Category: Racism

Introduction

Throughout human history, racism and the discrimination of people based on their race, cultural attributes, and backgrounds have resulted in despicable acts against fellow humans such as the holocaust that claimed the lives of millions of Jews in Germany. Nevertheless, racism continues to be one of the most prominent social challenges today because it is deeply rooted in society. Racism constitutes adverse feelings or actions perpetrated against individuals because of their racial background, ultimately leading to marginalization and discrimination. However, its implications are far-fetched as they diminished societys levels of morality and limit the community from collaborating toward continuous development and higher living standards. Therefore, racism and discrimination are social evils that must be eradicated due to their negative social, emotional, and mental implications on their victims and societys continuity.

Sociological Causes and Explanations of Racism

Racism is an ideology that differentiates people according to their ethnicity. Racism is a doctrine that proposes that the worlds population is differentiated into different racial groups, which predominantly determine human traits, abilities, and capacity (Banton, 2018). As a result, these beliefs encourage some individuals to perceive their races as superior to others. In particular, the concept of racism emerged in the 18^th century due to slavery and colonialism initiated by North American and European powers. The Europeans sought to distinguish their difference and superiority from individuals of African ascent who had been forcefully enslaved and spread all over the Americas (Shiao & Woody, 2021). Hence, the Europeans justified their atrocities against slaves and sustained their existing system of human exploitation while portraying themselves as champions of human rights, equality, unlimited opportunities, and freedom by classifying Africans as lesser beings. However, racism in the modern world has evolved and exhibits more complex features and adverse reparations for societies globally. Seemingly, racism is a vice that is eroding global developments because it causes occasional conflicts between individuals and groups due to uprisings.

The theoretical explanations of the emergence and development of racism are categorized into functionalism theories, interactionism, and culture of prejudice theories. Functionalist ideologies perceive society as a fixed structure with various parts that serve a specific purpose and contribute to the social and biological needs of society (Back & Solomos, 2020). Thus, functionalists consider racism a critical aspect of society that must exist to serve a particular function for society to achieve order and stability. Symbolic interactionists suggest that human attributes such as ethnicity and race are sources of identity. Thus, racism results from the interactions of individuals in dominant groups (Banton, 2018). Finally, the culture of prejudice ideologies suggests that bias and prejudice are engraved in the human culture because people grow up surrounded by discrimination and stereotypic inclinations (Back & Solomos, 2020). Hence, racism is a result of the implications of individuals environments and societys habits on their thought processes. Consequently, measuring the effects of racism is difficult because racist actions might be intentional or unintentional.

The Social Factors that Contribute to Racism

One of the main facilitators of racism is individuals ideology of supremacy and culture of racial domination. In other words, racism thrives when people use a presumed cultural or biological superiority in their racial group to justify the inappropriate treatment and inferior positioning of other groups. Racialization is the process through which physical differences such as skin color, height, and eye color, are used to differentiate between groups of individuals (Shiao & Woody, 2021). Thus, racism is the result of racialization which follows a socially consequential valuation and hierarchical placement of racial groups. For example, white supremacy is a system that identifies white people as superior to all other races, thus encouraging white supremacists to dominate other groups (Banton, 2018). Over the years, racism due to white supremacy has encouraged the establishment of institutions that continuously disadvantage those of color in the US. As a result, individuals of color in the US are exposed to several adversities that are noticeable in their way of life, increased levels of poverty in their communities, and high crime and incarceration levels.

Science and medical research are fields that were widely misused in the 17^th to 19^th centuries to mislead the public and justify racism. In the 18^th century, individuals based their practices on enlightenment and rationalism while slowly moving away from the faith and superstition-based practices. Therefore, researchers took advantage of individuals inclination to science to offer pseudo perspectives and evidence suggesting that white people were superior (Walls, 2022). For example, scientific studies proclaimed that there were notable risks in racial interbreeding since the offspring would be more susceptible to diseases than normal and had a short lifespan. As a result, this and other scientifically-backed misleading information encouraged racism and the wrong treatment of individuals from other groups (Walls, 2022). The flawed studies and empirical evidence used to show the inherent attributes of African-Americans and other races over white individuals encouraged the establishment of individuals cultures, systems, and attitudes that influence society today.

Systemic and structural factors also play a major role in facilitating racism since they allow individuals to engage in the vice unconsciously. Systemic and structural contributors to racism refer to the legal, political, criminal justice, and education systems and the structures that oversee these systems functioning. According to Groos et al. (2018), racism that takes this form is deeply embedded in written and unwritten laws, policies, practices, attitudes, and established beliefs that condone the behavior and encourage prejudice against individuals in other groups. As a result, they lead to diminished access to healthcare, unequal resource distribution, and unfair treatment by law enforcement and the criminal justice system (Banton, 2018). The implications of structural and systemic racism are disastrous and far-fetched because of their invisibility. Violations such as police brutality and the murder of unarmed victims receive attention from the public and the media. However, other forms of systemic and structural racism affecting broader populations including poor living standards and increased suffering due to marginalization go unnoticed.

Potential Solutions to Racism

Racism is a social attribute nurtured from childhood as children familiarize themselves with their surroundings and increase their awareness. Therefore, a reliable solution to eradicating the vice is educating children from early childhood on the essence of accepting each others differences and cultures. An approach to ensure that children learn better human values is abolishing any teaching and learning materials that do not encourage cohesion and equality (Marrun et al., 2019). Moreover, instead of shielding children from the atrocities that scourge society due to racism, parents should talk to their young ones and instill anti-racist qualities in them as they grow up. Similarly, educators should be well-positioned to identify racist aspects in their pedagogy and make the necessary changes (Marrun et al., 2019). Although most teachers are aware of the steps they should take to limit bias, non-intentional discrimination due to systemic and structural factors can impede their judgment. Therefore, it is crucial to train educators on how to evaluate their environments, learning materials, and teaching methods to limit racism and discrimination.

Creating awareness in the general population and equipping them with mechanisms to abolish racism is a reliable solution to dealing with the vice. Racism is perpetrated from the individual, group, and societal levels. Therefore, informing people of why racism is detrimental to society and explaining to them why it exists can help them realize its insignificance and change their ways (Banton, 2018). Educating the public about the adversities of racism and what action to take when they witness racist actions enables them to play an active role in its elimination. As a result, they will be motivated to make things better and oversee the well-being of all individuals. In addition, the government, law enforcement, and shareholders in humanitarian services should provide citizens with reliable solutions to report human rights violations and discrimination due to racism (Shiao & Woody, 2021). A special department dedicated to dealing with racism cases will encourage more feedback and increased participation of individuals to fight against racism. Racism stems from the notion of peoples or a groups supremacy over others. Therefore, it is necessary to adopt strategies that target individuals and encourage them to challenge racist systems, institutions, and structures.

