Category: Racial Segregation

Racial Passing from the twentieth century is still relevant in today’s America. People of black ancestry racially passing as white still do it because they still reap from the benefits of doing so. A common phrase in the Caribbean about racial passing is, ‘it is a mixture of what you gain by being white and what you lose from being a colored person’. Due to the racism that was alive during the twentieth century and today, being black was a burden and those who could pass as white did. Being black had huge disadvantages for people that identify as such, both had to deal with psychological discrimination built on centuries of oppression and the consequences of the oppression that they life with today. In addition, the opposite was also true for colored people trying to pass. Being white came with huge benefits, by being white colored people could immediately run away from the burdens that came with being black and you got the advantages of a white person like education and overall just more opportunities. However, depending on what they identified with came two completely different worlds. If they choose to identify with white people, they get the American dream, with all the necessaries to be happy. While if they had dared to stay black even though it came with an amazing culture it also came with years of deterioration in the entire community.

America has not been very kind to black people, they have been brutal to them in fact. The Reconstruction era during America did not put any effort into helping the black community (proof) and ended it early since it was not of much of significance to the elites in America. After the Civil War the damage of slavery had taken a significant toll on black people.

America “freed” black people that spent their whole lives as slaves and built the black community as people on that shaky foundation. White people at the time barely followed the new amendments and this one was no different. White people used this as an advantage for them, since black people did not know any better, they continued to treat them as slaves with, “mild” changes. This system was also known as the Black codes to keep black people under slavery of a different name. As said by Fredrick Douglass, “{The Black man} is free from the individual master but a slave of society. He had neither money, property, nor friends. He was free from the old plantation, but he had nothing but the dusty road under his feet. He was free from the old quarter that once gave him shelter, but a slave to the rains of summer and the frosts of winter. He was turned loose, naked, hungry, and destitute to the open sky” . Racism was still at an all-time high after the civil wall with the creation or many anti-Black groups, violence and the refusal of many white people to give black people land.

Being Black in America means being a second-class citizen, which is why most people that could pass as white did and still do. However, the colored persons that could pass but decided to stay black faced many prejudices. Being Black was the worst thing you could because of everything you lost by being Black, even your humanity, “And this is the dwarfing, warping, distorting influence which operates upon each colored man…He is forced to take his outlook on all things, not from the viewpoint of a citizen, or a man, nor even a human being, but from the viewpoint of a colored man ” . In addition, black people have missed out on job opportunities, education and so much more. White Passing black people lived in the fear of their past coming back to the surface because of what they could lose. For example, Alexander Manly a white passing black person trying to find a job, “he struggled to find work at first; when employers found out that he was black, they insisted that they could not hire him because of union restrictions.” Many people that passed as white lived in fear of getting exposed of “coming out” as black and getting there whole new life destroyed and being judged and not accepted by the white or black people in America .

Being White in America is the definition of having the odds stacked in your favor. Many people who passed as white gained many advantages like education, more job opportunity and housing and over all a new start at life. An example of people that just moved and left their old life behind was Lukasik’s mother who “left New Orleans and went on the other side” . People who passed as white go on to life a totally different lifestyle if they reap the benefits of being white, for example “My boy, you are by blood, by appearing, by education and by tastes, a white man. Now why do you want to throw your life away amidst the poverty and ignorance, in the hopeless struggle of the black people of the United States?”. Family offend encouraged the white passing by when having white passing children they would separate themselves from the child so the child could reap from white privilege, this is evident in Carol’s memoir, when her father’s black mother separates herself from her son when he’s in school in a white neighborhood so the people in the neighborhood do not get think of the child as suspect .

Racial passing that was used in the twentieth century is still very relevant in today’s America. The reason for racial passing is still due to the superiority white people have had in America and the inferiority that was been pivalate within the black community from the past and to this day. Even during the start of Black people’s freedom white people were still in control of what black people got to have, especially property . Racial Passing is still prevalent in the twenty first century because of the years of damage on the black community is still there and the people that pass as white do not want to be associated with the damage. However racial passing in the during the twenty first century is less of a justification recently since a lot has changed since the twentieth century in ways of thinking, and socially in America. Since the end of slavery and segregation and the laws preluding them the need of. As laws changed ideology of less racist thoughts followed. In addition, many programs have been made to help out the black communities and have successes in their goal.

Introduction

Through exploration of spatial histories, it is evident that architecture habitually materialises and epitomizes the configurations of power, including racialized power (Brown, 2019). This is executed by creating built opportunities for racism to exercise itself, in this case, through the American and South African built environment. Hence, at the core of the publicised signage that delineate boundaries between black and white space, coloured waiting rooms and separate water fountains of the Jim Crow Era, is American architectural form that echoes white supremacy, particularly during the 1870s to 1960s (Weyeneth, 2019). This notion resonated over 12000 kilometres away, with the South African community during a similar period of race-based oppression; the Apartheid, where architecture played a distinctive role of defining and manifesting white superiority (Manning, 2004). Comparing geographic contexts through their individual history, race-space relation and spatialised expression, provides opportunity to obtain a deeper understanding on the power of built form, connecting architecture of injustice from diverse cultures. Despite simultaneously constituting racial segregation in the past, American and South African architecture, differ in the extent of manifesting preceding racial ideologies through modern architecture.

Examining Origins: History, roots and geography

America vs South Africa

Considering the American timeline, a period which altered the discourse of spatial histories to constitute discrimination against African Americans is the Jim Crow Era. This era facilitated the practises and legislations that reinforced spatial segregation heightened through spatial strategies of white supremacy (Robinson, 2005). From the end of Reconstruction to the commencement of the Civil Rights Movement southern state laws that ordered separation between whites and ‘persons of colour’ were constituted (Urofsky, 2019). Segregation was materialised at every architectural scale, particularly down South, although the North of America also preserved tenacious distance between races (Mele & Adelman, date). Disconnection filtered through all public spaces from parks to restaurants, to the extent that physical distinction was prodigal as ‘races knew their subordinate place’ (Urofsy, 2019). After many decades, the South’s solution to this issue was for spaces to be ‘separate but equal’; an impractical enforcement (Urofsy, 2019).

Coherently, power was entertained by South African society well after the British imperial emancipation of 1834; the Cape Colony ended slavery (Smith, 1992). Segregation can be detected in even the meaning of the word ‘Apartheid’ which translates in Afrikaans to ‘Apartness’ (Social Policy, 2019). The Apartheid is a policy that governs ‘relationships between South Africa’s white minority and none white majority’ (Social Policy,2019). The difference here lies in the population of both races, as America comprised mostly of ‘white’ people, regardless, white superiority remained at the forefront of both geographies. The distinctive timeline of both America and South Africa were almost parallel in enforcement of exclusive laws, demonstration through architecture and oppression of ‘people of colour.’

Impacts and Prevalence Today

Travelling down histories course, the past is commonly blurred, hence the domination of architecture is simultaneously forgotten. Post the Jim Crow and Apartheid Era, the expectation would be for immense change and new beginnings however, this is necessarily not the case. Aligning with segregation of African American’s in American public spaces, figure 5 captures the Montpelier Train Deport in Virginia when laws prevented cross-race mingling in 1910 (Tribune News Service, 2016). During a 2010 renovation, preservationists decided to maintain rooms and signage. These elements were preserved to exhibit the legal history of ‘separate but equal’ laws, effects on black residents and to continue the dialog of architecture and race, with similar approaches undertaken in Post- Apartheid architecture (Edwards, 2010).

