 uses 802.11 RTS/CTS, and this principle is applied in the Frottle protocol as the technology of handshake packets. Actually, the commonly used RTS/CTS protocol is not the perfect solution to the hidden node problem, nevertheless, it is capable to decrease throughput even further. Hence, the only solution is the use of adaptive adjustments and regimes that are not available for the average users for their complexity and absence of a user-friendly interface.

Wireless Cyclic Token Protocol

The projected protocol implements a token-passing access control apparatus, analogous to the mechanisms implemented by Frottle and also WiCCP, called the

Wireless Cyclic Token Protocol (WiCTP). WiCTP works by use of passing a token to each node on the particular network. Only the node which is in possession of the token may be able to transfer the data, thus allowing only one of the nodes to transfer at any one point in time, thus getting rid of collisions completely. Each of the nodes on that network is grouped as either master or slave. The master nodes have knowledge about all other nodes on the particular network, but each of the slaves only knows about the masters. The master node reins all access to the entire network, in view of the fact that it handles all the allocation of the tokens to each of the nodes.

This allows the main master node to have a vast suppleness in the control of that network. It can then re-order the process of passing of the tokens to better utilize that network, or provide preferential handling to definite nodes, thus allowing the master node to make sure that all the nodes that in general would be downgraded to lower performance obtain a fair share of the networks bandwidth (Metropolis et al 2000).

The key aspect of WiCTP network communication is the Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance technology. This helps to define whether the collision-free transmission is possible on the definite part of the root. Assuming that the network is taken as the distance between A and B points with some intermediary Access Point, the nodes of the network may be hidden or visible. If the nodes are hidden, it is impossible to define whether the node is transferring or not. Hence, if two hidden nodes are transferring to an open node, the data is colliding, causing loss of the information, and collision paradox, when A and B have to retransmit, while neither A nor B know whether the other point is transferring.

WiCTP is aimed at solving this problem by using the Request to Send/Clear to Send (RTS/CTS) protocol. Hence, information is sent in RTS packets with special marking, which points out the required transmission delay. Hence, any station that hears such a signal will prevent transmission for the duration pointed.

While not yet put into practice, WiCTP uses the integration of dissimilar Quality of Service (QoS) algorithms. When any node is connecting to a wireless network, it sends a packet broadcasting its presence to the particular network. When the master node receives this packet, it goes ahead and replies to that node with information about the master node with which it has come to be associated with, and also makes that node a slave. The master node adds the new slaves data to its list of existing slaves and then places it in the lineup for receiving the tokens. When the slaves receive the token, it confirms to see if that token is from the master node to which it has been directly associated.

If so, it will verify for any data that necessitates being sent, and then examines the token to observe how many packets it may propel as allocated by the main the master. The slave then sends its queue of data packets to all the other lined-up recipients.

When the slave has no supplementary data packets to launch, or it has sent the highest figure of packets, it drives the tokens back to the master node. Since only the slaves with the tokens may broadcast the data, the concealed node problem is hence eliminated. No, any two nodes can be able to transfer at the same instant, thus the collisions are eliminated completely (Spyropoulos and Raghavendra 2010).

WTRP

Key features of this protocol are as follows:

• It is regarded as a medium access control protocol for wireless networks.
• It maintains guaranteed quality of the services by controlling the bandwidth and latency values.
• The token defines the transmission order, and each may be abandoned after the specified amount of time
• Each network ring has a unique MAC address
• If owner (the central station) leaves the ring, another station occupies its place.

The Wireless Token Ring Protocol is regarded as the innovative medium access control tool for wireless networks of local area scale. In most researches, it is opposed to IEEE 802.11 networks, as in comparison with this standard, the WTRP provides the reliable connection tools in the terms of latency and bandwidth. This protocol is based on the principle of reducing the retransmissions caused by collisions. By the statement by Ergen et al (2009), the key principles of this protocol are closely linked with the statement that stations prevent cycled transmission if these are filed:

WTRP is a distributed protocol that supports many topologies, as not all stations need to be connected or to a central station. WTRP is robust against single node failures, and recovers gracefully from multiple simultaneous faults. WTRP is suitable for inter-access point coordination in ITS DSRC, safety-critical vehicle-to-vehicle communications, and home networking, and provides extensions to other networks and Mobile IP. (Ergen et.al. 2010, p. 1870)

In the light of this statement, it should be emphasized that the actual benefit of using this protocol is the opportunity to create partial connectivity. Furthermore, the existing connectivity principle is able to create the unique overall architecture of the network system that is featured with the data link layer. Hence, the Mobility Manager and Channel Allocator may be used for Admission Control, as well as Information Base Management. (Metropolis 2000)

Conclusion

From the above methods, it is evident that there are various diverse ways in which Token-based MAC protocols for Supporting Timely Transmission of Real-Time Traffic in Wireless Networks can be enhanced. This includes the use of Wireless Central Coordinated Protocol (WiCCP), Wireless Cyclic Token Protocol and throttle among others. The methods have been seen to have various advantages and disadvantages which determine the most applicable process.

One of the critical conditions that the implementers of the protocol should focus on is the use of protocols is avoidance of collisions within the data packets in transit which makes the transmission of information a problem. Efficiency of information transfer is the most important aspect in communication between different nodes in any network and thus the protocol used should be of great essence (Yi-Sheng and Takawira 2004).

According to the discussion presented in this paper, networks which use WiCTP are more stable in networks as compared to CSMA/CA protocol. In WiCTP, the error rates in data transfer are predominantly decreased whilst the error rates in CSMA/CA are a bit less than the latter. WiCTP has better throughput and is more stable and it also shares the bandwidth between the nodes in a more stable manner.

References

Aad, I & Castelluccia, C 2001, Differentiation mechanisms for IEEE 802.11, in Proc. IEEE INFOCOM01, 209218.

Butala, A., Tong, L. 2005 Cross-Layer Design for Medium Access Control in CDMA Ad Hoc Networks, EURASIP J. Applied Signal Processing, vol. no. 2, pp. 129-143, 2005.

Ergen, D. et al 2001,WTRPwireless token ring protocol, IEEE Trans. Veh.Technol., 53(6):18631881.

Ergen, M., Lee, D. Sengupta, R., 2009 WTRP-Wireless Token Ring Protocol WTRP Journal. Vol 4; No 6.

Ergen, M., Lee, D. Sengupta, R. 2003 Wireless Token Ring Protocolperformance comparison with IEEE 802.11 Eighth IEEE International Symposium on Computers and Communication, Antalya, Turkey.

Luo, H., Lu, S. 2005 A Topology-Independent Wireless Fair Queueing Model in Ad Hoc Networks, IEEE J. Selected Areas in Comm., vol. 23, no. 3, pp. 585-597.

Metropolis, A. W. 2000 Equations of state calculations by fast computing machines, J. Gem. Phys., vol. 21(6):10871092.

Spyropoulos, A., Raghavendra, C. 2010 A Token-based Greedy Chain Scheduling Algorithm (T-GCSA) for Situation Aware Wireless LANs University of Southern California, Los Angeles.

Yi-Sheng, L., Takawira, F. 2004 Token Based Medium Access Control in Wireless Networks School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, University of Natal.

Yi-Sheng, L., Takawira, F., Hong-Jun X. 2008 A Hybrid Token-CDMA MAC Protocol for Wireless Ad Hoc Networks, IEEE Transactions on Mobile Computing, Vol. 7, No. 5.

Introduction

RFID is an acronym for Radio Frequency identification. The technology is grossly involved with the collection of data using some special electronic tags. There is a special chip that makes up the tags which are used for data collection. It can be exemplified to normal bar code readers in the way that they identify objects and collect the necessary data for the objects. The main advantage of this technology is the reduction of the human and labor intensity in the process of collection of data (Hatem & Habib, 5).

Data mining is all about the analysis of data from various sources and making a summary of useful information which can be found in the data. There are various tools like special software which can be used in the field of data mining. In this process, diverse information, say from a large database can be used to find how the various items correlate.