Additionally, the government and lawmakers should collaborate to develop more strict anti-racism and anti-discrimination laws to discourage people from engaging in the vice and mistreating others. The United Nations and other international organizations work tirelessly to ensure that governments champion policies that respect human rights and positive societal development. As a result, policymakers should borrow from proposed guidelines and adopt some rules and regulations recommended to eradicate racism (Banton, 2018). In addition, the government should create statutes that distinguish between different acts of racism, especially in the employment, housing, healthcare, social service, law enforcement, and education sectors, and warrant taking action against perpetrators. Moreover, the government should enhance its reporting and monitoring system to ensure that all racism cases are handled promptly. Setting up strict rules against racism and punishing violators can reduce its levels in society and encourage people toward upholding morals.

Conclusion

Racism is a social phenomenon that disrupts societys frameworks and erodes the positive values of humanity by placing unnecessary suffering on others because of their attributes. Racism emerged in the early 1800s due to Europeans and Americans attempts to conceal and justify their inhuman acts against slaves. However, the doctrine has evolved with the human race to become one of the most complex social issues on the globe. The theories of conflict that attempt to explain its emergence are classified into functionalism theories, symbolic interactionism, and culture of prejudice. These theories suggest that racism serves a particular function in society, occurs due to the interactions of individuals from dominant groups, and results from a human culture of prejudice and discrimination. However, several other factors including structural and systemic factors contribute to racism and its prevalence. Although racism is a social issue that is difficult to eradicate. The government, lawmakers, parents, and the general public can work together by teaching children the values of solidarity, training educators to curb bias and discrimination, engaging the public, and setting up strict regulations. Eventually, society will tackle the issue from its roots and prevent the next generation from adopting adverse values.

References

Back, L., & Solomos, J. (2020). Introduction: Theories of race and racism: genesis, development and contemporary trends. In Theories of race and racism (pp. 1-31). Routledge.

Banton, M. (2018). The concept of racism. In Race and racialism (pp. 17-34). Routledge.

Groos, M., Wallace, M., Hardeman, R., & Theall, K. P. (2018). Measuring inequity: a systematic review of methods used to quantify structural racism. Journal of Health Disparities Research and Practice, 11(2), 13. Web.

Marrun, N. A., Plachowski, T. J., & Clark, C. (2019). A critical race theory analysis of the demographic diversitygap in schools: College Students of Color speak their truth.Race Ethnicity and Education, 22(6), 836-857. Web.

Shiao, J., & Woody, A. (2021). The Meaning of Racism. Sociological Perspectives, 64(4), 495-517. Web.

Walls, L. (2022). A critical race theory analysis of the draw-a-scientist test: are they really that white?. Cultural Studies of Science Education, 17(1), 141-168. Web.

The Impact of Racism in Schools and on the Mental Health of Students

Funding is one of the main factors that ensure racial segregation and exacerbation of the plight of the black population. Being initially in a more disastrous economic situation, racial minority populations fall into a vicious circle. Low-funded schools in poor areas have low academic ratings, which further contributes to the reduction of the material base. Due to their poor academic performance and the need to earn a living, many minorities are deprived of the opportunity to receive prestigious higher education. They are left with low-skilled jobs, which makes it impossible for their children to go to private school or move to a prestigious area with well-funded public schools. In institutions with little funding, unfortunately, manifestations of racism still prevail.

A significant factor in systemic racism in modern schools is the theory of colorblindness as the prevailing ideology in schools and pedagogical universities. The total avoidance of racial topics in schools has led to a complete absence of material related to the culture of racial minorities in the curricula. An example is the complaint of the parents of one of the black students that, during the passage of civilizations, the Greeks, Romans, and Incas were discussed in the lessons, but nothing was said about Africa. However, there were a few African American students in the class (Yi et al., 2022). The white director justified herself by saying that this was the curriculum and that it was not customary at school to divide people by skin color. In response, the students mother stated that children have eyes, and they see everything. And she would like them to see that we had a strong and fruitful culture. This state of affairs is justified by the proponents of assimilationism and American patriotism, built mainly around the honoring of the merits of white settlers and the founding fathers.

Meanwhile, the works of many researchers provide evidence that a high level of colorblindness among students correlates with greater racial intolerance. One study on race relations was conducted among young millennials. As a result, thousands of reports were recorded of openly racist statements and actions of white people from the field of view of these students (Plaut, et al., 2018). Another study on colorblindness found that white students who avoid mentioning racial issues were less friendly on assignments with black partners. This could be because they have less eye contact.

The shortcomings of the described situation affect not only black students but also white teachers who have not received proper training in their time on how best to take into account the characteristics of students from racial minorities. One researcher writes that in his entire experience in multicultural education, he faced the almost universal embarrassment that racial issues caused to white teachers. A common complaint is: I feel helpless. What am I, as a white teacher, to do? One educator remarked that he had never seen African-American teachers say that they did not distinguish between races (Mekawi et al., 2017). This is further proof that racism and the factors leading to it contribute only to the split of social ties at school. Students from racial minorities feel this burden the most, which leads to their feeling of constant alienation. During the school years, conflicts with children not like the rest are especially aggravated  the state of affairs described above provides the basis for constant skirmishes, fights, and tension in institutions.

Suggestions for Creating an Inclusive School Environment

Among the educational factors supporting the status quo of widespread structural racism are the following. This is the system of financing public schools and the dominance of the ideology of colorblindness in schools and pedagogical universities. In the opposite direction, there is such a factor as the peculiarity of keeping educational statistics (Welton, et al., 2018). By providing up-to-date information on the state of affairs of students of various racial and ethnic groups, statistics give rise to the search for optimal solutions in the field of school policy.

The inclusion of racial and ethnic dimensions in educational statistics is intended to provide an objective assessment of the current situation regarding racial differences in American society in order to develop and improve racially relevant policies. In recent years, the ideas of culturally relevant pedagogy have been actively promoted in the US educational sphere. American citizens are becoming more interested and enlightened in the field of racial issues, which can be seen in activist speeches and anti-racist public actions.