America vs South Africa

Architecture can be referred to as an instrument of domination and in Americas context fulfilled the intention of excluding African Americans (Lambert, 2016). Suzan Smith, University of Cambridge geographer’s definition of ‘racialized spaces’ is characterised by two major distinctions: firstly, space is not limited to city scales consisting of large buildings and neighbourhood blocks but incorporates all built space and secondly, these spaces are regarded ‘socially produced space’(Brown, 2019). Hence, when considering this approach where race is the focus of analysis in ‘critiquing production and perception of space,’ it is essential to understand race, to recognize spatialization of it (Brown, 2019). The following is a definition of race presented by Michael Omi and Howard Winant, most commonly used by scholars : “race is a concept which signifies and symbolizes social conflicts and interests by referring to different types of human bodies (Harris, 2013)”

When applying this definition to the context of racializing architectural space, the understanding of race is shaped by ‘political, economic, social and psychological concepts of space and race’ (Brown, 2019). Western culture is historically idealised and thus, the construction of white spatial dwelling is considered privileged. In contrast to non-white space that is considered impoverished and dirty (Brown, 2019).

Most prevalent of these methods was isolation; spaces designed to keep whites and blacks apart. Although ‘exclusion,’ restricting African Americans’ use of public facilities, has been publicised through the famous “white only” signs, ‘duplication’ was a widespread form of separation (Weyeneth, 2019). Duplication is establishing facilities for people of colour to dwell in, separate from white spaces. These buildings came following the 1945 legislation that demanded equality, however this was largely contradicted. For example, in South Carolina in the 1930s, fifty white families were located in single-standing housing at the top of a slope facing a segregated university (Weyeneth, 2019). On the same site, seventy-five black families occupied houses in rows downhill, in front of a black high school. Despite existing on the same plain, African American residents were given less space, worse housing area and crammed housing, however this was normalised.

Similarly, through hundreds of years of colonialism in South Africa and the Apartheid, false ideology of white superiority was internalised; to embrace white not black, English over Afrikaans. Parallel to the Jim Crow Era, the Apartheid manipulated space, using it as part of ‘repressive arsenal’ against black South Africans (Soni, 1992). With the objective of displaying wealth and minimising space for social interaction, the environment of South African architecture morphed into a ‘surreal dystopian environment’ that promoted self-interest and segregation with the physical resemblance of Eurocentric spaces, yielding anti-African value (Soni, 1992). The social theory of ‘structuration’ of society is regarded as prominent to spatial and temporal contexts by sociologists. The underlying concept of structuration theory is power exercised through objects and people. The ‘syntactic’ properties, such as ‘depth’ and ‘choice,’ is a way which relationships are embodied in spatial layouts.

Impacts and Prevalence Today

As a result of exclusivity in the Jim Crow Era, hubs for African American’s to congregate arose across the country, one of these was the Keese Barn in Pendleton, South Carolina (Edwards, 2010). Namely, towards the south of America, interactions were controlled by boundaries of the space. Such boundaries, considering architecture suggests a certain ‘extent of physicality’ (Edward,2010). However, when designing a space, the following attributes were to mirror the power structure of the law; methods of access, functional uses and spatial limitations. The Barn reflected these constraints in a unique, manipulative manner. An example of such space is the second floor of the barn; a congregation space for all races to interact, simultaneously following law by creating separate access points (Edward,2010). One access point was central and another hidden; the architectural design reversed roles as the ‘white’ entrance was hidden, contrary to typical Jim Crow buildings. After Brown v Board of Education where the court un-constitutionalised segregation, Keese Barn depreciated thru period of social and legal change. Driven by the mission to stop segregation, there were efforts during Jim Crow to accommodate interaction between races, however these attempts were largely unsuccessful.

America vs South Africa

Architectural design embodied racial boundaries that surpass the unequivocal indictors such as signage (Robinson, 2005). During instances where no law governed spatial segregation, racial boundaries where marked and defined by de facto, as a result of the following:

1. Customary practises
2. Visual and behavioural cues

Investigating beyond signage, residential housing offered grounds for segregation, secured through efforts on behalf of whites to exclude black households (Mele and Adelman, 2014). Historically, homeownership is regarded an integral symbol of belonging, wealth and achievement (Robinson, 2005). Historian, David Freund evidently concluded that many advocates of exclusion used the terms ‘citizen,’ ‘voter,’ ‘homeowner’ and ‘white’ interchangeably (Robinson, 2005). Thus, throughout metropolitan areas across America, white homeowners legally entered into ‘racially restrictive covenant’(Mele and Adelman, 2014). When analysing the single-story home of Rudy and Eva Weingarten in the San Fernando Valley of South Los Angeles in 1955, segregation can be detected (Harris, 2013). Despite the area being unrestricted to people of colour, no Latino’s or African Americans occupied the space, during the early years and builders abided by racially exclusive practises in order to seal federal financing. As uncovered in Laura Barraclough’s study of San Fernando Valley; a mere 3.3% of ‘subsidized’ suburban housing units constructed in the 1950s were obtainable by African Americans. Entertaining the fact that the San Fernando Valley by 1950s comprised of 22000 Jews and only 5000 African Americans. White privilege entails spatialised set of practises; freedom of geographical movement, property rights (Harris, 2013).

In South Africa, despite the most aspired architecture being detached single-standing houses, elevated with swimming pools and high walls, the African American residential circumstance was far from it (Soni, 1992). The material expression has been fuelled through history by power relationships between dominant and dominated classes, hence two institutionalised systems of control; Bantustan and township (Mills, 1989). The orthodox township originated in 1946 when companies collaborated with the council to mirror low-income sector easy, affordable housing. The outcome was now NE/51/6 AND NE/51/9 only free-standing designs & with two rectangular side spaces, generating ‘paper-like’ urban plan (Soni, 1992). Under architect P.W Botha, in April 1979 an initiative took place to reform a township to build around 2500 houses for legal residents, with only two-thirds of that amount built, cultural need for housing heightened for the so-called ‘coloured’ (Soni, 1992).

Through the Khayelitsha proposal many developments diverged from original policy. Khayelitsha was situated on landscapes with unfavourably low-lying sand dunes and high winds. Establishing Khayelitsha reflected revised approach, different from Bantustans, which halted ‘black’ settlement within ‘white’ regions.

Impacts and Prevalence Today

In South Africa, post-apartheid in 1994, the mission to create a new identity resulted in the “Rainbow Nation” idea, which envisioned a ‘multicultural, reconciled’ society (De Raedt, 2012). As architecture is pivotal in manifesting this identity by physically reflecting transformations, the country witnessed a building boom (De Raedt, 2012). Despite these efforts in the past, recent photography uncovers the clear persistence of inequality exaggerated in the countries capital of Cape Town (Chutel, 2016). Figure 12, captures this distinction with white privileged housing located on the left and township-like, close-net housing to the right. Hence, it can be concluded that the South African built environment carries racially segregating architecture.

Conclusion

Hence, architecture as a ‘domination’ has played a significant role in physically manifesting the racial ideologies, behaviours and motifs throughout history. Whilst American and South African architecture constituted racial segregation in the past, they differ in the extent of manifesting preceding racial ideologies through modern architecture. Today, both geographical contexts have taken a new approach to architecture through urbanisation, however the social, cultural and environmental impacts continue today with Jim Crow and Apartheid architecture prevalent today. However, American architecture simultaneously takes a focus on preserving moments of segregation through spaces for the purpose of education. Nonetheless, although American and South African society differ in the extent of manifesting previous ideologies today it is clear that architecture plays an integral role in promoting the values, attitudes and beliefs of society.

In this essay I will be using different types of evidence to support the claim that segregation in cities creates connections and disconnections. I will start the essay by defining what is meant by segregation then I will outline examples of different types of segregation such as class, racial and sectarian and provide examples of how in these communities’ people feel connected and disconnected.