The centrality in the management and consequent retrieval of large amounts of data is defined as data warehousing. A data warehouse has a lot of databases managed in a centralized repository of information. When data has been centralized, user access is set to the maximum and further analysis of the data can hence be made faster.

This paper seeks to address the implementation of RFID on data mining and n the United Arab Emirates. The paper will consist of a general insight into the implementation of the technology in the country as it is today, current state of the technology, and an analysis of the projections that are aimed at improving the technology and possible future impacts of the technology in the UAE (Al Jaroodi, 14).

RFID in the UAE

Most of the companies in the competitive market today have focused on the increase in productivity with minimum operational costs. To make this a reality, there has to be an adaptation of the necessary business models as well as a gross improvement in the required business architecture. With the use of RFID, the businesses get more streamlined and also most of the operations are optimized. There are some components which form the general architecture of this technology as shown below

According to the above diagram, there is communication between the computer, the object and the RFID reader in a certain protocol

• The RFID reader sends some electromagnetic waves which carry a signal which is used to identify the object. The objects return back some information to the reader which is used for identification purposes
• The objects have a special RFID tag which is the one that sends the information which has been requested by the object
• The computer has a database in which it stores all the information that it receives from the RFID reader

In the past, most of the readers could not use current mobility systems but used a special connection to the host computer through the Ethernet or through the serial port.

In the United Arab Emirates today, there has been quite some diverse usages of the RFID system for example in the process of electronic tolling or in one of its modes called SALIK. In this technology the tags which are used in the system are passive RFID tags. In the system motorists are supposed to buy a prepaid card which is then fixed to the windshields of their cars. Once the car passes through the toll stations, a certain fee is automatically deducted from the card on the screen. Depending on the gate that the motorist will use to pass some certain area a standard fee for that gate is deducted. This is a technology that helped in the reduction of congestion within the busy areas of the country and the cities.

In the employment of this technology, it takes advantage of the passive RFID tags as stated. The tags get some power from the transceivers which are located at the gates of the toll stations. This means that the tags do not require having additional power like the use of a battery. The mode of information retrieval in the RFID as discussed earlier is automated and so the data is relayed to the central warehouse (data repository) in a remote manner and through the use of the tags. This is due to the fact that the incorporation of the tags to be read by radio waves helps the readers to be able to read them even from longer distance depending on the mode which is applied.

This system has had a lot of advantages to the United Arab Emirates. The traffic at the gate is put under control as the vehicles do not necessarily have to stop to pay the toll fees as the process is monitored dynamically and in real time.

Another application is the one which is in use by the Damas stores in Dubai. In this stores which majors in jewellery, there are special tags which are fitted into the objects in store that make the object pass through the inventory records once a reader gets the information. This was mainly aimed at the reduction of theft. Due to the status of the information in the central database, any transaction or running of a reader on any of the stored items takes place almost immediately. This is aimed at the revolution of stock checks.

In the United Arab Emirates, there has been a proposal of an integration of this technology with the use of wireless sensor networks for management of buses. Due to the expense that comes in with normal wire cabling, a wireless solution is one of the best ideas in which either the user can use Bluetooth or Zigbee which will help in the extension of the reader of the RFID waves. Bluetooth has the advantage of allowing for the creation of personal area networks which have a short range. It is also simple to maintain the Bluetooth connection. The rate of data transfer using this mode is generally 1Mbps though it has a high level consumption of energy and also a range of about 10 meters which makes it not practicable (Cheng-Ming, 150).

On the other hand Zigbee saves more energy though the data rates are much lower as compared to Bluetooth. It is a low cost technology which also allows for meshing of the devices which means that multiple nodes can be communicating with a surety of information reception even with the failure of one of the nodes. Due to the style of the proposed implementation which is in a bus station, the low cost of the technology allows the possibility of having the ability to transmit the information from various spots which can be affordable to fix.

In this application, the communication of the object and the reader is triggered once the object approaches the reader. In such a case, without any object in scene, the reader is often not active. On the approach of the object the software being held by the reader is informed of the approaching object via the mode of transmission used, in this case Zigbee (Qing-Jie K. et al, 41).

The RFID middleware in use is the one which is responsible for handling such an event. It sends a command back to the RFID reader so that it can be set to a mode in which it is prepared to read. The reader at this point reads the tag which is attached to the object and consequently sends its identity information to a computer which holds the central database. On passage of this object, the reader becomes inactive again and waits for the next object.

Using this approach, it is possible to track the movement of buses in the area on a real time basis and thus the management can be able to handle time related issues. On reception of this information, the central database (data warehouse) can have a live display of the information which helps keep the passengers at bay or else duly informed of the movements. The operators can also take advantage of this information to fully utilize the available buses considering that all the movement is dynamically tracked and can hence be dynamically diverted.

To have effective monitoring, all buses can have RFID sensors which monitor the inflow of passengers in real time without the intervention of any person. Also there can be other external sensors which inform the administrators of the whereabouts of their fleet as the bus is recorded once it gets to a station and once it gets out. The displays used in real time can be LCD screens.

Moving back to the concept of data mining and data warehousing, there is a consistent utilization of this two principles in line with RFID. The information which is gathered from the buses comes in two major ways. The passenger traffic in and out of a bus and the arrival of a bus to a station and from a bus station are monitored. When this data is collected, it is relayed to a centrally located computer using RFID technology and other middleware. This information is noticeably collected from a number of buses and relayed to one single place which can hence be referred to as the data warehouse. Data mining occurs in the way that the management has access to this data and can be able to adjust the bus movements. With such information, the operators can foretell their earnings as they have all the needed information before them. Data mining, being the concept of analysis with the capability of making a distinct summary is thus established (Chien, 15).

Conclusion

Despite the age of this technology, it has picked a lot of pace in the realm of management and the chain of supply. The technology has enhanced the management of data and performances of different organizations to high standards. This paper has discussed the various ways in which the technology has been implemented in the UAE. It is recommended that more research should be done on how the network should be enhanced to make it more mobile. If this was to be enhanced, then a better management of many systems would occur.

References

Al Jaroodi, Jameela et al. Middleware for RFID systems: An Overview 2009 33rd Annual IEEE International Computer Software and Applications Conference (2009)

Cheng-Ming, Jimmy Li, An Integrated Software Platform for RFID-Enabled Application Development, in proc. IEEE International Conference on Sensor Networks, Ubiquitous, and Trustworthy Computing, (2006).

Chien, Yeun. SASI: A New Ultra-Lightweight RFID Authentication Protocol Providing Strong Authentication and Strong Integrity, IEEE Transactions on Dependable and Secure Computing 4(4), (2007).

Hatem, Ben. & Habib, Haman. Bus Management System Using RFID in WSN European and Mediterranean Conference on Information Systems 2010 (2009).

Qing-Jie Kong. et al A fusion-based system for road-network traffic state surveillance: a case study of shanghai, IEEE Intelligent Transportation Systems Magazine, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 37-42 (2009)

Significance of Wireless Network to Enterprises

Technological advancement has resulted in the creation of numerous modes of communication. One most significant medium of communication is a wireless network. Agrawal, Chari, and Sankar (2003) claim, A wireless network refers to a system of communication that uses radio waves to connect devices such as laptops to the internet and the business network and its applications (p. 169). Communication is paramount to enterprises. It enables them to connect with customers, understand their needs and exploit them. The wireless network facilitates communication between businesspeople and clients. Agrawal et al. (2003) hold that wireless network has numerous qualities that can benefit enterprises. They include location flexibility, accessibility, and mobile connectivity. This essay will discuss these conditions and how they help businesses.

According to Harrison, Mykytyn, and Riemenschneider (2008), a wireless network can operate at any location. A wireless gadget can connect at any location as long as it is within the range of a network (Harrison et al., 2008, p. 177). In other words, it is convenient for businesses. As a firm grows, the management may be forced to reorganize the offices or workstations. In such a case, the company would not be compelled to make adjustments to the wireless network. Physical reorganization of the workplace would not interfere with connectivity. Employees would like to access information regarding an enterprise. The wireless network enables customers to use their gadgets to access information about the business at any location within its premises. For instance, they can connect to the enterprises network while waiting at reception.