It is crucial to teach racism in schools so that all pupils may understand what it is, how it affects, and how to stop tolerating it. There are many publications and learning experience plans that address racism. It is essential to ask teachers and principals to integrate lessons on racism into the syllabus. One can also request that your teachers incorporate novels with a variety of subjects (Welton, et al., 2018). Then, it is important to request that the school draft an inclusion and zero-tolerance statement. Counselors can encourage the instructors and administration to implement these policies at the school if they do not already exist in the code of conduct or other policies (Pizarro & Kohli, 2020). It is critical that schools have clear policies about race and how individuals are treated on campus.

Resources for the School Counselor to Deal With Prejudice and Its Impact at the School

Mekawi, Y., Bresin, K. & Hunter, C.D. (2017). Who is more likely to not see race? individual differences in racial colorblindness.Race and Social Problems, 9(1), 207217. Web.

The authors claim that many Americans support a colorblind racial philosophy, which emphasizes sameness and the equitable allocation of resources without regard to race. The current study looked at the relationships between aggressiveness, and empathy in white undergraduates and three distinct types of racial colorblindness, including ignorance of racial privilege, ignorance of institutional discrimination, and ignorance of overt racism. The findings showed two distinct trends. In contrast to ignorance of overt racism and institutional discrimination, which were linked to poorer cooperativeness, cognitive flexibility, and empathic concern, ignorance of racial privilege was associated with lower openness and viewpoint-taking. These findings are addressed in light of a larger body of research on bias and personality.

Pizarro, M., & Kohli, R. (2020). I stopped sleeping: Teachers of color and the impact of racial Battle Fatigue.Urban Education, 55(7), 967991. Web.

According to the authors, an operational definition of racial battle fatigue (RBF) is the mental, emotional, and physical costs of fighting racism. RBF is employed in this article to examine the effects of racism on educators of color who work in a predominately White profession. The scholars share counterstories of urban academics of color who confront racism on a regular basis in their workplaces. This has a negative effect on their well-being and ability to stay in the profession. The authors also discuss their resiliency and resistance tactics since they depend on a supportive community to persevere and change their schools.

Plaut, V. C., Thomas, K. M., Hurd, K., & Romano, C. A. (2018). Do Color blindness and multiculturalism remedy or foster discrimination and racism?Current Directions in Psychological Science, 27(3), 200206. Web.

This article gives psychology sciences perspective on the question of whether multiculturalism and colorblindness are more likely to prevent prejudice and racism than they are to promote it. The authors first concentrate on the results of a color-blind model. The study in this area reveals that while colorblindness may be appealing to certain people, it can also make people less sensitive to racism and prejudice. Additionally, according to the literature, color blindness generally has detrimental effects on intergroup relationships, minorities perceptions and results, and the promotion of diversity and inclusion in organizational settings. In the second section, the scholars look at the situations in which a multicultural perspective has beneficial or bad effects on intergroup relations, organizational diversity initiatives, and discrimination.

Welton, A. D., Owens, D. R., & Zamani-Gallaher, E. M. (2018). Anti-racist change: A conceptual framework for educational institutions to take systemic action.Teachers College Record, 120(14), 122. Web.

In order to attain racial justice in education, peoples mindsets must also be changed to embrace a more anti-racist worldview. In order to investigate whether behaviors and leadership qualities could really encourage institutional change for racial justice, the authors review two sets of literature: studies on anti-racism and institutional transformation. However, they admit the constraints of each set of studies. The organizational transformation research often ignores equity concerns, notably racial conversations, while anti-racism research is more ideological and theoretical. The scholars combine essential ideas from the literature on organizational change and anti-racism to propose a conceptual framework that may be utilized to create a systematic anti-racist change at a wide level.

Yi, J., Neville, H. A., Todd, N. R., & Mekawi, Y. (2022). Ignoring race and denying racism: A meta-analysis of the associations between colorblind racial ideology, anti-Blackness, and other variables antithetical to racial justice. Journal of Counseling Psychology. Web.

The authors sought to comprehend how colorblind racial ideology (CBRI), or the rejection and minimizing of race and racism, can act as an obstacle to engaging in antiracist practice by relying on antiracism research. To find out if color evasion (ignorance of race) and power evasion (defiance of structural racism) CBRI were differently connected with anti-Blackness and mechanisms related to antiracism, the scholars specifically performed a meta-analysis. Results from 83 research with more than 25,000 participants and 375 effects reveal that varied effects depend on the kind of CBRI. The area of counseling psychology may be pushed by this meta-analysis to construct a bridge between different ideologies and the development of systemic reform.

References

Mekawi, Y., Bresin, K. & Hunter, C.D. (2017). Who is more likely to not see race? individual differences in racial colorblindness.Race and Social Problems, 9(1), 207217. Web.

Pizarro, M., & Kohli, R. (2020). I stopped sleeping: Teachers of color and the impact of racial Battle Fatigue.Urban Education, 55(7), 967991. Web.

Plaut, V. C., Thomas, K. M., Hurd, K., & Romano, C. A. (2018). Do color blindness and multiculturalism remedy or foster discrimination and racism?Current Directions in Psychological Science, 27(3), 200206. Web.

Welton, A. D., Owens, D. R., & Zamani-Gallaher, E. M. (2018). Anti-racist change: A conceptual framework for educational institutions to take systemic action.Teachers College Record, 120(14), 122. Web.

Yi, J., Neville, H. A., Todd, N. R., & Mekawi, Y. (2022). Ignoring race and denying racism: A meta-analysis of the associations between colorblind racial ideology, anti-Blackness, and other variables antithetical to racial justice.Journal of Counseling Psychology. Web.

Introduction

Discrimination and racial disparities in public education settings are the leading causes of poor performance among black and Hispanic learners. Discrimination begins at the student level as early as elementary school where in-group favoritism, peer rejection, out-group prejudice, friendliness, and rejection are witnessed (Juvonen et al., 2019). These disparities are observed throughout school life until graduating from college, with black and Hispanic college completers graduating more from for-profit institutions than public ones (Libassi, 2018). In addition, minority groups experience higher rates of suspension and expulsion than their white counterparts in disciplinary practices, leaving most of them feeling like they are treated as criminals (Schiff, 2018). Such discriminative and racially disparate practices have contributed to high drop-out rates, the school-to-prison pipeline, and poor academic achievement among Hispanic and black learners.