Segregation is the act of separating someone or something from others, it refers to boundaries that are built both physical, like the ‘peace walls’ in Northern Ireland and social, like the wealthy living unaware of the poor in nineteenth century Manchester. In many cities throughout the world segregation has become a part of urban life. Mike Davis explains how LA is a city where well-to-do residents of west LA are able to ignore the poverty of east and southern LA due to elevated freeways. By building physical or social boundaries communities often become connected through senses of similarity such as their sense of belonging or identity. In contrast to this, disconnection is something that can also be felt by residents. By building barriers people can feel disconnected from other communities by social division, distance and even in cases of inequality. Segregation can come in many forms from processes both formal such as, urban planning and state intervention, to informal, by ordinary residents (Dixon and Hinchcliffe, 2014, p95). This is something that will be discussed throughout the essay.

Engels wrote a detailed account of the uneven social geography within Manchester. In this, Engels depicts urban industrial life and the dismay it involved commenting on the pain and suffering of the lower classes to fill the pockets of the wealthy (Engels (1969 [1845]) cited in Dixon and Hinchliffe (2014), p88). Throughout his research on the social geography in Manchester, Engels analysed two streets. First, he looked at a street occupied by workers and poorer citizens within the ‘inner ring’ of the city as seen in figures 3.1 (Dixon and Hinchliffe, 2014, p89) and 3.2 (Engels (1969 [1845]) cited in Dixon and Hinchliffe (2014), p90). Engels then looked at a street acting as a thoroughfare, a way for the wealthier people in society to access the city from suburban areas by avoiding the sights of the poverty around them. In analysing these two streets Engels created qualitative evidence that supported the idea of divisions within society. Barriers such as shop fronts and walls meant those in society that gained from the growth of urbanisation and manufacturing could stay nonchalant about being surrounded by poverty, remain disconnected from the working class in both physical and mental ways (Dixon and Hinchliffe, 2014, p91). Today, regeneration officers have been appointed with the aim of developing mixed housing to integrate people, creating connections between people from different social classes like in Portland Road, London (Blakeley and Evans, 2013, p10) cited in Dixon and Hinchliffe (2014, p92). Portland Road residents are from different class backgrounds giving an example of how class division is being minimised because of mixed housing (The Open University, 2019).

Racial segregation is where connections and disconnections can be seen between communities due to separation. Groups from the same racial backgrounds can form a connection through a shared identity but form a disconnection from members of other racial backgrounds. Examples of this can be seen from the Jim Crow era in the southern states of USA and the apartheid era in South Africa. Both of these eras are examples of how segregation can become a formal process and implemented by laws. These laws were able to dictate who could form a relationship with who, where someone could go to school and even what entrance to a building a person could use (Dixon and Hinchliffe, 2014, p96).

Self-segregation is an informal process being made by individuals out of choice. For example, the research carried out by Atkinson showing that more than 1000 communities of self-segregating residents were in existence with more being planned due to the interest from young professionals (Atkinson, 2003 cited in Dixon and Hinchliffe, 2014, p96). The heightened media coverage the Muslim community received following trouble in towns in northern England, 2001 and again in 2005 following the London bombings can create tensions and concerns from people belonging to different racial backgrounds creating a disconnection. Claims made by the Cantle Report and the Ouseley report suggest contact between multiple ethnic communities in towns such as Bradford was minimal, causing a disconnection between different racial groups but as was the case in the USA and South Africa this could lead to a heightened sense of identity and connection with people from the same racial group. Samad argues this disconnection was created due to economic inequalities and marginalisation not ethnic segregation (Samad 2013, p276 cited in Dixon and Hinchliffe, 2014, p96).

Sectarian segregation in Northern Irelands capital of Belfast is the last area of segregation to look at. As you can see from figure 3.6 (Dixon and Hinchliffe, 2014, p101 Source: Northern Ireland census 2001, in NISRA, 2014) the scattering of Catholic and Protestant residents is across much of the city, this figure gives us a glimpse of the residential segregation in the city. The physical presence of barriers or ‘peace walls’ were built in order to cease violence between communities and bring about peace. This idea is shared not only between government officials but also by residents. A survey in 2008 revealed there was ‘strong agreement that walls help residents feel safer by keeping communities separated’ (Macaulay, 2008 cited in Dixon and Hinchliffe, 2014, p103). This view can have a damaging effect on future generations as negative attitudes towards members of other communities can persist and worsen over time. Examples can be seen in the research by Braddock (1980) and Braddock and McPartland (1989) which tells us a lack of contact with other communities in schools leads to lack of contact later in life (cited in Dixon and Hinchliffe, 2014, p106). Research by Dawkins (2005) cited in Dixon and Hinchliffe (2014, p106) shows evidence that parental lack of contact with other communities can influence where children choose to live later in life, reinforcing residential segregation. Segregation in Belfast has become a part of everyday life and with the disconnection from other communities comes a strengthened connection of group identity within the same community. This type of connection to group identity can be seen from the numerous murals graffitied throughout the city for example figure 3.9 shows a loyalist wall mural (Dixon and Hinchliffe, 2014, p112). While being a way of expressing values and culture murals also act as a way of intimidation and are seen as violent by members of the communities they are aimed at engaging. This could lead to a breakdown of connection within communities for people who do not have the same ‘extremist’ views.

Efforts are being made to create connections between segregated communities, from replacing murals of conflict to ones celebrating positive themes under the ‘Reimagining communities’ scheme launched by the local government to the dismantling and creation of common public space under the ‘One Belfast’ project which aims to encourage residents of Belfast to interact with communities outside of theirs. Further attempts are being made such as the Skegnoniell Glandore common purpose project (SGCPP). The purpose of this project is to bring people together to make connections on common ground such as after-school clubs or parent-toddler classes (The Open University, 2019).

In conclusion there appears to be a large amount of qualitative and quantitative evidence to suggest segregation has the ability to form both connections and disconnections. With this evidence there is a strong argument that both connections and disconnections are made by segregation. Connections are formed, in all cases through a heightened sense of identity or belonging, a collective group have a shared purpose. Disconnections are formed from the lack of contact people have outside of their community. This persists overtime as children can be influenced by their parents causing lack of interaction later in life with people from other backgrounds.

Everyone at some point in their life has to move, it can either be for university or for work-related purposes. There are many elements a person considers when it comes to deciding where they would want to rent/buy a house. These elements could be the closeness to their work building, the rate of crime, the price of the house, or even the education of their children. This often leads to the concept of racial segregation, from employment, to marriage, to residential segregation. The residential segregation, in particular, consists in a social phenomena. This phenomenon illustrates the concept of spatial separation of two (or more) different ethnic groups, inside a specific geographic area (such as a city or a town). In the past century, this phenomena was researched very much, in order to understand how it influences the society we live in. This essay will focus on critically examining the perspective offered by Schelling’s model of residential segregation. It will also analyze Milton Friedman’s methodological viewpoint about the reality of assumption, and how it can be applied towards Schelling’s agent-based computational model. It will also provide other experts’ (David R. Harris’s, Steve Bruce, William A. V. Clark and Mark Fossett) points of view regarding the matter, and also, to help the reader understand better the social phenomena. Since people choose their neighborhood that best fits their needs, and rarely they choose it based solely on one factor, like ethnicity or race. Hence, the purpose of the essay is to argue that residential segregation does exist, but it should not be viewed as a social issue.