Lu, Yu, Liu, and Yao (2009) claim that wireless network works in areas that are not apposite or hard to wire. In an industrial environment, it may be difficult to use a wired network to connect all the offices. Additionally, a wired network may be prone to damage. In such a case, an industry may opt to use a wireless network. The system is not prone to damage as it does not use wires. On the other hand, some businesses require changing their configuration frequently. For instance, the arrangements of entertainment venues and workshops are regularly altered. Such places would need wireless networks. They would not have to change the systems whenever there are adjustments in their configurations.

At times, employees may receive or share information as they move around the business premises. Lu et al. (2009) claim that wireless network supports mobile connectivity. As a result, employees can easily access, change and send information regarding the orders being received or dispatched as they move about delivery vehicles (Varshney, 2008, p. 159). They do not require going back to the office to make the necessary changes. Indeed, the wireless network enables businesses to maximize the available time. A wireless network can facilitate communication between employees and customers as they travel. For instance, an employee can receive a critical mail on his/her way to a meeting and act on it immediately without having to delay or postpone the summit.

In conclusion, the wireless network has proved to be an important instrument to modern businesses. Without the network, it would be difficult for enterprises to liaise not only with customers but also suppliers. The flexibility of the wireless network enables clients and employees to access information regarding a business at any location within its premises. The wireless network works well in places that require regular adjustments of their physical arrangement. A change in the configuration of an enterprise would not interfere with the system. The wireless network facilitates mobile connectivity. Thus, employees can communicate with their colleagues or customers while traveling.

References

Agrawal, M., Chari, K., & Sankar, R. (2003). Demystifying wireless technologies: Navigating through the wireless technology maze. Communications of the AIS, 12(1), 166-182.

Harrison, D., Mykytyn, P., & Riemenschneider, C. (2008). Executive decisions about adoption of information technology in small business: Theory and empirical tests. Information Systems Research, 8(2), 171-195.

Lu, J., Yu, C., Liu, C., & Yao, J. (2009). Technology acceptance model for wireless internet. Internet Research: Electronic Networking Applications and Policy, 13(3), 206-222.

Varshney, U. (2008). Mobile and wireless information systems: Applications, networks, and research problems. Communications of the AIS, 12(2), 155-166.

Introduction

There is an intense competition in the telecommunication industry in UAE (Bhattu, 2009). The taxes from this market make a huge income generator for the country. Similarly, the auction of the airwaves is a million dollar industry for the nation and international promotion firms. Wireless infrastructures have become very familiar in todays environment. Wireless dependent hotspots are very popular in public spaces, schools, and homesteads. The devices use low- power-driven RF transmitters to interconnect with other communication devices. In spite of the very low power utilized by these technologies, several people are weary of the possibility that RF could have an impact on their health. The article below seeks to shed more light on the effects of wireless frequency on health.

Exposure to wireless frequencies has been related to many argumentative health consequences, which may result in vital public health concerns. The most severe health problems that have been linked to the use of RF are leukemia complications, juvenile and adult brain tumors, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and an augmented threat of the neurodegenerative ailments. It is also alleged that exposure to RF leads to increased possibility of developing breast cancer, a risk of contracting hemotoxic effects, and increased allergic and inflammatory reactions. Persons living in areas with high exposure to RF such as cell towers have a greater danger of developing insomnia. Some works of literature link developments of temporary effects on reasoning, recollection, learning, performance, reaction time, and responsiveness to wireless frequency.

The consequences of exposure to wireless frequencies are worth studying because there has been a public concern about their associated health risks. Previous studies have done little to document comprehensive effects of using the technologies. It is worrying to note that the media and the relevant authorities have been silent on health problems related to the topic. Presumably, the advertising revenues generated from this market segment have compromised media autonomy.

Through this, the media and the relevant government authorities have avoided discussing on health issues associated with the use of these technologies. Through this study, possible health problems related to the utilization of wireless devices will be identified. Similarly, the research will determine what the government and relevant authorities need to do to limit exposure to these emissions. The findings obtained from this study will be used in formulating and implementing better safety regulations with respect to the use of wireless technology in the future.

The research paper will attempt to identify the impacts of wireless frequency on the public health. In a bid to pinpoint the effects, the research paper attempts to answer several sub-questions, which explores the causes and impacts of RF Emissions from a contracted perspective. They narrow the broad question to determine the potential of impacts of these technologies. Below are the research questions:

1. What are the sources of wireless emissions?
2. What are the effects of wireless technologies on health?
3. What are the problems with existing public health standards?
4. What are the possible solutions to address the effects of the use of wireless technologies on health?

Literature review

What are sources of wireless radiation?

Lin asserts that there are numerous overlapping causes of wireless frequency in our environment (Lin, 2002). Sources of these frequencies are from either industrial bases or private gadgets such as mobile phones. Cell phones are considered the leading cause of wireless frequencies to which humans are exposed to daily. Mobile phones generate two forms of emissions. The first is the radio frequency radiation. Similarly, the second form is made when battery packs are substituted. The above form of emission results in the generation of augmented levels of the low-frequency electromagnetic field.

According to Lin, the public health concerns of developing RF infrastructure are enormous since there has been an increase in the national installation of wireless dependent devices in the last few decades (Lin, 2002). In the United Arab Emirates, commissioning of wireless technologies has hastened in the past few years. Currently, the country has thousands of cell sites last. More than 80% of the population in the EAU has mobile phones. Annual revenue for wireless was estimated at $144 billion during the year 2013 (Clements, 2013). In regards to the current 10% yearly development rate recorded by the wireless industry, it is expected that the sector will become a bigger segment of the UAE economy in the next few years.

Wireless frequency technologies used in radios and televisions play a significant function in access to information and communication. Police services, fire rescue services, and ambulance services rely on wireless frequency technologies. Public benefits of using wireless frequency are many. They include speedy communications in emergency circumstances, a capability to maintain contact with loved ones, and improved access to knowledge throughout all communal and financial lines. It is worth noting that many radio frequencies, RF, examinations done at frequencies beyond 1 MHz considered the consequences of severe exposure to increased levels of wireless frequencies. The uses of technology are continuously being identified.

Ziaran suggests that even if an insignificant threat to health from long-lasting exposure to RF technologies exists, there is a possibility for a weighty public health effect (Ziaran, 2013). He asserts that RF emissions have saturated the airspaces making the users and non-users defenseless against their exposure. According to Ziaran, the impacts are both short-term and long-term (Ziaran, 2013). He believes that there is reliable scientific proof that exposure to wireless technologies triggers variations in cell membrane functioning, absorption, and intercellular signal communication (Ziaran, 2013). Similarly, he indicates that exposure to these technologies may lead to the trigger of protooncogenes and stress proteins. The above proteins are triggered even at levels way below the standardized limits. He also suggests that reactive oxygen species are generated after a long period of exposure to RF (Ziaran, 2013). The above type of oxygen is harmful to DNA and chromosomes.

Malignant glioma

Li and Wang argue that current evidence suggests that exposure to RF causes malignant glioma cancer (Li & Wang, 2012). The most considerable proof for this cancer is that there are increased chances of developing malignant glioma in persons who have had contact with cell phones for more than ten years. The threat is high on the part of the skull on which the device is used frequently. They state that adults who have used the device for more than a decade have double chances of developing the disease (Li & Wang, 2012). Despite this, they illustrate that new studies have indicated that the risk is even higher when the user begins to use the device at a tender age. Similar studies show that the risk of developing parotid gland tumors is enhanced among persons who have been exposed to mobile phones for a long time.

The same investigations point out that the danger of developing acoustic neuroma is higher among individuals who have been exposed to mobile phone use for more than a decade (Li & Wang, 2012). Wang states that the above correlations have also been acknowledged in particular reports published by the World Health Organization.