Policies to eliminate such practices face organizational barriers in implementation. Nevertheless, efforts must begin at the very basic level, from student to student, to the teacher, institutions, and government agencies, to successfully eliminate or reduce existing disparities and discrimination. While organizational barriers and social exclusion continue to increase the racial disparity in schools, social inclusion, federal interventions, and restorative justice practices are proven solutions to emanating the problem from public education settings.

Juvonen et al. (2019): Social Inclusion in Educational Settings

The first article is a 2019 paper by Juvonen et al. titled Promoting social inclusion in educational settings: Challenges and Opportunities. These authors perspectives are based on practices that build social inclusion to be implemented in schools to reduce racial disparities. According to Juvonen et al. (2019), peer victimization, friendliness, negative teacher behavior, rejection, and organizational barriers create social exclusion of minority students in a school. For example, teachers who encourage individualistic and competitive goal orientations encourage exclusion because one students success is a detraction from others (Juvonen et al., 2019, p. 259). The solution to exclusion is to build social inclusion in the classroom and within the school by encouraging peer acceptance, cross-group friendships, and built-in prevention (Juvonen et al., 2019). The authors believe that an environment where students feel accepted to have friends and experience intergroup harmony is conducive to successful learning.

The authors found that four recommendations implemented at the school level were effective in improving the social inclusion of racially minority students. Firstly, school administrators must increase ethnic diversity by reviewing their requirements for course enrollment and school admissions. A High diverse environment allows every learner to find a group where they fit in making them feel safer and less lonely (Juvonen et al., 2019). Cooperative classroom practices like jigsaw improve support, acceptance, caring interactions, and liking among students. Successful cooperative practices depend on the teachers awareness of the class group dynamics and knowledge of the students (Juvonen et al., 2019). Another solution is to utilize extracurricular activities such as performing arts and sports to create shared goals away from the classroom. Shared interests in such exercises will create friendships and group formations not based on race. Finally, the authors found that multicultural education is effective in reducing prejudice against minority ethnic groups among learners and encouraging acceptance (Juvonen et al., 2019). Such education must be coupled with an emphasis on diversity appreciation and tolerance to prevent the spreading of more prejudice and stereotypes.

This article supports my topic by analyzing all the factors contributing to the social exclusion of minority groups in schools and suggesting proven remedies to eliminate them. The key points in line with my research question and thesis statement include greater ethnic diversity in schools, cooperative learning practices in classrooms, equal access to extracurricular activities, and multicultural education. The article suggests school-level policies that could eliminate racial disparity and discrimination from all early learning education centers and beyond.

Libassi (2018): College Race Gap

The second article was published in 2018, written by Libassi, and titled The neglected college race gap: Racial disparities among college completers. The authors perspective focuses on racial disparity in students graduating from college. The major trends he identified are related to the kind of schools the majority of black and Hispanic students graduate from compared to their white counterparts. Firstly, Libassi (2018) found that most minority group graduates are from for-profit colleges rather than public ones. According to the author, these schools are known to offer an education that is not as highly rated as the public ones.

Secondly, there is a 15-20% difference between these schools and the public colleges in the amount of spending per student per year. Whites were found to graduate from colleges that spend as much as $16,000 annually while blacks and Hispanics graduated from colleges that spend $13,000 (Libassi, 2018). Thirdly, black and Hispanic students graduated from colleges with lower Selectivity and Resource Index (SRI) than those where whites graduated. The SRI is a measure of the academic performance of fellow students, faculty demand levels, dropout rate, and student-faculty ratio (Labissi, 2018). Overall, Labissis research shows that white students study and graduate from better universities and colleges than their peers in minority groups. Such a racial disparity would reflect in the job market and income levels throughout their lifetimes.

Labissi suggests recommendations that can only be implemented by government agencies. The first recommendation is to create federal accountability structures for monitoring how colleges serve black and Hispanic learners and reporting on a racial equity indicator or measure (Labissi, 2018). Robust scrutiny by the federal government would force colleges to improve their diversity levels by relaxing admission requirements and other measures. The second recommendation is to create a federal and state-level system for tracking minority students outcomes through college. Such a data collection and reporting system would capture information, analyze it, and report it to highlight racial gaps and trends that require intervention. The government would also set targets directed by such data to help more black and Hispanic learners graduate.

Libassis article contributes to my overall thesis by discussing government interventions that would monitor and eliminate the racial gap in college graduates. Unlike Juvonen et al. whose perspective focused on classroom and school-level policies, Libassi presents ideas for federal and state-level solutions. Therefore, all the recommendations by Juvonen et al. and Libassi can be implemented together because they do not conflict but supplement each other.

Schiff (2018): Restorative Justice

The third article, by Schiff, was published in 2018 and is titled Can restorative justice disrupt the school-to-prison pipeline?. The main perspective of the article is the implementation of restorative justice practices in schools to reduce racial disparities. Racial disparities are evident in suspension and expulsion rates among students, which creates cultural and personal trauma for those affected (Schiff, 2018). Harsh and zero-tolerance disciplinary practices are not scientifically linked to safer schools, higher academic achievement, or overall student success. In addition, when they are used, students of color receive harsher disciplinary actions than their white counterparts.

There is growing support for restorative justice programs (RJP) with programs created by the Department of Education (DOE), Department of Justice (DOJ), and private partnerships. RJP views crime as a violation of relationships, individuals, or communities and focuses on reestablishing the broken relations to repair the harm done to offenders, victims, and the community rather than focusing on punishment. According to Schiff (2018), RJP lowers expulsion and suspension rates of minority students, reduces disciplinary referrals, and improves academic performance, alongside other positive outcomes. So far, the DOE has a program named Rethinking Discipline Initiative and another one in partnership with the DOJ and private partners named School-Justice Partnership Project, which utilizes RJP principles (Schiff, 2018). Higher RJP implementers have achieved positive results in eliminating racial disparities in disciplinary actions.

Since a students racial background and the schools racial composition are key risk factors for suspension and expulsion, RJP focusing on these practices will help retain minority students in school. Restorative justice is recommended in protecting black and Hispanic learners from out-of-school suspensions by improving a schools overall climate and discipline without discriminating on color, national origin, or race (Schiff, 2018). For example, higher RJP implementers report more positive student-teacher relationships, respectful teachers, and lower disciplinary referrals of Hispanic and black students.