The American economist professor Thomas Schelling was awarded a Nobel Prize in 2005 for The Strategy of Conflict, in which he discusses the issue with residential segregation. In his theory, he analyzes how the individual tendency to choose a neighborhood can lead to residential segregation. It’s important to point out that the Schelling model was published in 1969. The 60s were for the United States of America a time full of social changes. During this time a man named Martin Luther King, Junior made an everlasting impact to society with his I have a Dream speech, and also became the leader of the civil rights movement that fought to eliminate the black segregation movement in the United States. Thus, due to the time period in which Schelling lived in, the reader understands why the professor, in his model, decided to focus only on the residential segregation that occurs between black and white people.

In order to explain his theory, Schelling placed pennies and dimes in a different pattern on a board; the pennies and dimes both represented different individuals. He would then let them be free to move wherever they desired, based upon their own happiness. Anyone who would relocate would gain neighbors, like himself, but would also create the opposite color to the unlike neighbors he acquires. With this model, Schelling proved how there would be an inevitable chain of reaction, every time someone would relocate; since they would affect not only their new environment but also the other environment they are leaving behind. Schelling points out, “Everybody who selects a new environment affects the environments of those he leaves and those he moves among. There is a chain of reaction” (Schelling, 1969: 150). This would often lead to separation. The model demonstrates that an individual’s choice of any type (such as ethnicity, race or income) would become part of a wider phenomena. However, since this process is so vast, one can see how hard it is to distinguish organized segregation from undirected individual choice. With this in mind, the reader should wonder if the phenomena should be considered segregation or aggregation. It’s important to understand that, the pennies don’t necessarily move because they dislike the dimes. There are many factors that could influence an individual’s choice. Thus, making it hard to determine which exact motivation regulates the instruction and the process of residential segregation.

(The )Professor David R. Harris at the University of Michigan in American Sociological Review highlights that there is a clear difference between discrimination and racial proxies due to their different implications for integration policy. Harris writes,“(. . .)between pure discrimination and racial proxies because the two have distinct implications for integration policy” (Harris, 1999: 462). Harris’s study (1999) tries to show that if pennies avoid dimes because of their silver color, then stable integration is unlikely to happen. Whereas, if pennies avoid dimes because of their characteristics associated with being silver, then stable integration is most likely to occur. In order to prove his point, Harris (1999) first considers the actual race factor. Then he asses several factors that are not related to actual ethnicity, but the percentage of people that don’t have college degrees, unemployment, and poverty. The hedonic price analysis makes the Professor Harris arrived to(or at/in) the conclusion that in less integrated areas people prefer to live among well-educated individuals; which tends to be more popular with Caucasian individuals. Harris writes,“(. . .)housing is more valuable in less integrated neighborhoods largely because people prefer well-educated, affluent neighbors, and each of traits is more prevalent among whites than among blacks” (Harris, 1999: 472). Therefore, the choice an individual makes when living in a neighborhood is not affected by the race factor, but more likely by the socio-economic factors.

Given the following information, the reader can understand that the term “segregation” is somewhat incorrect. The separation is not enforced by anyone or by any specific racial group. Humans have always been ethnocentric, they tend to find like-minded individuals that share their same culture, race, and income. Nevertheless, people tend to surround themselves by people who share their same culture, race, and income; these factors are not necessarily connected to racial segregation. Like Harris has proved, race is not a real factor an individual actually looks at.

Additionality as analyzed by the international sociologist of religion Steve Bruce in his book Sociology: a very short introduction, the school environment plays a really crucial role for a child when it comes to determining what kind of person they will become. The sociologist observed that schools that were found in middle-class districts tended to have better teachers, great academic scores, and a great discipline was taught there for the children that went there. He wrote, “School in middle-class area tend to attract better teachers and gain reputations for good discipline and good exam results” (Bruce, 1999: 43). This demonstrates how what kind of education one might receive based upon where they live. For example, it is not a coincidence, that the best primary school in London, according to the website London Pre-Pre, are located in the most expensive area of the city, such as Chelsea and Kensington. Therefore, the reader should have now understood that, on choosing where to live, there are factors that matter more than just the ethnicity of the district; showing once again why this the phenomena should not be seen as racial discrimination.

The American economist professor Thomas Schelling used his model of segregation to try and understand how individual preferences could lead to residential segregation. However, the model that Schelling used was a bit flawed. When Schelling looked into individual preferences deeper, he only focused on the race; and paid less attention to the social and economic factors within the neighborhoods. Schelling writes,“(. . .)preference have complex origins and emerge from the social psychology, group dynamics, and history of racial and ethnic relations” (cited in Clark & Fossett, 2008: 4109). Therefore, this may make the reader question the validity of Schelling’s model. In fact, the American economist Milton Friedman believed that a theory is more believable when it can be applied to a larger audience. Friedman states, “(. . . )it is a part of a more general theory that applies to a wider variety of phenomena” (cited in Michael & Lee C: 655). Hence, if one considers Friedman’s idea of considering the validation of a hypothesis and apply it to the Schelling model, the reader can understand that the residential segregation does exist. However, it doesn’t mean that the racial segregation always has to do with the race or ethnicity of a person, but simply the preferences of an individual. The individual would prefer living with people who share similar group identities and culture.

In addition to, The American economist Milton Friedman believes that the absolute goal of a great theory or hypothesis is that its predictions are not only legitimate but that it can most likely happen. Friedman states, “The ultimate goal of a positive science is the development of a ‘theory’ or ‘hypothesis’ that yields valid and meaningful predictions about phenomena not yet observed” (cited in Michael & Lee C, 1994: 649). In order for a hypothesis or theory to be considered accurate, it has to follow specific criteria that helps(?) showcase its’ actual validity. Friedman also argued that the only way to see if a hypothesis is legitimate, is by comparing its prediction with the actual experience, the evidence. Friedman says, “The hypothesis is rejected if its prediction are contradicted; it is accepted if its predictions are not contradicted.” (cited in Michael & Lee C, 1994: 650). Referring to Schelling’s model, his hypothesis that the individual’s preferences can lead to segregation is accepted since the prediction are not contradicted. However, the model has some loopholes because in Schelling’s hypothesis, he believes that an individual’s choice is related to only one factor (ethnicity) without looking into other parts of the entire background of the person. Thus, the reader by looking at all the elements in which they can influence the decision of where to move, Schelling’s model would be rejected since his prediction would be contradicted by all the other factors present.

Furthermore, William A. V. Clark a professor at UCLA and Mark Fossett the Sociology professor wrote in their article Understanding the social context of the Schelling segregation model their conclusion about Schelling’s model. They analyze how his model is clearly not stable, due to the fact that he only focuses on one element, in this case he talks about the ethnicity of the people, without taking under consideration any of the other factors. The hypothesis is that white people don’t live in neighborhoods with black people because they’re black. This is considered false since this does not really affect the choice that an individual makes when it comes to deciding where they should live. Whereas on the other hand, Schelling’s hypothesis in which the individual’s choice does not affect the bigger picture is “confirmed” by his data. The prediction in one hand cannot be proved, however at the same time it cannot be disproved, and this, as Friedman stated, means that it does have valid predictions. Therefore Schelling’s model *

In conclusion to, residential segregation does exist, but it should not be viewed as a social issue. Persay the reader looks at the map of a big city, like Detroit, which is clearly divided by the 8-mile road. It is evident to the reader that residential segregation exists. Like Schelling demonstrated in his model, even if an individual may call themselves tolerant, in the end, the choice of neighbors isn’t up to him. Since Schelling stated that it is not a choice made by an individual, but by the neighborhood community itself. In order to find an environment that will satisfy everyone, residential segregation must exist. He wrote, “Thus it is not the case that ‘greater tolerance’ always increases the likelihood of a stable mixture—not if ‘greater tol­erance’ means only that within a given population some mem­bers are statistically replaced by others more tolerant. On the contrary, replacing the two-thirds least tolerant whites (. . .) by even less tolerant whites keeps the whites from overwhelming the blacks by their numbers” (Schelling; 1969: 163). If the residential segregation is not organized, then the result of residential segregation would be viewed as the undirected individual choice. Thus, the decision of creating a segregated neighborhood is not made on racial or ethnicity issues; but it is the consequence of a range of different factors that play into making up the group of people found in the community. Therefore, residential segregation should not be seen as a social issue.