Sleep, cognitive function, and performance

Wyld and Zizka assert that the relation of decent sleep to cognition and performance to health is well documented (Wyld & Zizka, 2012). They assert that sleep is an imperative part of proper healing, anti-inflammatory assistances, and reduction in physical signs. Imperfect or slowed biological recovery is expected when sleep is compromised. Circadian rhythms, which regularize the generation of stress hormones like cortisol, rely on harmonized sleep patterns. They indicate that persons who are severely exposed to low-level wireless antenna emissions exhibit insomnia, fatigue, headache, and lack of attentiveness. Other complications associated with exposure to RF are fatigue, memory hitches, tinnitus, and strain in multi-tasking. In youngsters, prolonged use of mobile phones leading to radiation exposure causes variations in oscillatory brain action when undertaking memory tasks.

Problems with existing public health standards (safety limits)

Wyld and Zizka believe that if the current public health regulations were sufficient not a single issue noted above could have been experienced (Wyld & Zizka, 2012). They suggest that because the effects are perceived from existing ambient intensities of exposure implies that our contemporary public safety standards are outdated (Wyld & Zizka, 2012). The above also imply that new and biologically founded civic exposure regulations for wireless based technologies are urgently required. Whether it is likely to attain low and sufficient levels, which are still applicable and safeguard the public health against impacts of severe RF exposure is indeterminate. They argue that the possibility of guarding the civilians and still permit the forms of contemporary wireless technology applications are unidentified.

Our research will utilize the above literature reviews to understand the challenges that have been associated with the use of wireless technologies. The reports will offer valuable insight about the current safety regulations aimed at lessening the exposure to RF technologies.

Research design and methodology

The study will be a mixed methods research employing both qualitative and quantitative approaches to data collection and data analysis. Besides, the research will use a case approach to determine the study population. The purpose of using a mixed-method methodology is to ensure that the proposed study will benefit from the advantages of using both qualitative and quantitative techniques. The approach will also reduce the effect of the disadvantage associated with using only one of the two forms.

Survey

• Have you been affected by the use of RF related technologies?
  • Yes
  • No
• Do you reside near a cell station?
  • Yes
  • No
• Are you concerned that long-term use of cell phone might affect your health?
  • Yes
  • No
• Are the government authorities doing enough to counteract increased exposure to wireless frequencies?
  • Yes
  • No
• Should the laws required to safeguard the public against increased wireless frequency emission be enhanced?

Study population

The study seeks to examine the effects of wireless frequencies on public health. As such, government authorities, public health institutions, telecommunication firms, and the public will be our target populations. Samples will be taken from these populations. In this case, the researchers will have to obtain data from many telecommunication firms in the UAE. Similarly, reports on the health effects of wireless frequency will be received from a several governmental and international institutions. Such organizations include IEEE, ICNIRP, and WHO. The members of the public will also offer valuable insights into the effects of these technologies.

Specifics of the methods

Both interviews and surveys will be used in this study. Members of the public will be interviewed because they are the participants in the study. Surveys will be used to examine their concerns towards the effects of RF technologies. On the other hand, interviews will be done through questionnaires to investigate their attitudes and perspectives these concerns.

For this study, the data will be collected through field research. The method entails acquiring public data from secure and reliable governmental institutions, international agencies, face-to-face interviews, and questionnaires. Public health systems will provide the researchers with crucial information such as the present and the past health records. The sources are very efficient since they are bias free.

The face-to-face interview will require a participant to question participants in person to collect their personal views. During the meeting, the contributors will be asked to detail their penalties perspectives. The queries used during the interviews are open ended. Equally, questionnaires will be used to collect private information from the participants. Thus, this study will use a mixed method approach. For statistical data, SPSS will be used to develop statistical analysis techniques such as regressions and correlations.

Findings and analysis

There are two parts of the result. The first one is about analyzing the reports from the institution sampled. The second one entailed an assessment of the interview and questionnaire.

Based on the above discoveries, it is apparent that the purported effects on discomfort, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, neurodegenerative ailments, and the endocrine systems, were mostly negative. Though some participants reported trivial effects, they were not perceived as harmful to health. However, our investigations could not analyze the impact of long-term exposure to wireless technologies because more time is required. Reports obtained from W.H.O and other governmental institutions indicated that there was no noteworthy reheating instigated by mobile phone exposure in the skull.

With respect to the survey, it was noted that many individuals noted that they had not been affected by wireless frequency emissions. However, they were concerned with the increase in the deployment of wireless infrastructure. Particularly, they are worried about the possibility that long-term exposure to RF could have an impact on their health. They are also worried that the media and the relevant authorities have been silent on health problems related to the topic. They pointed out that the advertising revenues generated from this market segment might have compromised the media autonomy. Through this, the media and the relevant government authorities have avoided discussing on health issues associated with the use of these technologies.

Summary of contributions and recommendations

In conclusion, it should be noted that Wireless infrastructures have become very familiar in todays environment. The article above focused on the effects of wireless frequency on health. Wireless dependent hotspots are very popular in public spaces, schools, and homesteads. The infrastructure uses low- power-driven RF transmitters to interconnect with other communication devices. In spite of the very low power utilized by these technologies, several people are weary of the possibility that RF could have an impact on their health. People living in areas with high exposure to RF such as cell towers have a greater risk of developing insomnia. Some pieces of the literature indicated above link developments of temporary effects on reasoning, recollection, learning, performance, reaction time, and responsiveness to wireless frequency.

The above study utilized mixed methods of research employing both qualitative and quantitative approaches to data collection and data analysis. Besides, the research used a case approach to determine the study population. Both interviews and surveys were employed in the study. Members of the public were interviewed because they were the participants in the study. Surveys were also used to examine their concerns towards the effects of RF technologies.

Based on the above studies, it is apparent that the purported effects on discomfort, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, neurodegenerative ailments, and the endocrine systems, were mostly negative. Though some participants reported trivial effects, they were not perceived as harmful to health. However, our investigations could not analyze the impact of long-term exposure to wireless technologies because more time is required.

Based on our findings, we notice that the current public health regulations were not sufficient. We noted that our contemporary public safety standards are outdated. Therefore, we recommend that new and biologically founded civic exposure rules for wireless based technologies are urgently required. Similarly, more researchers should be undertaken to confirm the effects of long term expose to wireless frequencies. For instance, our study noted that more time and investigations were needed to proof the claim that RF technologies had an effect on comfort, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, neurodegenerative ailments, and the endocrine systems.

References

Bhattu, S. (2009). Health effects of cell phone radiation. Dordrecht: Springer. Web.

Clements, F. (2013). United Arab Emirates. Santa Barbara, Calif.: Clio Press. Web.

Li, Q., & Wang, T. (2012). Low-Frequency Wireless Accelerometer to Bridge Health Monitoring. AMM, 241-244, 858-862. Web.

Lin, J. (2002). Health aspects of wireless communication. SIGMOBILE Mob. Comput. Commun. Rev., 6(4), 11-13. Web.

Wyld, D., & Zizka, J. (2012). Advances in computer science, engineering & applications. Berlin: Springer. Web.

Ziaran, S. (2013). Potential health effects of standing waves generated by low frequency noise. Noise Health, 15(65), 237-256. Web.

Abstract

This paper explores the historical development of wireless networks. The essay also gives a detailed analysis of the physical infrastructure associated with wireless networks. The benefits of this technology for business organizations are also discussed. Some of the issues encountered by Cisco Systems after implementing the use of the wireless network are also analyzed. The paper concludes by describing the implications of wireless networks for different emergency agencies and the police.

Wireless Networks

Overview of Wireless Networks

Cardei and Du define a wireless network as any computer connection that uses wireless data (334). This method is embraced because it reduces the costs associated with cable systems. The common wireless networks include Wi-Fi connections and cell-phones. The history of wireless networks is founded on the development of the first wireless telegraph (Cardei and Du 336). Concepts of data compression emerged after Claude Shannon published his work in 1948.

The first Terrestrial Microwave Telecommunication System was designed in 1950. By 1977, cellular systems had been launched in Washington. From 1970 to 1990, new developments emerged, thus leading to the first mobile phone. In 1998, Nokia, Intel, IBM, and Ericsson joined hands to develop the first Bluetooth (Stojmenovic 12). This achievement made it possible for humans to exchange wireless data. In 1999, Wi-Fi Alliance was established to develop new technologies for wireless local area networking (WLAN). These developments created the foundation for future wireless networks.