This article aligns with my topic because it discusses one evidence-supported policy for eliminating racial disparities in schools. Although it only focuses on the disciplinary practices of a school, it presents a policy that has been effectively used in reducing racial disparity for years and has proven to be useful. According to Schiff (2018), states are implementing RJP after successful pilot studies in selected schools. Therefore, the article presents one proven method for reducing disparity and discrimination when disciplining students of color.

Conclusion

All the selected articles recommend different solutions to eliminate or reduce racial discrimination and disparities in public education settings. All the suggested policies, programs, and practices can be implemented at various school levels. Juvonen et al. (2019) presented basic classroom practices that would eradicate racial discrimination among students at the classroom level, and upwards. Therefore, the author addresses the primary source of discrimination that causes the exclusion of minority students from an early age. Similar to these classroom-level practices are the recommendations by Schiff (2018) who proposes the use of restorative justice to correct minority students. Social inclusion and restorative justice practices in the classroom are the basic and most fundamental solutions to racial disparities and discrimination in public schools.

In addition to classroom practices, Juvonen et al. have recommended inclusion solutions for school administrators. The suggestion involves enrolling students in courses and admitting new learners with the aim of increasing diversity across the school. This presents a level higher solution to dealing with discrimination and racial disparities in public education. Finally, Libassi (2018) introduces the highest level of policy intervention, which involves monitoring by the government. He suggests both federal and local governments create structures and systems that would monitor how schools are closing their racial gaps and improving inclusion. Overall, the three articles provide three levels of policies that would eliminate discrimination if implemented properly. The practices involve every stakeholder in the public education setting, starting with students, teachers, administrators, and the government.

References

Juvonen, J., Lessard, L. M., Rastogi, R., Schacter, H. L., & Smith, D. S. (2019). Promoting social inclusion in educational settings: Challenges and opportunities.Educational Psychologist, 54(4), 250-270. Web.

Libassi, C. J. (2018). The neglected college race gap: Racial disparities among college completers. Web.

Schiff, M. (2018). Can restorative justice disrupt the school-to-prison pipeline?. Contemporary Justice Review, 21(2), 121-139. Web.

The history of racial discrimination should not be determined by slavery only as its origins expand in time and forms, including ancient civilizations differences, religious and geographical diversity, and political regimes, affecting American society.

Annotated Bibliography

Bailey, Z. D., Feldman, J. M., & Bassett, M. T. (2021). How structural racism works  Racist policies as a root cause of US racial health inequities. New England Journal of Medicine, 384(8), 768-773.

In their article published in 2021, Bailey et al. define racism as a durable feature of American society and underline the importance of understanding its structural basis. American police continue killing civilians of the color of their skin more often than in other countries. Racist policies founded in the 18^th century became the root cause of inequalities in health care, education, and other spheres. Despite such limitations as statistical data being left out, I will use this article to support the historical evaluation of racism in the United States and add ineffective policing to the origins of racism.

Bowser, B. P. (2017). Racism: Origin and theory. Journal of Black Studies, 48(6), 572-590.

In 2017, Bowser introduced a review of racial discrimination as a concept with its specific theoretical development. Being coined at the beginning of the 20^th century, racism was significantly revised in the 1930s (antisemitism) and the 1960s (civil rights activists). Race relations are never simple, and activist movements prove the burden of racism in America. The theory of racism has to be reconsidered from the point of view of European Americans and White elites. I will add this study to my list even if it is limited to theoretical aspects only, as it contains the analysis of historical events that represent institutional and cultural racism.

Hanchard, M. G. (2018). The specter of race: How discrimination haunts western democracy. Princeton University Press.

This book by Hanchard was published in 2018 to examine various democratic institutions that lead to unequal and questionable ideas like slavery or discrimination. Racial hierarchies and social movements were rooted in ancient Greece, the Persian Wars, and Athenian culture and were based on religious beliefs. The author leaves statistics and current examples out but focuses on past political events and racial regimes to define the origins of racial discrimination in America. I will use Hanchards findings to strengthen my historical evaluation of the topic.

Mejia, R., Beckermann, K., & Sullivan, C. (2018). White lies A racial history of the (post) truth. Communication and Critical/Cultural Studies, 15(2), 109-126.

The results of the 2016 presidential elections provoked Mejia et al. to create an article about racial amnesia and publish it in 2018. The authors want to clarify why racial concepts denied years ago become acceptable today and use the post-truth concept. I will rely on the findings of this article to show how general ignorance about black experiences affects American politics and society. Although this work is limited to one election, attention to the Marxist approach and historical materialism reveals critical racial histories.

Rattansi, A. (2021). Racism: A very short introduction (2^nd ed). Oxford University Press.

In 2021, Rattansi published a book to show that racism is not only a social problem with its roots in wrong decisions and injustice. The author explains the origins of racism from biological, cultural, and political perspectives and offers extensive discussions about the topic. I find this book a good source for my study as it discusses cultural and color-blind forms of racism and Islamophobia as reasons for racial discrimination.

Seth, V. (2020). The origins of racism: A critique of the history ideas. History and Theory, 59(3), 343-368.

In 2020, Seth created the article to criticize the history of racial ideas and the origins of racism globally. The goal is to introduce the analysis of ancient, medieval, and early modern events and show that contemporary politics become the origins of current racial problems. This article will be used in my future project to show that past experiences are not always as critical as current decisions.

Small, M. L., & Pager, D. (2020). Sociological perspectives on racial discrimination. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 34(2), 49-67.

Small and Pager published their article in 2020 to demonstrate that historic discrimination has serious consequences in todays society. Although their study is limited to the 19^th century only, the recognition of the real estate and federal laws impact on race relationships makes this source current and valuable. I will read the article to add several economic factors as the origins of racial discrimination in America.

References

Bailey, Z. D., Feldman, J. M., & Bassett, M. T. (2021). How structural racism works  Racist policies as a root cause of US racial health inequities.New England Journal of Medicine, 384(8), 768-773.

Bowser, B. P. (2017). Racism: Origin and theory. Journal of Black Studies, 48(6), 572-590.

Hanchard, M. G. (2018). The specter of race: How discrimination haunts western democracy. Princeton University Press.

Mejia, R., Beckermann, K., & Sullivan, C. (2018). White lies A racial history of the (post) truth. Communication and Critical/Cultural Studies, 15(2), 109-126.