What are the causes of racism?

Although racism is a dreadful concern of the modern era, it was built a long time ago. Racism is just unjust hate for any people who are simply different for any array of reasons. To be frank, racism still exists in every culture all around the world and the aftermath is unfortunate. Most people are still uncertain about the major cause of racism and admit themselves as not racist but their actions are proving another way around. An ordinary human can encounter racism in his daily life without any age limit and the worst part is some people don’t even know that they are doing it, often thinking that it is just prevalent behavior. Once, Pierre Berton -a noted Canadian author once quoted that “Racism is a refuge for the ignorant. It seeks to destroy. It is the enemy of freedom, and it deserves to be met head-on and stamped out”. The causes of racism are varied but the common ones are supremacist thinking, economic tension, and antagonization of races

First and foremost, the main cause of racism is supremacist thinking or behavior where one has traditionally given privilege within a particular society who poses as a majority might have a sense of pride that they are the superior race and that people of another kind should not be treated equally as they are prejudice. Thus, the people who haven’t been given the privilege might feel inferior, mistrusting the dominant society in which they live. For an instance, in Maryland they found that a sign advertising Spanish services had been ripped and vandalized with the words, “TRUMP NATION WHITES ONLY.” (Rielly, Katie) This clearly emphasizes that white people who are imposed as a superior race try to oppress the minority ‘Black’ just because they often regard themselves as superior and the non-white should not be treated equally. Moreover, supremacist thinking often leads to inequality among people of multiple races where they often regard that the minority should not receive the same benefits as the majority where the well-being of the minority should be restricted and controlled. For an instance, in Wilmington, North Carolina African Americans have been fighting for their right to exist in the port city when the white authorities stripped away black people’s rights to vote and hold office through deadly force. (Mock, Brentin) In fact, these reasons clearly bolster that the supremacist thinking or behaviour of certain individuals often leads to racism where the racial groups possessing who were deemed to be inferior often find themselves excluded or oppressed and this is where racism is born.

Moreover, the second major cause of racism is economic tension as the country might face downfall in terms of economics and they try to oppress certain ethnic groups to prevent them from cultivating the benefits. Moreover, this leads to double standards of rules for different groups of people so that the minority will not get the benefits from it. For example, there is an increase anti-Hispanic racism when the North American economy and the NAFTA North American trade agreement made an agreement to double the standard of their rules such as the U.S. corporations can move factories from the U.S. into Mexico, to cut production costs. This leads to Mexican workers having few jobs, and they are paid poorly and have few benefits. Furthermore, heavily subsidized U.S grown grains can be sold at a very low price in Mexico, and this can make the Mexicans go bankrupt. (Goodrich Barbara) In addition to this, economic tension also often causes inequality in employment rate and median household as one may favor one group of people over others which indirectly leads to racism. For an instance, white applicants received on average 36 percent more callbacks than equally qualified African-Americans. This indirectly leads to the wealth of the median black household declining 75 percent and the median Latino household declining 50 percent compare to those of White Americans. ( Goodrich, Barbara)This data clearly emphasizes that economic tension often leads the authority to be biased towards a certain group of people so that the well-being of the minority will be restricted and they will not get to cultivate the benefits from it and this as a result will lead to dissatisfaction among people of different race and leads to racism.

Furthermore, the third major cause of racism is the antagonization of races by reducing and generalizing perpetrators to a certain race. For an instance, there are re-education camps in Xinjiang, China with an estimated 1 million ethnic Uighurs and Turkic people being held where they are traditionally Muslim minorities, and they are generalized as a major threat because of Islamic terrorism. (Goldberg, Jonah) Thus, highlighting people of a particular race as criminals or offenses often leads to multifaceted ramifications as it labels an entire race as awful. Besides that, antagonization of races leads to stereotyping people based on the individual or actual events that have occurred in the past. This might create an unwanted brawl between people of two different races as one may judge another based on their knowledge or past experience. For example, stereotyping black people as the main perpetrators of crimes might lead to dissatisfaction among the people of the black community. This statement is further strengthened by the statistics that black people were also more likely to fall victim to crime than white people, with nearly one in five being hit by crime in 2015-16, compared with those white people. (Bulman, May) The prevalent behaviour of people to antagonize certain people just because of their skin color leads to racism where the consequences are appalling.

As a conclusion, racism meant that based on the idea that some inherited characteristics such as skin color comes in different form and can be seen in different ways sadly racism continues to show up all over the country sometimes being worse than others have ever imagined. The major cause of racism has been identified as that it came from supremacist thinking or behaviour, economic tension, and antagonization of races where racism being taught is a fact throughout human evolution. Racism is something that doesn’t make sense and should be avoided as solely hating an entire ethnicity to thinking that a person is inferior to them.

Why America is Self-Segregating?

Many Americans wouldn’t admit to this accusation, but self-segregation is at its finest. Sometimes by design and other times by choice. This segregation is not the same as it formally was. Self-segregation isn’t legally enforced, but 21st-century segregation exists openly in communities, school systems, and prisons. The consequences permeate our society without warning or recognition. If our societal worlds were more racial, gender, and economically inclusive then we would be having a totally different discussion at this point. It is well understood that we don’t hear much about this particular divide because many are afraid of being labeled a racist. Now, segregation is not about us being physically separated but about the cultural divide. In this Article Danah Boyd interjects that we need a social foundation just as we need bridges and roads, if this isn’t done then we are heading towards a road of destruction.

Why America is Self-Segregating outlines and informs the reader on the disentanglement of the higher education institutes and the US Military. Danah inquiries about trends that target unique content on social media that continuously undermines desegregation. As individuals in America have persistently remained a diverse, but segregated nation we battle with understanding other viewpoints and political ideologies that are beneficial to the growth of our country. This has utterly molded the way American politics contends today. The majority of institutes utilize people to face differences which do not end in tolerating one another nor does it entail a healthy resolution. The history of the United States is troubled with numerous examples of the one percent enslaving the oppressed solely on the account of differences. The outstanding battle of diversity and law is still hindering our land from truly being integrated.

In reply, since the diversifications are housed solely on the premises of the differences in skin color, I claim that the US militant should wage war against prejudice. In doing this, bridging the gap will formulate trust and comradery amongst the soldiers who are willing to put the country’s interest before their own. To prove this Boyd stated, when individuals enlist, they all have different motivations for joining whether it is traveling the world, the numerous job openings, or the basic training. The part the militant doesn’t advertise is diversification. Morale must be elevated as the reasonings as to why soldiers ought not to be obligated to trust their existence to people who are not remotely the same as them. Danah alerts the readers that, the United States of America Military does not offer justification and the primary focus is strictly on growing the service organization, in other words, the military. The absence of justification leaves consequences for the military commanders to break down barriers to teamwork and in the end, this divergence will harvest a great amount of conflict.

The “kumbaya dream” was categorized around the internet- aspiring to connect different people in extraordinary ways to exonerate any dash of inequality. Despite the many tools that the 21st century has possessed over the years to connect individuals all over the world, we fatefully have and will continue to experience disintegration, opposition, and de-diversification in doing this gave Boyd the opportunity to disprove the lawmakers of their efforts to diversify the world. The self-segregation of the country is single-handedly tearing this country apart.