Types of Wireless Networks

Wireless Networks (WLANs) allow computer users in different areas to share information through the internet. There are different wireless networks that are designed to complete various tasks and duties. Wireless networks make it possible for individuals to share or access information and applications without the use of data cables. Wireless networking also delivers freedom of movement and the ability to share ideas across the globe (Stojmenovic 17). The major types of wireless connections are presented below.

Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs)

This kind of wireless network allows computer users within a small environment, such as a campus, to have internet access (Stojmenovic 18). Three or more individuals can come together to form a common point of access. This network is used by individuals who want to share information within a small area.

Wireless Personal Area Networks (WPANs)

WPANs are used by individuals to connect several devices. This should be done within a small area, such as a house or office. The connection makes it easier for the user to have internet access (Stojmenovic 32). New technologies such as OFDMs and spread-spectrum make it possible for users to access the internet within a wider circumference.

Wireless Mesh Network

This kind of wireless network is not widely used. The network system is usually composed of radio nodes arranged to form a mesh typology (Negus 2). The nodes work together to increase performance and efficiency. The networks have the ability to reroute whereby a node can support those around it (Negus 3).

Wireless Metropolitan Area Networks (W-MAN)

Several WLANs can be interconnected to form a wider system. This kind of connection is given the name W-MAN (Stojmenovic 42). The WLAN connections within the system can share information and applications.

Wide Area Networks (W-MAN)

Wireless WAN is a connection that covers a wide area (Negus 4). A good example is a connection serving two neighboring suburbs or cities. A firm can use W-MAN to connect its businesses in different cities (Negus 4). This connection is characterized by several access points, bridging relays, and Base Station Gateways (Negus 4).

Space Network

This wireless network evolved due to the needs and issues associated with space exploration. The communication between spacecraft and control centers is essential. Spacecrafts are therefore fitted with Wireless Space Network (WSN) in order to relay information back to planet Earth (Hultell, Johansson, and Markendahl 2). A good example of this network is the one managed by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA).

Global Area Network (GAN)

The current proliferation of technology has made it possible for different nations and continents to share information. The development of GAN makes global communication possible. GAN is, therefore, a connection aimed at supporting wireless data across the globe (Negus 6). The use of terrestrial wireless LANS have been observed to promote communication over large coverage areas (Stojmenovic 76).

Aspects of Wireless Technology

Every network connection is defined by various hardware components and software applications. Such components and devices make it easier for different organizations to be connected. Several components should be considered in order to have an effective wireless connection (Szabo, Horvath, and Farkas 3). This means that the system should have various aspects, such as hardware, software, protocols, and physical infrastructures.

Protocols

Stojmenovic defines an internet protocol as a communications protocol within the internet suite that relays data-grams across networks (82). This routing function is critical because it makes internetworking possible. This protocol is, therefore, can be described as the internet (Hultell et al. 3). That being the case, there are different protocols associated with the wireless network. For instance, the Long Term Evolution (LTE) is a powerful communications protocol used to network mobile phones. The other common protocol for wireless connections is Wi-Fi. Bluetooth is another protocol that has been in use since the 1990s. However, Bluetooth functions within a distance of fewer than 10 meters (Szabo et al. 6).

Hardware

Different hardware components should be utilized in order to have an effective wireless network. Some of the typical hardware devices or components utilized to support wireless networks include computers, switches, phone lines, and cables (Szabo et al. 6). The physical hardware should be organized effectively in order to ensure the system functions effectively. Every device on the network system should have an adapter (Hultell et al. 3).

This means that computers and devices capable of accessing wireless internet have such adapters. Wireless routers are also used to ensure wireless networks work effectively. Such routers work as access points for effective internet access. Wireless antennas are also useful because they increase the capability of every wireless radio signal (Szabo et al. 7). Wireless repeaters are also used to compose the hardware system of a wireless network. Such repeaters offer two-way relay for radio signals (Hultell et al. 3).

Physical Infrastructure

The physical infrastructure is critical towards ensuring the integrity of every network system. This infrastructure defines the physical layer of the network. The infrastructure therefore encompasses everything that makes connectivity possible. The infrastructure might include interconnected elements. These Network Elements (Nes) can be assembled by a specified internet provider or be supplied by a manufacturer (Hultell et al. 3). Many systems have numerous interconnected elements. Different components are required in order to complete the wireless network system. Such components include connectors, closures, and cables (Hultell et al. 6).

Features of Wireless Networks that Can Benefit a Business

Experts believe that business organizations can benefit from the use of wireless networks. This is the case because wireless network improves connectivity and boosts the level of productivity (Cardei and Du 338). Wireless connection makes it easier for different individuals to have access to different documents, resources, and emails. The features presented below can benefit many businesses.

Location Flexibility

Workers in a company that uses wireless network have uncontrolled access to the internet. They can access a wide range of applications, files, links, and documents thus improving the level of productivity. The workers can move from area A to B while having access to the internet (Szabo et al. 6). That being the case, the employees in the organization can collaborate in order to achieve the targeted results.

Mobile Connectivity

As mentioned earlier, wireless network is advantageous for businesses because employees can roam without losing connectivity. Some businesses can operate in regions that do not have access to wired internet connection. Wireless LAN can make it possible for companies to manage their inventories and operations. This opportunity makes it possible for businesses to operate effectively (Stojmenovic 93). Wireless access can be used to support the performance of different departments without using wired connections.

Reach and Coverage

Wireless network increases the level of coverage and reach. Individuals in an organization can access internet without having to move to a fixed computer. Employees can access different types of information from the main server (Hultell et al. 7). Colleagues and stakeholders will also benefit from the internet coverage. The increased level of mobility makes it possible for every worker to focus on the targeted business goals.

Adaptability

The other important aspect of wireless network is adaptability. Businesses can adapt new typologies depending on the anticipated traffic rates. The company can consider new infrastructures depending on the targeted changes and goals (Negus 6). New nodes can also be added in order to produce the targeted goals. The concept of adaptability therefore makes it possible for businesses to support the changing needs of their workers. New network demands are easily addressed using wireless connections.

Cost Effectiveness

The use of wireless technology is something that reduces costs for companies and businesses. Wired networks required numerous resources and skilled labor to implement. Such networks should also be maintained in order to function optimally. Unlike wired connections, wireless network is easy to maintain. The system does not require extra costs to scale up (Hultell et al. 7).

Case Study: Successful Implementation of Wireless Technology

Cisco Systems

The case study of Cisco Systems Incorporation shows how wireless network can support the goals of many businesses. Cisco implemented the use of wireless connections in 2000 (Wireless Case Study: How Cisco WLAN Became Primary Corporate User Network par. 3). The ultimate objective was to address the changing demands of many workers. The company wanted the use the technology to support the existing wired connections.

Within two years, more employees were using wireless connections to access the internet. The IT department conducted a study in 2005 to determine the unique aspects of wireless networking. The use of WLAN was observed to be beneficial. Consequently, the firm redesigned the wireless network to become the major access point (Wireless Case Study: How Cisco WLAN Became Primary Corporate User Network par. 4).

Several advantages were observed regarding the use of wireless network at Cisco Systems. For example, more people believed that WLAN was effective and easy to use. As well, the survey indicated that more employees became more productive than ever before. The productive time was observed to increase significantly thus making it possible for the firm to achieve its business goals (Wireless Case Study: How Cisco WLAN Became Primary Corporate User Network par. 2).

The companys engineering and marketing departments recorded positive outcomes. This case study therefore shows clearly that employees can use wireless network to communicate with each other. The use of wireless network at Cisco is something that has continued to increase productivity.

Issues Faced

The company faced a number of issues before implementing the use of wireless network. The first issue to consider was the initial costs associated with the implementation process. The company spent a lot of money to implement the system. Cisco Systems has been designing and marketing a wide range of networking devices (Wireless Case Study: How Cisco WLAN Became Primary Corporate User Network par. 5).

This position made it easier for Cisco Systems to implement a powerful wireless network. The pioneers of the project also considered its feasibility. From the very beginning, the company used wired network to support its workers. In 2002, a survey was conducted to establish the major issues and opportunities associated with the use of wireless network. Cisco Systems decided to support and implement wireless network as the best mode of internet access in 2005. This move led to numerous benefits for the organization.