Rattansi, A. (2021). Racism: A very short introduction (2^nd ed). Oxford University Press.

Seth, V. (2020). The origins of racism: A critique of the history ideas. History and Theory, 59(3), 343-368.

Small, M. L., & Pager, D. (2020). Sociological perspectives on racial discrimination. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 34(2), 49-67.

Racism, especially against African American individuals in the US, has garnered significant attention worldwide because of the severity of atrocities perpetrated against people in these communities by law enforcement. Nevertheless, most individuals, including me, have acknowledged that racism is a vice that society should abolish due to its negative reparations. Thus, people prefer not to be associated with racist statements or actions. However, my Implicit Association Test revealed that I have a slight automatic preference for whites over blacks. Hence, the results altered my assumptions of the existence and roots of racism.

Racial bias is deeply rooted in human society and propelled by norms and stereotypic ideologies that lead to implicit bias and the unfair treatment of minority groups. Therefore, dealing with the negative implications of racism requires identifying its root causes and encouraging stakeholders, such as media organizations, to champion progress toward change.

The IAT test revealed that I am slightly inclined toward believing that white people are good and quick to associate black individuals with evils. As a result, they encouraged me to reflect on my assumptions of racism and the progression of the vice. Although white supremacy is contrary to my beliefs, as I find it irrelevant to differentiate individuals based on their skin colour, society plays a significant role in shaping my values. Most of the narratives that describe or shed light on the culture of black individuals draw attention to their high levels of violence and associate them with crime (Banks, 2018).

Particularly, the media continuously spreads news about gun violence and other vices in black-dominated communities, thus reinforcing these stereotypic notions in the minds of individuals in the general population. Therefore, although many people do not support racism against minority communities and Black Americans, their ideas about these individuals behaviours and actions toward them are implicitly biased and do not encourage equality.

Unconscious bias is detrimental to the abolition of racism and societal development because individuals who exhibit them are unaware of their behaviours. Therefore, an effective solution to curb implicit bias is creating awareness to inform the population that these factors exist and guide them on identifying and avoiding falling victim (Roberts & Rizzo, 2021). Although individuals might not know how to react in high-pressure environments, their knowledge of implicit bias will guide them to get back on track in case they are affected by stereotypic ideas of minority groups. In addition, it is necessary to regulate what people see and hear from media and entertainment companies to prevent them from spreading news or information that showcases bias against others because of their race, gender, abilities, and identifiable attributes (Banks, 2018). Continuously educating individuals and reinforcing positive societal values through the media and influential individuals can help deal with implicit racism conclusively.

Racism is a vice rooted in American History, as Europeans used white supremacy to justify atrocities against other groups. However, the phenomenon has evolved over centuries and affected individuals relations in the US as some people suffer and are marginalized more than others. In modern times, no one would want to be considered racist. Nevertheless, people engage in racist actions without their knowledge due to the ideas they get from others and narratives held by the general society. Since the media and influential individuals like political leaders play a significant role in shaping American culture, they should take the initiative to inform the population about implicit bias and create awareness on how to avoid judging others.

References

Banks, C. (2018). Disciplining Black activism: post-racial rhetoric, public memory and decorum in news media framing of the Black Lives Matter movement. Continuum, 32(6), 709-720. Web.

Roberts, S. O., & Rizzo, M. T. (2021). The psychology of American racism. American Psychologist, 76(3), 475. Web.

Riverdale was a closely-knit town composed of mostly white Americans in their population. Sure there were a few African Americans living in the town, but just like the White Man, they had mostly lived in the town for generations and got along very well. They basically did not see themselves as racist because they always shared the same interests, lifestyle, culture, and upbringing. They liked the normalcy and predictability that their small town of 1,995 enjoyed.

It gave them a sense of comfort and belonging. Then their population increased to 2,000 when the Lin family moved into town. They were a migrant family from China. The parents, Liu and Zhao moved to America to escape the harsh treatment that the Beijing government used to govern the population at the time. After the birth of their first child, a daughter, they knew that they wanted to and needed to escape from China if they wanted to escape the One Child Policy and have the happy family life they envisioned. So they moved heaven and earth in order to make their way to the land where they knew they could bank their hopes and dreams upon, America.

Choosing to settle in Riverdale after their arrival, they set about creating a family and social life for themselves in the small town. Unfortunately, the Lins were the only Chinese family living in the town. So without meaning to do so, the town put up an unseen barrier between themselves and the Lin clan. They did not know how to handle the new people nor did they understand the culture of the Chinese. For the first time in the history of Riverdale, racism existed among its population. Later on, their daughter Elizabeth was born and became the first generation Lin to be a real American citizen, her younger brother Edison also shared the honor later on.

The one thing the Lins did not let go of when they moved to America was their sense of Chinese family tradition. This was something that they did their best to instill in their children from youth and it was this strict adherence of the family to the old ways that caused problems for their children when they tried to mingle with the other children in their town. They were socially discriminated against by their peers for being too Chinese. But having grown up in America, They were also discriminated against by their own parents for being too American in their ways. Nobody felt the intense pressure of the dual racial discrimination more than Elizabeth.

Elizabeth, you have been acting too much like your classmates these days. You are starting to forget your Chinese roots. This had to go out every Friday night, you are only thirteen, this would never be allowed in China.  her mother complained while she helped the family clean up the restaurant at the end of the business day. They owned and ran the only Chinese restaurant in town.

Mother, just because we are Chinese does not mean we have to live by the old ways. We live in America now. Everything is different. the child tried to explain to her mother as she put up the chairs on the tables so she could mop the floor.

I am just saying Elizabeth, that you are beginning to become like your friends. Not serious about life. You take everything too easy when we have worked so hard to provide a better future for you. All we ask is that you honor the old ways. You should be an example to Edison.

I try to be mother, but it is hard to be an example of the old ways to Edison when the old ways do not exist where we live. she remarked.

The old ways do exist my child, within our family. All you have to do is honor it. It is our tradition. It is who we are. We are of the Chinese race. 

I know mother, I know. she beginning to feel pressured and lost again. She was in the in enviable position of having to find the perfect balance of being Chinese in an American society. The worst part of her life was that she faced discrimination from her peers and her family on a daily basis. Her family thought she was too westernized and her friends thought she was too Chinese. What was a teenager like her to do?