Furthermore, the author discovers the idea of the linguistics used by adolescents and how the language is comprehended in the ancient contexts of discrimination in the United States. Danah Boyd, the author, through this article, urges the reader to contemplate the rhetoric that is directly corresponding to earlier periods. Arguing that residential life in most academies is frequently intertwined with student therapy as many scholars have grumbled about their dormitory mates and classmates. Hence, learning how to convey diversity and conflicts effectively to the younger generation is equally as important as the military. This is crucial to the social structure of the new world. The author believes that US higher education has factually offered social network diversification with the hopes of increasing job prospects. However, working and encountering diverse experiences and perspectives is a tough task mentally as well as physically. Also, could be considered culturally awkward when dealing with ignorant people who refuse to accept the changes in the world

On the other hand, Boyd’s statements are sometimes contradictory because she also asserts that people should be able to think and be themselves without judgment-which individuals are protected under the first amendment whether America chooses to self-segregate or not. Living in the 21st century did we ever stop to consider that this is how the citizens want it to be? Especially with technology being used to express ideologies so openly now? Due to the recent technological advances, I suppose that America is just how it was intended to be. In the age of technology, anything is possible, yet we are choosing not to diversify. Boyd weakens her claim by not alluding to the other side of the coin. She pinpoints that “If we want to develop a healthy democracy, we need a diverse and highly connected social fabric.’ Her strengths are appealing to people’s cousicnousss. Allowing others to critically think and fairly analyze views to see if they are truly different from us or advocating for change. With the help of social media controlling what we see, we only see one narrative. Boyd aids us in understanding that if we change the way we see media, people’s perspectives of others will not have as much negative backlash. In doing this, Boyd could initiate healthier conversations and create awareness between readers and peers. This article overall is necessary for thinking long-term about bridging the differences and effects of not doing so. Using logic and emotions to appeal to readers, is beneficiary to addressing current issues that plague our nation. By encouraging readers to join the conversations and not communicate.

Abstract

The key idea of moral issues with respect to business and South Africa emerged from the development of remote direct interest in the nation during the 1970s. The immediate venture gives remote firms a value stake in a country as contradicted to an exchanging association with it. Direct speculation is typically connected with different attributes that likewise build up broad business associations in the host nation, including quantities of direct representatives, charge installments to the administration, closer provider and client connections, nearby network contribution, and a few times specific kinds of the residential political movement.

Direct interest in South Africa by U.S. firms dramatically multiplied from under $500 million soon after the Sharpeville slaughter to $1.8 billion at the season of Steve Biko’s passing. Albeit more than 300 U.S. organizations in the long run entered South Africa, Great Britain remained the biggest financial specialist country and just around twelve firms represented three-fourths of the U.S. direct venture. All things considered,

U.S. MNCs spoke to enormous fragments of significant business areas, especially autos, oil-based commodities, and PCs. The primary moral reactions of these organizations can be condensed in two charges: they were benefitting from the misuse of the dark populace and we’re adding to the support of an abusive politically-sanctioned racial segregation routine.

Cultural traits

South Africa is a culturally diverse nation. The population consists of four main groups: Black African (79%), White (Afrikaners and white English) (9%), Colored (9%), and Indian/Asian (3%). Each ethnic group exhibits differing and varied religious, cultural and linguistic traits. Identity is firmly rooted in ethnicity, and while historic rivalries between groups do exist, great maturity has been demonstrated since the move to majority rule in 1994. The traditional African concept of ‘Ubuntu’ is widely respected amongst South African people, particularly the black population. Ubuntu is an ethic or humanist philosophy that emphasizes people’s allegiances and relations with each other, I am because you are; you are because we are. Qualities associated with Ubuntu are mutual respect and support, interdependence, unity, collective work and responsibility.

Political history and government

In 1961, South Africa turned into a self-administering republic, having recently been a British territory. The minority white populace had ruled legislative issues and it was in 1949 that the National Party Government set out on the methodology of politically-sanctioned racial segregation, falsely isolating the races and, significantly, giving settle for the easiest option of training to the larger part dark populace. Politically-sanctioned racial segregation finished when the nation moved gently to dominant part administer in 1994. Since 1994, the nation’s legislature has been driven by the African National Congress (ANC), in partnership with the Communist Party and the Congress of South African Trade Unions (COSATU). The ANC is seeking after basically free-showcase approaches however has a noteworthy social plan impacted by its two coalition accomplices, every one of whom has an all the more left-wing frame of mind. There is a material inheritance of under-interest in both foundation and individuals to survive. The nation history of racial mistreatment and a provincial and politically-sanctioned racial segregation framework has separated individuals based on race and phonetic gathering. Thus, South Africa is thinking about accomplishing social union and joining the country around a presence of mind of direction.

Broad-based black economic empowerment

BBBEE targets the social and economic development of black people through seven key areas:

1. Ownership
2. Management control
3. Employment equity
4. Skills development
5. Preferential procurement
6. Enterprise development
7. Socio-economic development.

The B-BBEE Act 2003 which followed the report outlines the duty of the state and public bodies to take an entity’s B-BBEE status into account when entering into decisions affecting:

• Procurement
• Licensing and concessions
• Public-private partnerships
• The sale of state-owned entities.

History the Polaroid Controversy

The first major corporate response to the ethical challenge posed by South Africa involved the Polaroid Corporation. Two black employees organized a demonstration in October 1970 alleging in a leaflet that “Polaroid Imprisons Black People in 60 Seconds.” The charge was related to the reported use of Polaroid cameras for photographs used in the South African passbooks. Demonstrators demanded that the company state its opposition to apartheid, withdraw from the country, and turn over profits to black liberation or revolutionary groups. Polaroid, known at the time for its progressive race relations and community support programs in the United States, was caught by surprise. Their response is particularly interesting because Polaroid sales in South Africa occurred through an independent distributor; the firm had no plants, subsidiaries, investment, or direct employees in that country.

The case focused on product use Polaroid equipment in a passbook identification system that helped regulate the apartheid structure. No U.S. regulations at the time prohibited the export, sale or end-use of this equipment. Does the seemingly tangential link of sales through an independent distributor establish an ethical business responsibility for Polaroid for the political conditions in South Africa? If an ethical responsibility exists, what is its nature and is withdrawal an appropriate response?

South Africa is a growing nation with a long way to go. Though many policies have been enacted for socio-economic prosperity, there are still many issues that serve as a hurdle for economic growth.

Corruption is on a high level in this country, since there is one party domination, there is growing social and economic inequality. Racial differences remain a crucial factor in this country. There are lesser accountability and stability due to corruption. This is disturbing the economic development of the nation.

The Sullivan principles

The Sullivan standards are the names of two corporate sets of accepted rules, created by the African American Evangelist Rev. Leon Sullivan, advancing corporate social obligation.

The first Sullivan standards were created in 1977 to apply monetary weight on South Africa in the challenge of its arrangement of politically-sanctioned racial segregation. The standards inevitably increased wide reception among the United States–based companies. The new worldwide Sullivan standards were mutually disclosed in 1999 by Rev. Sullivan and United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan. The new and extended corporate set of principles, rather than the firsts’ particular spotlight on South African politically-sanctioned racial segregation, was intended to build the dynamic support of companies in the headway of human rights and social equity at the universal dimension.