Effectiveness of Wireless Networks for Emergency Services and the Police

Wireless networks have been associated with exchange and sharing of information (Stojmenovic 41). Regions that have access to wireless networks can respond to emergencies within the shortest time possible. Cities with wireless networks make it easier for individuals to communicate with the relevant agencies whenever there is a disaster. Stojmenovic argues that wireless connections improve the speed of response to various disasters or emergencies (56). Individuals who have access to the internet can respond to various incidents within the shortest time possible.

Experts believe that wireless network is one of the best tools for dealing with various incidents. Emergency medical services (EMS) providers, firefighters, and the police play a significant role towards supporting the safety of many citizens (Negus 7). Wireless networks make it possible for these agencies to support the needs of different citizens. Individuals in a region with free wireless connection will be able to inform the right authorities. Wireless connections make it possible for responders to manage their resources and tools. They can also share their ideas with different stakeholders in order to respond to various emergencies.

The government should therefore provide cost-effective wireless connections to different cities and organizations. More people should also be sensitized about the importance of wireless networks. They should be ready to communicate with different emergency agencies in order to get the best support (Szabo et al. 6). This move will make it possible for different agencies and civilians to share information. Such agencies will get quality information that can be used to respond to different emergencies. This move has the potential to safeguard the lives of more people (Stojmenovic 87). Wireless networks are powerful lifesaving tools that can support the safety and health needs of more people in the country.

Works Cited

Cardei, Mihaela and Ding-Zhu Du. Improving Wireless Sensor Network Lifetime through Power Aware Organization. Wireless Networks 11.1 (2005): 333-340. Print.

Hultell, Johan, Klas Johansson and Jan Markendahl 2013, Business models and resource management for shared wireless networks. Web.

Negus, Kevin. History of Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs) in the Unlicensed Bands. Information Economy Project 1.1 (2008): 1-13. Print.

Stojmenovic, Ivan. Handbook of Wireless Networks and Mobile Computing. New York: Wiley, 2002. Print.

Szabo, Csaba, Zolta Horvath and Karoly Farkas 2014, Wireless Community Networks: Motivations, Design and Business Models. Web.

Wireless Case Study: How Cisco WLAN Became Primary Corporate User Network 2016. Web.

Introduction

Satellite radio is an early 2000s development and is defined as a broadcasting satellite service. Such services disseminate information by transmitting a signal through space stations. Considering the extent to which this type of transmission increases the scale of the signal, it is not difficult to imagine the demand for Sirius radio. Such satellite radios are usually intended for drivers of cars and other motor vehicles. Their main advantageous difference is expressed in a higher signal transmission strength compared to terrestrial radio, where the signal is still inside the Earths atmosphere.

Sirius and XM

Sirius and XM really made a splash, changing the idea of technological possibilities when listening to music and transmitting information. Sirius satellite radio was launched not only in the US but even on the Baikonur space station in Kazakhstan, making coverage even wider. First of all, this radio did not receive much coverage, but during the 2000s, Sirius began to infiltrate the American media space at the corporate level (McLean, 2001). The largest automotive corporations sensed the possibility of profitable mutual integration and invested hundreds of millions of dollars in order to install satellite receivers in new car models. It can be assumed that the principle of large-scale investments at the multi-corporate level worked in this way  this phenomenon, with such support, could not but revolutionize the media space. The actual one-time contribution was also beneficial in order to make a technological breakthrough  after the installation of satellites and the launch of new machines for mass production, Sirius required significantly less financial support and recouped the money invested.

Principles of Success

Sirius and XM Satellite Radio were the first satellite stations to challenge traditional radio. Their principle of success was diversity, quality of access provided by a moderate monthly fee, and the possibility of choice. The eclecticism of satellite radio is reminiscent of the great possibilities of cable TV  the analogy is apt enough, given the temporary furor created by cable TV around the same era. XM Satellite Radio not only provides music from over 70 channels, but also broadcasts news, sports, comedy and drama, and talk radio. For larger market areas, for example, for large cities, weather and road conditions are additionally broadcast. However, the range and accuracy of satellite radio extend beyond mere entertainment or even business. This company provided a separate service for data exchange between pilots and meteorological observers. A separate advantage of XM radio over other radio stations was the expanded launch of talk shows at the beginning of the 2000s. Opening specials for such stars of American pop culture as Oprah Winfrey or Howard Stern could not fail to attract a lot of attention from the audience (Jacobs, 2020). In the zero years, the company entered into a number of contracts not only with motor, but even with spacecraft manufacturers, which indicates the rapid growth in the use of this technology.

Connection with traditional FM Broadcasting

At the same time, the commercial benefit of XM additionally lies in the admission of radio stations from the terrestrial coverage to its roster. Contracts with Salem Communications, the largest platform for the production of family and Christian content, and Spanish Broadcasting, could not fail to bring tremendous demographic coverage to satellite radio. The merger of Sirius and XM Radio into a single company gave them a chance to level mutual financial miscalculations and collaborate in order to continue to challenge ordinary radio. These companies did not so much mean the death of traditional radio as its evolution into a new, more fluid and elegant form. The danger of SiriusXM for standard radio lies in the similarity of the principles of operation, but the lack of advertising and the breadth of the signal. Because of this, an older male audience, who often travels in cars, prefers this format and is ready to pay for it. SiriusXM takes into account the ability to interact with its system everywhere outside of cars  so Sirius uses aggressive marketing tactics. The company is acquiring podcast producers on a massive scale, including the recent acquisition of growing online streaming service Pandora.

Sirius XM vs. Spotify

The main difference between the types of playback and financial models of Sirius and Spotify lies in the principle by which the listener selects the music played. In the case of Sirius, the listener has access to a large number of radio stations and podcasts, quite accurately calibrated to suit various and most sophisticated tastes. However, at the same time, the listener refuses the need to constantly choose the listening experience, thus preferring the already prepared audio program. This seems all the more justified in the context of the needs of radio on the road, where a pleasant surprise and guessing the mood of the listener is valued more than the ability to constantly select a single song and compile an individual playlist. Although the main issue of the presentation is the pressure of broadcasters such as Sirius XM on traditional forms of radio broadcasting, the very viability of this new type of radio may also be called into question. Modern era streaming services such as Spotify pose a major threat to Sirius. This conflict of interest is further highlighted by comparing the stock of this company with new players in the music broadcast industry (Darwin, 2021). Sirius XMs share price has grown very little compared to corporations such as Apple Music and Spotify.

Conclusion

However, for a number of reasons, this company is unlikely to be completely ousted from the market in the near future, since it offers a number of unique services and perks. Free, ad-supported streaming services are certainly gaining popularity, but its undeniable that there is a large segment of people who want to listen to music for the full experience. Sirius at a reasonable price offers the opportunity to enjoy music without interruption, which attracts listeners. However, it should be noted that the free services of Sirius are not profitable for the company, and they receive most of the money from full-fledged subscriptions, which, by the way, the company focuses on. Sirius XM earns approximately $149/year from each subscriber, which only indicates the staying power of this phenomenon.

References

Commercial Break. (2022). Sirius Commercial.YouTube. Web.

Darwin, M. T. (2021). Difference Between Spotify and SiriusXM.YouTube. Web.

Jacobs, F. (2020). 10 reasons why SiriusXM is broadcast radios public enemy #1.Jacobs Media Strategies. Web.

McLean, B. (2001). Satellite killed the radio star: Two upstarts, Sirius and XM, plan to rock the radio world. Will their satellite-based service be the next DirecTV or the next Iridium? Stay tuned.CNN Media. Web.

Today we can observe the rapid rise of technologies and their interference in multiple spheres of human activity to improve results and achieve higher efficiency levels. Another important domain for their application is the enhancement of communication between agents in different locations. The evolution of the Internet became one of the key factors that fostered this process and preconditioned the further development of technologies. In the modern world, the Internet is closely connected with wireless LAN (WLAN) protocols that are used to transfer data without traditional ways presupposing cables. However, it can suffer from channel fading or external interference, which means the need for an efficient tool to avoid these problems.