Since it was Friday night, she and Edison got together and went to the local movie house to catch a movie. As they passed the food court in the mall, they heard the derogatory remarks that the bullies often taunted them with.

There go the slit eyes! They heard one of the African American boys in the group call out.

Yellow skin freaks! another person, a white girl called out this time.

Their family is so weird that my mom believes they practice some sort of Chinese witchcraft. Their restaurant reeks of incense.

Elizabeth really could not understand where all their discrimination was stemming from. These people did not want to stand next to them in line at the school cafeteria, Did not speak to them in the school hall, all because they looked different from everyone else in their eyes. feeling her brother grip her hand tighter, she knew that he was being affected by what he was hearing and she knew she had to put a stop to it once and for all.

Turning around, she went back to the table where the hecklers were seated and looked each of them straight in the eyes.

Will you please stop with the discrimination? We are no different from any of you. We are all just kids out to enjoy a Friday night. Why cant we all just get along? she pleaded with them.

You are not like us. You are not Americans. Your family should go back where it came from! said Alfred, the leader of the pack, he was about 15 years old and the son of the town mayor.

Alfred, Alfred& my family is just as American as any of your families. Dont you understand? Being American is not a matter of skin color country of origin. Look, my mom says that my brother and I, we are too American and not Chinese enough. Now you are telling me we are the exact opposite of that. Is there no end to racism? Do you even understand what you are saying?

Shut up chink! Your family will never be American enough to really be true Americans. he said loudly, calling the attention of the kids at the other tables.

What is an American Alfred? Do you know? Does anybody here really know? You are judging all of us because you do not understand us. But how can you if none of you will even take the time to try? Joey, Joey here is a second generation African American. His grandparents came here from Africa, does that mean he isnt an American? Our race does not dictate who we can and cannot be. So my parents are Chinese, I am Chinese too. But I was born here, so I am a Chinese American. My brother is the same.

What you call yourself makes no difference. You are still a yellow skinned freak. Alfred insisted.

No Alfred. I am the best that my two races can be. I am a proud Chinese living in America, and I have successfully adapted the Chinese customs with my American life, even though my parents dont see it that way. There is nothing for any of you to be racial about. Dont you see? Dont you understand? We are all Americans, living in this country that we all love. Regardless of where our families originated from, we are all Americans. 

Elizabeth smiled as she explained her beliefs to the other kids. They seemed to understand what she was trying to say. Now she would go home and explain the same thing to her mother. Hopefully with even better results.

It is no secret that modern Western anthropology and related disciplines were founded by white American and European scholars, many of whom held racist views. According to Gould, &leaders and intellectuals did not doubt the propriety of racial ranking  with Indians below whites, and blacks below everybody else (63).

However, since the mid-20th century, many scientific theories that affect racial biology have been revised by a new generation of specialists. This paper will highlight the main methods of refuting the works of racist anthropologists and how they influenced the emergence of stereotypes about people of color.

Scientific Techniques in the Analysis of Prejudices and Lies

Unlike their predecessors, new anthropologists such as Gould and Stepan were free from racial prejudice. For example, Gould (86) uses comparative data analysis, bibliographic, and historical records to study the life and views of racist anthropologists and disprove and criticize their works. Stepan (360), on the other hand, approaches from a linguistic point of view, criticizing the incorrectness of analogy as a method of creating a scientific conclusion. Similar analytical work on the analysis of early anthropology made an invaluable contribution to the creation of an equal society in the last century.

The Negative Impact of Analogy in Scientific Methodology

The first approaches to the theory and practice of scientific activity were mostly primitive; therefore, they generated incorrect data and results. For example, racist stereotypes of blacks as animal beings are based on a comparison of human and ape skulls (Gould 67). Further use of the analogy in interpreting results led to the creation of an unscientific theoretical basis for the behavior of an entire group of people. A similar strategy in the field of gender research has driven to the development of negative stereotypes about women (Stepan, 361). Modern anthropology, with the help of the latest technologies, has been able to prove the wrongness and falsity of these racist and sexist studies.

Conclusion

This paper examined early racial biology through the prism of analysis of modern researchers. These specialists like Gould and Stepan, took into account the mistakes of the past and used real scientific strategies in the development of anthropological works. They also identified the origins of racial stereotypes that persist. Their works allowed me to understand that it is necessary to know the background of the authors of the studied materials to understand their relevance and competence.

Works Cited

Gould, Stephen J. The Mismeasure of Man (Revised and Expanded). W. W. Norton & Company, 2006.

Stepan, Nancy L. Race and Gender: The Role of Analogy in Science. Isis, vol.77, no. 2, 1986, pp. 360-375.

Introduction

Racism is a perversive issue in American society that impacts the interaction between people of different races. It involves structuring opportunities and attaching values based on a persons skin tone that unfairly disadvantages some individuals in the community. The vice has caused racial tension for the longest time in the country. While racism can be individualistic or institutionalized, it can be stopped by recognizing and appreciating diversity.

Discussion

Institutionalized racism refers to prejudicial policies, traditions, values, and practices an organization adopts to systematically deny opportunities or resources to members of a particular group. For instance, Harvard University has been accused of using race as an influential factor in making the admission (Lombardo, 2018). The institution has placed quotas to reduce the chances of admitting students from minority communities. Harvard University is an excellent example, but other institutions also use some tactics to enhance systemic racism. Some typical features of institutionalized racism include job discrimination, division of powers in government, and unequal access to healthcare.

On the contrary, individualistic racism is a persons beliefs, attitudes, or actions perpetuating discrimination. Individualistic racism can occur consciously or unconsciously and can be active or passive. Excellent examples of individualistic racism include the belief in white supremacy, racial jokes, employment discrimination, and personal prejudices against black people. These prejudices occur in different places, including schools, workplaces, and government offices. For example, in hospitals, a patient could refuse to be treated by a black doctor.

Nevertheless, diversity on college campuses among students, faculty, and staff is undoubtedly essential. Firstly, it eliminates racism by allowing individuals from different racial groups to interact and understand each other. Secondly, it challenges stereotypes as it gives a chance to an individual to learn about other cultures. Thirdly, diversity on college campuses helps in building social skills. Interaction with people from diverse cultures and communities allows the students to understand and appreciate cultural diversity, which is necessary for a successful career after college.