The Sullivan standards, presented in 1977 with one expansion in 1984, comprised of seven prerequisites a partnership was to request its workers as a condition for working together. All in all, the standards requested the equivalent treatment of representatives paying little respect to their race both inside and outside of the work environment, requests which straightforwardly tangled with the official South African strategies of racial isolation and inconsistent rights. The principles read: The Sullivan principles

1. Non-segregation of the races in all eating, comfort, and work facilities.
2. Equal and fair employment practices for all employees.
3. Equal pay for all employees doing equal or comparable work for the same period of time.
4. Initiation of and development of training programs that will prepare, in substantial numbers, blacks and other nonwhites for supervisory, administrative, clerical, and technical job.
5. Increasing the number of blacks and other nonwhites in management and supervisory positions.
6. Improving the quality of life for blacks and other nonwhites outside the work environment in such areas as housing, transportation, school, recreation, and health facilities.
7. Working to eliminate laws and customs that impede social, economic, and political justice. (added in 1984)

U.S. Government Actions

Official U.S. international strategy restricts South Africa’s politically-sanctioned racial segregation framework. Early proposition for monetary authorizations fizzled, however, the United States forced an arms ban in 1963 and bolstered the U.N. Security Council’s ban in 1977. Residential strategy choices focused fundamentally on how extensively to apply the fare controls. Under the Carter organization, all fares to South Africa’s military and police were prohibited. Under Reagan, these controls were loose to allow shipments of double use and non-military things. A few gatherings encouraged a total prohibition on all fares and advances to South African government offices.

The U.S. Place of Representatives passed a bill in 1983 containing extended exchange authorizes on South Africa, yet the measure did not pass the Senate. A later proposition (The Anti–Apartheid Act of 1985), which incorporated a prohibition on the new interest in South Africa, passed the two places of Congress yet was vetoed by President Reagan. In any case, reacting to developing weight for a harder U.S. position against politically-sanctioned racial segregation, the organization at that point issued Executive Orders that actualized a portion of the administrative proposition, including fixed fare confinements on PCs and atomic innovation; import bans on Kruggerands and South African weapons; limitations on new credits with the exception of similarly accessible instruction, lodging or wellbeing offices; and help for dark organizations and understudy grants. The Executive Orders likewise denied exchange help for any U.S. firms working together in South Africa that did not pursue a Statement of Principles that resembled the underlying six Sullivan Principles. These activities neglected to assuage Congress, be that as it may, in light of the fact that they didn’t boycott new interest in South Africa and on the grounds that the Executive Order needed permanency, requiring yearly recharging by the president.

References.

1. Beauchamp, Tom L. Case Studies in Business, Society, and Ethics. 2nd ed. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1989.
2. DeGeorge, Richard T. Business Ethics. 2nd ed. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1986.
3. Kibbe, Jennifer, and David Hauck. Leaving South Africa: The Impact of US Corporate Disinvestment. Washington, D.C.: Investor Responsibility Research Center Inc., 1988.
4. Wolpe, Howard. “South Africa: The Time Has Run Out
5. Minter, William. “South Africa: Straight Talk on Sanctions.”
6. Foreign Policy. 65, (Winter 1986–87)

Abstract

Despite the subject being overlooked, residential segregation is a problem that probes modern day America and with it comes with many unwanted repercussions. This paper investigates the topic of residential segregation using research from four scholarly sources. From the four sources information pertaining to opportunity to quality education, racial inequality, and housing are examined. This paper examines what is residential segregation and why it exists. In addition, the paper examines the relationship between residential segregation and limited opportunities for non-whites in education, employment, asset building, and social integration. The findings within the research enforced that “the social structure of communities has an important impact on crime” (Walker, Sphon, & Delone, pg. 128). Residential segregation maintains racial inequality by suppressing opportunities for non-whites linking the opportunity for crime rates to be higher for non-white individuals through various factors beneath the umbrella of residential segregation.

Residential Segregation and Crime

Is there a conclusive reason why residential segregation still exist today? Perhaps there is isn’t one single definitive answer but this can be explained by many factors. What can be proven conclusively is that residential segregation does lead to crime. Residential segregation can be defined as three parts of division which include “…unequal socioeconomic status, group prejudice, and housing discrimination” (Smith, pg. 470). Residential segregation historically came from early American cities being divided by “…income, ethnicity, and race” (Walker, Sophn, & Delone, pg 128). The historical context of it goes hand in hand with the definition of racial segregation. Racial segregation maintains racial inequality for non-whites by limiting opportunities in education, employment, asset building, and social integration thus leading to the influx of crime in certain residential areas.

To begin, generally speaking, residential segregation maintains racial inequality. Studies done by Smith have proven that “…concentrated incarceration in those impoverished communities has broken families, weakened the social control capacity of parents, eroded economic strength, and soured attitudes toward society…” (Smith, pg. 472). More often than not impoverished neighborhoods are non-white minorities. Having lower impoverished neighborhoods being made up of non-whites sets the residents up for racial inequality outside of their local area. The sour attitudes towards society go for those living within the impoverished neighborhoods as well as those living outside of the impoverished neighborhoods. On both sides of the fence each party believes stereotypes of one another furthering racial inequality by treating each other unfairly based on residential location and having an intolerance for one another. This stigma that creates racial inequality is further proven by Woo & Joh (2015) who state “concerns about subsidized housing from local residents are typically rooted in a negative perception of households receiving subsidies, which are often tied to attitudes toward their race/ethnicity and poverty status” (Woo & Joh, pg. 87). Racial inequality is based of biases or prejudices of residential segregation and poses a threat to the depletion of residential segregation.

As one can imagine, someone living in section eight housing will not have the same opportunities handed to them as someone living in Beverly Hills. The limitations of opportunity for non-whites include but are not limited to education, employment, assets building, and social integration. Opportunities to sufficient education for non-whites is a major issue pertaining to residential segregation. The lower the tax bracket of an area the lower the funding that is received for schools. Low funding means, less classes offered, lack of after school activities, lack of sufficient and trained staff due to lack of proper compensation, and lack of diversity within the student body. Improper education due to socioeconomic status based of residential placement discourages pursuit of higher education nor sets the students up for it. Students attending school in white upper class neighborhoods are offered a variety of classes with properly trained staff as well as opportunities to prepare for higher education. Conjointly with education opportunities comes employment opportunities. Smith (2012) verifies this by affirming “…to obtain employment we increasingly rely on official positive credentials such as college diplomas or training certificates” (Smith, 472). Employment opportunities for those who are in impoverished residential areas becomes limited outside of the surrounding area due to the higher demand of a diploma or certificate as they cannot or have not obtained one or the other. Leaving the employment opportunity to labor intensive or undesirable jobs. Asset building or economic wellbeing is also dependent on residential location. Asset building is setting up for future and current prosperity but, that can be nearly impossible based on location in certain situations. One way asset building is compromised by residential segregation is banks and loan companies practicing “redlining”. Redlining is “…banks and saving and loan companies refus[ing] to offer mortgages in poor minority neighborhoods” (Walker, Spohn, DeLone, pg.128). Redlining offers the opportunity for real estate agents to maintain residential segregation by keeping non-white buyers out of white neighborhoods. Being forced to stay in an impoverished community with no potential of economic growth deters any opportunity for asset building. As well as asset building limitations comes social integration. There has been attempts to mix schools populations by chartering busses into neighborhood below the income threshold to schools with populations above the income threshold. Despite the efforts it is unsuccessful as the population groups themselves into socioeconomic status and cultural similarities. Whites can assume they are more prosperous than non-whites discouraging interaction between races based on location. Reported by Reardon (2018) “…income segregation increased more quickly among black and Hispanic families than among white families” (Reardon, pg. 2147) furthering supporting the bias some whites posse. Coming essentially from two different worlds, rich and poor, discourages social integration as each side has cultural differences and outlooks. All these factors of racial segregation ascertain the limitations pressed onto non-whites’ opportunities.