Background

WLAN becomes an advantageous way to use modern technologies and preserve access to the Internet not being limited by the cable and demonstrating high mobility. It emerged in 1971 as the first wireless computer network at the University of Hawaii. Since that time, it had passed a long way and became a popular means of transferring data. However, there are also several problems associated with the protocol that can be taken as its disadvantages. First of all, the issue of channel fading becomes topical. It can be determined as the variation of the attenuation of a signal that emerges under the impact of multipath propagation or wave propagation. It can significantly corrupt the quality of data transfer and prevent individuals from using the Internet and LAN. Another problem peculiar to wireless networks is the high risk of external interference. The opportunity for the breach appears because of the nature of this technology as malefactors can use it to enter the private network and analyze information presented there.

Purpose and Research Question

Under these conditions, the pivotal aim of the project is to investigate Wireless LAN, the problem of channel fading, and external interference to find an appropriate solution that can be used to minimize risks and align an efficient functioning of the system. It means that the existing tools to prevent fading such as diversity schemes and rake receivers along with the shielding and improved security measures to minimize security risks will be discussed. Regarding the central topic of the research, the following research question can be formulated:

What are the specific technologies and software that can solve the problem of channel fading and external interference and improve the functioning of WLAN?

Methodology

The given research question presupposes the use of a particular methodology to conduct an in-depth analysis of the issue and acquire credible data. Investigation of the efficiency of specific technologies and their impact on the work and stability of WLAN presupposes an analysis of research papers and articles to understand how these approaches might help to solve the problem and how they impact the discussed aspects. For this reason, the literature review becomes one of the central methods utilized in the project. At the same time, internet sources should also be investigated to collect data about the problem and discuss it.

Relevance

Altogether, the given project is focused on the in-depth investigation of WLAN as one of the modern technologies that guarantee increased convenience and provide users with high mobility. The work will contribute to the improved comprehension of the basic characteristics of this protocol and how such problems as channel fading and external interferences might impact its usability and reliability. The topicality of the selected area is evidenced by the growing number of devices using WLAN and its utilization in all spheres of human activity.

Introduction

WLAN, Wireless Local Area Network, can generally be defined as a computer network architecture that allows communication between various localized (i.e. located over a short distance) computing devices making use of radio or infrared technology and hence eliminating the need to wire all the networked computers together. Today wireless LANs are widely deployed in places such as corporate office conference rooms, industrial warehouses, Internet-ready classrooms, and even coffeehouses.

Main text

Wireless communication involves transmitting signals via radio waves through air and space. Signals are measured in frequency and amplitudes (Harris, n.d.). The frequency determines the amount of data that can be carried. However higher frequencies are also prone to greater interference from the atmosphere as the distance from the source increases.

A wide range of broadband wireless data transmission technologies are used in various frequency ranges. Broadband wireless signals occupy frequency bands that may be shared with microwave, satellite and radar, for example. (Harris, n.d.) These technologies are used for television transmissions, cellular phones, satellite transmissions, spying, surveillance, and garage door openers etc.

WLAN uses a transceiver, called an access point (AP), which connects to an Ethernet cable; this cable links the wireless devices to the wired network.

The APs are in fixed locations throughout a network and work as communication beacons.

Typically, computers on a wireless LAN have a radio modem, MAC (Media Access Controller) controller, a host interface and the driver. The radio modem transmits data onto and receives data from the frequency band. The MAC controller mainly controls the data packet format, channel access mechanism etc. The driver is actually software that acts as an interpreter between the operating system and the hardware. Each device over the WLAN shares an allotted finite radio frequency spectrum with all other wireless devices within the same network. In order to avoid collision of data packets over this shared spectrum, one wireless device sends out a broadcast indicating that it is going to transmit data. This is received by other devices causing them to hold their transmissions off.

Standards are developed so that different vendors can create products that are capable of working seamlessly with other vendors products. The first WLAN standard was 802.11 developed in 1997. It outlines how wireless clients and APs communicate, lays out interface specifications, dictates how signal transfer should take place and describes how authentication, association and security should be implemented. (Harris, n.d.)

In order for a host to participate within a particular WLAN, it must be configured with the proper Service Set ID (SSID). The SSID is a construct that allows logical separation of wireless LANs. In general, a client must be configured with the appropriate SSID to gain access to the wireless LAN. The SSID does not provide any data-privacy functions; it does not truly authenticate the client to the access point either.

In order to be authenticated, a client broadcasts a probe request frame on every channel. (A channel is a certain frequency within a given frequency band). All APs within the range responds to this with a probe response frame. The client decides the best AP for access and sends an authentication request to it. The access point sends an authentication response. If authentication is successful, the client sends an association request frame to the AP which then replies with an association response. After this response is received by the client, it can participate in the traffic through the AP.

To authenticate a device on the WLAN, the wireless standard 802.11 provides two methods i.e. Open System Authentication (OSA) and Shared Key Authentication (SKA). In OSA, the wireless device does not have a specific cryptographic key to allow for authentication with the AP. As such OSA is a null-authentication algorithm that allows any device network access. SKA on the other hand requires that the client configure a static key that is used to send an encrypted message to the AP. If the AP can decrypt this message, it responds with an authentication response that grants the client access.

Summary

Wireless LAN deployments should be made as secure as possible. Standard 802.11 security is weak and vulnerable to numerous network attacks which include sniffing data packets, collecting particular frames or coercing information from a WLAN to derive the key to gain authentication etc. A number of vendors offer solutions to prevent exploitation of these vulnerabilities, for example Cisco Wireless Security Suite which can augment 802.11 security to create secure wireless LANs.

References

1. Harris, S. (n.d.) All In One CISSP Exam Guide. McGraw Hill/
2. Tourrilhes, J. (2000). A bit more about the technologies involved& Web.
3. Wireless LAN Security White Paper. Web.
4. Configuration examples and TechNotes. Web.
5. Wireless LAN. Web.
6. What is Infrared Wireless LAN. Web.

As early as 1996, Weiser & Brown talked about the ubiquitous computing era (UC era) in which we will have lots of computers sharing each of us. Some of these computers will be the hundreds we may access in the course of a few minutes of Internet browsing. The calm technology that Weiser and Brown envisioned has today become a reality thanks to wireless networking (1996). Wireless technology has become the buzz word in recent years, with wireless networking becoming more available, affordable, and user-friendly. Recent advances in the fields of modulation techniques, coding, and radio architecture are allowing wireless communications to have large speeds, better spectrum allocation, greater power efficiency, error-resistant transmissions, and more flexible architectures. Technically speaking, these advances permit complex transmitters and receivers to pack more bits into the same spectrum by using a wider slice of the spectrum (ultrawideband), a more narrow set of frequency bands (orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing), more directional use of spectrum (smart antennas), and more intelligent encoding of transmissions (coding). In addition to higher bit rates, more flexible radio architectures are also part of the advancing wireless technology.

Wireless technology is used in three main areas: Wireless LANs for pure data applications; Wi-Fi networks used to enable both data and specialized applications (RFID, location services, and especially VoIP); Wide-area mobile data access for PDAs, notebooks, and smartphones using Wi-Fi, 3G and/or GPRS.

There are two recent modulation techniques that have changed accelerated the popularity of wireless technology  ultrawideband (UWB) and Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiplexing (OFDM). UWB is any wireless technology where the signal is 25% or more of the frequency used. UWB has wideband nature, consumes very little power, and is economically cheap (Heller, 2006). In the book Computer Science: Reflections on the Field, Reflections from the Field, Mark D. Hill has said that technological progress will always enable better and cheaper computers (CSTB, 2004). Ultrawideband technology, offering a solution for the bandwidth, cost, power consumption, and physical size requirements of next-generation consumer electronic devices, is definitely indicative of technological progress.