Conclusion

Overall, institutionalized and individualistic racism is a perversive issue that affects racial relations in society. It contributes to racial tension, resentment, and discrimination that adversely impacts communities. Some institutions of higher learning have been accused of enhancing racism through specific practices that lower the chances of students from targeted racial groups getting admission to the institution. Encouraging diversity in college is an influential factor in fighting against racism.

Reference

Lombardo, C. (2018). Harvard admissions secrets emerge; Defrauded borrowers can now seek loan forgiveness. NPR. Web.

Introduction

As society becomes more culturally different; communities realize the importance of collaborating with other communities to raise the volume so that their concerns are heard and addressed. To enhance the populations degree of involvement in racism, the study calls for collaboration; this can be seen as a community effort to foster a sense of teamwork (Woodly, 2021). One strategy I would employ to improve team collaboration is making sure that everyone is on the same page. This would be achieved by interacting with individuals to learn about their perspectives on racism and gauge their level of knowledge. If they still do not understand, I re-explain the subject to them.

Transformation

Education is one of the positive elements that promote change among different races. The strategy to strengthen community unity must include education in its fullest meaning. Education is crucial for economic freedom and social inclusion (Butler, 2017). However, education also significantly impacts how people view the world, how they interact with one another in their communities, and how they envision the future (Ieva & Beasley, 2022). One approach that became successful is the engagement of integrated, ethnically accepting community counselors who collaborated with individuals and leaders to promote diversity.

One element that would benefit from change is the economy. Racism has huge financial consequences because it stops people from maximizing their economic potential. Economic strength can be increased in a society with less racism. Organizing discussion boards and initiatives to raise awareness and lessen racial prejudice is one potential opportunity to eradicate racism (Gino & Coffman, 2021). To effect change, it is necessary to undertake different initiatives. This entails promoting celebrations of various cultural and ethnic groups customs. This might be accomplished by actively promoting the events and adding them to the community calendar.

Conclusion

When working with people from different cultures, it might not be easy to communicate because of differences in self-perception and racial views that have been perceived in the past. For individuals in a multicultural interaction to be successful, inclusive leadership that values diversity and manages issues and disputes must be present. The partnership stands a high chance of succeeding if the emphasis is kept on the shared objective and on giving each participant equal influence.

References

Butler, J. E. (2017). Intersectionality and liberal education. Liberal Education, 103, n3-4.

Gino, F., & Coffman, K. (2021). Unconscious bias training that works. Harvard Business Review, 99(5), 117-123.

Ieva, K., & Beasley, J. (2022). Dismantling racism through collaborative consultation: Promoting culturally affirming educator sel. Theory into Practice, 61(2), 236249. Web.

Woodly, D. R. (2021). Reckoning: Black lives matter and the democratic necessity of social movements. Oxford University Press. Web.

Discussion

The Mismeasure of Man

The chapter provides extensive evidence for the biological determinism that dominated white leadership in America. Gould (1981) cites numerous political leaders like Jefferson and Lincoln to show their discriminatory attitudes towards Black people. They justify Blacks alleged intellectual, emotional, and social inferiority as a natural consequence of their descent, putting white people in a position of power. The examples of such thinking made me realize that biological determinism, or finding false evidence for a races inferiority in pseudo-science, is extremely damaging and has been used for centuries to repress African-Americans.

Exploited in Life and Death, South African to Go Home

The article tells a story about an African woman, Saartkie Baartman, who was deceived into serving as living evidence of biological determinism in early 19th century Europe. Daley (2002) narrates how the woman was lured into the European freak circus and has been displayed to the public. Her unusual body and genital composition were non-consensually put on display both pre-and post-mortem and ridiculed as proof for the animal inferior nature of Blacks. Even after her death, her body parts were exhibited in a museum. This story is shocking since she was unofficially enslaved as a living spectacle of biological determinism, which reinforced the idea that White people are superior to others.

Lynch Law in Georgia, Chapter 2: Tortured and Burned Alive

The chapter narrates one of the lynching cases that happened in the United States as a result of racism. According to Wells (1899), a murderer Samuel Wilkes was on the run when the local press, Atlanta Constitution, started to publish follow-ups to the case and provoked people to unlawful punishment. The proposed burning of the suspect alive was mentioned and reinforced multiple times throughout numerous articles, which resulted in Hoses actual lynching once he was found. This example shows that when fueled by the press and normalized in society, discrimination can reach the extremes of violence.

A Litany of Atlanta

This reading provides a unique example of the defense of the African-American population. Unlike many other thinkers of the time, Dubois (2020) brings up the religious and historical context of racial discrimination in America. He documents numerous cases related to the violence imposed onto the Black population and urges for a political and legal change to implement racial equality. Although the religious undertones make the litany appeal to the public, it still presents an unpopular argument for equality and the end of discrimination, which is surprising for the time.

Groundings with My Brothers: Chapter 1-2

Both chapters serve as a premise to the following arguments in the book, arguing that White power is still dominant in the contemporary world, and give context to the broader scale of oppression worldwide. What I found remarkable about this reading is that the author acknowledges not only the Black population as the most oppressed, but also addresses the discrimination that all non-whites like Asians and Latinos face. Rodney (2019) states that unless people are white, they are automatically considered colored or black, which denies them the opportunity to be equal in a predominantly white society. This concept is evident in the modern migration, housing, and law regulations, which proves that Roneys point is valid and needs to be fought with Black power.

A Southern Womans View

The article narrates the anxieties that a regular Southern woman experienced and contrasts the beliefs of the South with the equality of the North. The author expresses her fear of Black men and their families and stresses the need for segregation due to inherent, fundamental discrepancies between White and Black people. Harris (1989) writes that no female is safe alone because she feels threatened by Black men. This historical article shows how the African-American population was villainized and labeled as animal-like without acknowledging that their social status could be the source of such criminal behavior. Ignorance and desperate seeking of justification of White power is apparent from the article and seems to be normalized for the historic period.

References

Daley, S. (2002). Exploited in life and death, South African to go home. New York Times. Web.

Dubois, W. E. B. (2020). A litany of Atlanta. In J. Benjamin (Ed.), Race and ethnicity: difference and decolonization (pp. 77-80). Kendall Hunt Publishing.

Gould, S. J. (1981). The Mismeasure of Man. Norton and Co.

Harris, C. (1898). A Southern womans view. The Independent, 1354-1355.

Rodney, W. (2019). Groundings with My Brothers. Verso Books.

Wells, I. B. (1899). Lynch law in Georgia: Tortured and burned alive. Hierographics.