Other knowledge advances in various realms related to wireless are:

• Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiplexing (OFDM) is a technique in which a single transmitter transmits on different orthogonal frequencies. It provides spectrum efficiency with high resistance to interference (Heller, 2006).
• Multi-antenna systems or smart antennas refer to multiple receiving and/or transmitting antennas. Smart antennas enable performance gains in four areas: array gain, diversity gain, spatial multiplexing, and interference reduction (Heller, 2006).
• Space-Time Codes and Turbo Codes (TCs) help to pack more bits into the same bandwidth. Turbo Codes are high-performance error-correcting codes that are good choices for limited-bandwidth, high-noise communications. They can increase the usable bit rate of a signal without increasing transmission power (Heller, 2006).
• Software-Defined Radio (SDR) is a technique meant to enable fast, flexible switching between different frequency bands (Heller, 2006). Two popular applications of wireless information systems are GPS and RFID. The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a wireless technology-based system used for location awareness. Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) tag is one in which individually programmed RFID tags, or transponders, use radio signals to capture and share data between mobile and fixed computing devices, allowing automatic data capture and object identification (Raychauduri, 2005). The global industry and business are currently working towards implementing RFID tags throughout the entire supply chain.
• Wireless Personal Area Networks refer to small ad hoc networks and have a limited range. Recent advances in WPANs include Bluetooth wireless technology.
• WiMAX (World Interoperability for Microwave Access) technology is expected to enable true broadband speeds over wireless networks at a cost point to enable mass-market adoption. WiMAX is the only wireless standard today that has the ability to make pervasive connectivity a reality (Moore, 2006).
• The third-generation CDMA-based 1x technologies allow for high-speed data and enhanced voice quality and capacity over CDMA networks. These technologies promise to take users into a new realm of mobile computing, ranging from receiving and sending e-mails to watching streaming videos or even attending a video teleconference (Moore, 2006).

Pervasive computing is the next generation computing environment with information & communication technology everywhere, for everyone, at all times. As early as 1976, Newell writes that someday, computer technology may incorporate intelligent behavior into objects (CSTB, 2005). We can create frozen action to be thawed when needed, and the action can be conditional on the state of the world. In accordance with the above visionary statement, Prof. D. Raychaudhuri says that wireless systems are evolving from todays centrally managed cellular and WLAN services towards ad-hoc heterogeneous networks capable of supporting a broad new class of pervasive computing applications (Raychauduri, 2005). Enabling technologies for this pervasive computing scenario include infostation (wireless cache), multimodal wireless sensors, self-organizing ad-hoc network protocols, and cognitive radio (Raychauduri, 2005). In just five years, Raychauduri believes, networks of embedded devices will be all around us (Raychauduri, 2006).

As wireless networks are shared, management and security are two major issues to be considered. With certain LAN standards (of good bandwidth), a license is needed to operate. Wireless devices are sometimes susceptible to interference from other devices such as cordless phones that also operate in the same frequency band. Even Bluetooth devices sitting in close proximity can cause interference. The wireless medium is time-division multiplexed, meaning a client can either send or receive data at a time, but not both, and moreover, the actual transmission rate is dictated by physical factors like indoor settings and the quality of equipment used. Since a wireless network uses shared bandwidth, the throughput reduces as the number of clients increases. Security could be an issue in a wireless environment, as anybody in the vicinity can try to hack into the access point.

Some other problems to be overcome are data integrity, speed, protection, compatibility, and environmental safety (Eremin, 2005). A more serious drawback is that standards are lacking in wireless networking, which is why very few wireless products can work with one another (Eremin, 2005).

Bibliography

1. Future Directions in Wireless Technology by Prof. D. Raychaudhuri, February 2005, SUNY Stony Brook. Download PowerPoint presentation
2. Alexei A.Eremin, (2004) Effects of wireless computing technology. Pushkin Computing College.
3. Computer Science and Telecommunications Board (2004). Computer Science: Reflections on the Field, Reflections from the Field. National Academy of Sciences Press.
4. Heller, Brandon. The Quest for Wireless Gigabit: Recent Advances in the Wireless Physical Layer. 2006. Web.
5. Mark Weiser and John Seely Brown (1996). The Coming Age of Calm Technology. Xerox PARC.
6. Moore, K. Linda (2006). Wireless Technology and Spectrum Demand: Advanced Wireless Services. CRS Report for Congress. Web.
7. Raychauduri (2006). Pervasive Wireless. Technology Review  published by MIT. Web.

Abstract

Fire fighter and other rescue personnel who have to use the radio harness to hold their radio often face a problem when the belt holding the radio and the mic starts swaying away from the body. This can create further problems as the personnel would be forced to use one of their hands to restrain the radio and it creates an issue of personnel safety. The Boston Leather Radio Strap is designed to hold the radio close to the body and save the personnel from such issues. This paper analysis the device to understand its benefits. The conclusion offered is that in spite of the higher acquisition costs, the Boston Leather Radio Strap should be recommended for use.

Why Boston Leather Radio Strap

According to a report by Associated Press (October 08, 2007), some 15 firefighters have died in the last year because some of the safety devices they used did not function properly. Also included in the report is the problem faced by firefighters when they are climbing ladders or dragging fire hoses into burning, smoke filled buildings. One of the main support systems in such events is communication with team members through radio. Firefighters have only two hands that they must use to hold the fire fighting equipment. While fighting fires and when the operator is not standing straight, the radio strap tend to sway this way and that and firefighters have to reach out with one hand to pull the radio close so that they can speak. When this is happening, one of their hands is otherwise engaged and there is a severe possibility that the operator would get injured while fighting the fire and risk his life. There is also the possibility that the swaying radio strap along with the radio may get entangled and trap the firefighter. In such cases, there is an urgent need to ensure that the firefighter is free from these problems. The Boston Leather Radio Strap helps to prevent the sway of the radio strap away from the body.

About the Boston Leather Radio Strap

The Boston Leather Radio Strap (Boston Leather, 2008) is a device that holds is the safety device that mates to a radio holder with rust free scissor snaps for easy removal. The radio holder device has to be purchased separately. The strap is available in heavy-duty leather of 1 1/43 width and it is provided with a reflective backing for extra safety. The buckle locking is positive and allows clamping and removal easily. Shown below is an image of how the device appears.

There is another unit called the anti-sway strap that actually fits to the gear and stops the radio from swaying and swinging around. An image of the device is as shown below.

The length of the strap can be adjustable and for taller fire fighting personnel who are more than 61, the item is manufactured in extra large size. The speaker microphone is attached to a leather loop so that it can be accessed easily. The strap can be fitted in over any of the shoulders. The buckles, hooks and eye bolts are made of high temperature resisting Nickel. The devices are lightweight and weigh less than 1 pound.

Survey of preferences for the belt.

A poll was done to assess the user acceptance of the device and among 100 fire fighting personnel. The personnel was asked for reasons as to why they would like to use the device. Among the 100 people polled, 67 people said that they liked the device while 20 said that they did not like the device. 13 people said that they had no comments about the device or that they did not care. The results of the survey are shown in the following graph.

As seen in the above figure, 67% of the respondents have agreed that the device is useful and would be ready to accept them. Among the reasons for liking, the respondents have suggested:

• Ease of caring for product
• Holds radio microphone in place
• Slides easily over turnout gear
• Keeps radio knobs reachable
• Keeps radios from falling on the floor

Disadvantages of the device

It is reported that the device costs between 40 to 50 USD and there is also an adjustment period that some of the people did not like.

Conclusions and Recommendations

The discussions in the paper have shown that the Boston Leather Radio Strap has many advantages as it can save personnel from injury and protect the radio from being damaged. There are also some benefits such as Ease of caring for product; Holds radio microphone in place; Slides easily over turnout gear; Keeps radio knobs reachable and Keeps radios from falling on the floor. The only issues is the cost of the strap that is about 40  50 USD. A survey showed that 67% of personnel liked the product while only 20% did not find it acceptable.

Considering the life and safety of the fire fighter that is irreplaceable and the cost of the radio that costs much more than the 40-50 USD of the strap, it is recommended that the Boston Leather Radio Strap be purchased and can become a part of the regular attire of the firefighter.

References

1. Associated Press. 2008. Safety device may be linked to firefighter deaths. Web.
2. Boston Leather. 2007. Firefighters Radio Strap.