Moreover, the multitude of limitations due to residential segregation directly link to crime. Criminals are pretty much forced into staying in poor neighborhoods. Confirmed by “the concentration of low-income people in a particular neighborhoods, has a direct impact on crime by concentrating high-rate offenders in one area” (Walker, Spohn, DeLone, pg. 129). According to Woo & Joh (2015) policy makers see those in subsidized housing districts as “undesirable”, which, create the attitude of those living in these subsidized neighborhoods that society does not care for them and to live life lawless. Criminals are social arranged through residential segregation to stay in low income neighborhoods. Forcing criminals around other criminals in society creates opportunity to reoffend and victimize others. With victims being associated with neighborhoods of high crime rates is makes it easy for social scrutiny from outsiders as well as the opportunity to advance in life or leave the residential area they occupy.

More research should be done on how to diffuse negative stigmas around residential segregation by improving lower income residential areas. The presented research indicates racial segregation maintains racial inequality for non-whites by limiting opportunities in education, employment, asset building, and social integration thus leading to the influx of crime in certain residential areas. Racial inequality is created by forcing those of a certain demographic to only associate with each other. Opportunities based of finical demographic are linked to tax bracket and funding. Non-whites are not given the same opportunities within their area. Multiple factors merge together to explain why crime rates are higher in impoverished neighborhoods. Residential segregation is unfair but ultimately is how America has been set up for generations making this a racial issue due to the fact that these zones have been intentionally set up as so.

References

1. Reardon, S. F., Bischoff, K., Owens, A., & Townsend, J. B. (2018). Has income segregation really increased? Bias and bias correction in sample-based segregation estimates. Demography, 55(6), 2129–2160. https://doi-org.libdata.lib.ua.edu/10.1007/s13524-018- 0721-4
2. Smith, J. M. (2012). Maintaining racial inequality through crime control: Mass incarceration and residential segregation. Contemporary Justice Review,15(4), 469-484. doi:10.1080/10282580.2012.734577
3. Walker, S., Spohn, C., & DeLone, M. (2012). The color of justice: Race, ethnicity, and crime in America 5th ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing.
4. Woo, A., & Joh, K. (2015). Beyond anecdotal evidence: Do subsidized housing developments increase neighborhood crime? Applied Geography, 64, 87-96. doi:10.1016/j.apgeog.2015.09.004

The US is one of the nations where racism rampancy is becoming a problem in a political, social and economic sense. The rampancy nature of racism is as a result of the increasing population of immigrants. Most of the states consider such immigrants as invisible, thereby not recognizing the significant role they play in society. The A Day without a Mexican film explores the issue of racism in California and depicts it in a way that the white community does not usually see. The plot development in such a way manages to paint a picture of a society that cannot progress without the contribution of immigrants. A Day without a Mexican film successfully manages to satirically demonstrate to the white audience about racism as a problem in California and the rest of America through the lens of human diversity, structured functionalism as well as economic discrimination associated with Hispanic identity.

In the context of identity, the film portrays human diversity in California society by successfully demonstrating how racial discrimination affects people differently. In such regard, the film depicts how Senator Steven Abercombie character is racially biased, refusing a nanny from the Mexican community. Through the role, the rest of Americans, especially the whites without knowledge of what immigrants go through gets to understand the impact of such discrimination. The act of the senator locks out other potential individuals who could have used the opportunity to progress themselves economically. More so, the senator also had to ensure the nanny was legal. Such a case, therefore, illustrates how diversity is affecting immigrants, especially when the issue of identity locks them out of employment opportunities.

As well, racism also pushed Mexicans to opt for menial labor, but some became successful even to take up political roles. In such regard, most of the immigrants get to the US with the objective of securing employment even in low paying sectors and menial jobs. The film demonstrates in such sense demonstrates why the Mexicans, as well as Latinos, have stereotypical roles. Some even go to the extent of changing the identity to secure jobs. The character of Lila Rodriguez, the TV reporter, demonstrates this by changing her name to Lyla Rod to avoid being racially discriminated using the name. Such cases, therefore, confirm the Americans are still racially biased and needs to understand the impact of the problem through the film’s plot to change.

Some of the immigrants are, however, able to beat the effect of stereotyping to become successful in American society. In a real-world context, Ileana Ros-Lehtinen beats stereotyping to become a successful Latino politician. The character beats the odds to become a representative of 27th congressional districts in Florida and progressed to become the most senior by the end of the tenure. Ros-Lehtinen’s success is, therefore, a perfect demonstration to the white Americans that sometimes the society can look beyond the racial factors and progress.

Furthermore, the film also demonstrates racism in the context of functionalism. In such regard, Mexican workers worked hard as well as for long hours without many noticing. The commitment of the Mexicans to such productivity is share among other immigrants. The Americans, however, do not understand this as most only seen the immigrants as a burden in the sense of taking advantage of US services such as the undocumented immigrants using the healthcare system without coverage. More so, the reality only hits the Californians when the Mexicans disappear, leading to an economic halt. Such is a demonstration that a change in the social structure, would significantly affect the rest of Americans. For example, a change in the status of the immigrants now under the presidency of Donald Trump is affecting Americans. The handling of immigrants on racial grounds such as limiting resources and access to America is leading to a reduction in their population across America. Functionalism, therefore, helps white viewers to understand the importance of Mexicans.

Besides, the film also paints a picture of the impact of economic racism in California. One of the cases the film uses in demonstrating racism is how the authority takes advantage of the immigrants. In such regard, the film shows that Senator Steven Abercombie and the wife call on illegal immigrants to provide labor. The illegal immigrants are at risk of not getting fair compensation. Such a case proves that the senator has access to legal workers but opts for the immigrants who he can easily take advantage of and benefit. More so, the film also demonstrates how the immigrants provide labor almost in every sector, thereby contributing more significantly to the economy. The Americans, however, do not understand this and gets to racially discriminate them until they disappear, leaving the economy in disarray.

The troubled economy also demonstrates to the rest of Americans that the Mexicans bear the burden of changing the economic status of America. The 2014 statistics point out that up to 16% of the 146.3 million employees in the US were Hispanics and Latino. Such data demonstrate that Mexicans suffer the burden of ensuring the economic success of the US, but Americans do not understand, therefore ending up discriminating immigrants.

In conclusion, A Day without a Mexican manages to depict the racial conditions faced by the Hispanic community in California society. The film does so by describing how deep racial discrimination is rooted in the city after the disappearance of Mexicans. The events depicted before and after the disappearance of the community shows that the rest of the population discriminates the Mexicans economically, in terms of identity as well as functionalism. Such cases are relatable to real-world problems. In such regard, the white viewers can, therefore, understand the racial setup of American community differently than before.

Colored skin people, particularly African Americans, have been under pressure and stress of racial injustice throughout history. After the mid-nineteen-century’s abolition of slavery, there seemed to be a shift in Whites ‘ relations with Blacks, but Whites emancipated Blacks by passing segregation and Jim Crow Laws. In Harper Lee’s To Kill a Mockingbird the ideas of racism and segregation are hinted throughout the story. Lee portrays her characters with different attitudes and strong beliefs towards race relations and segregation which existed in the town of Maycomb.

To Kill a Mockingbird takes place in the fictional town of Maycomb located in the South during the times of segregation. Blacks were considered inferior and referred to as ‘ ni**ers ‘ throughout the novel, and ‘ ni**er lovers ‘ are those who help them or give them some respect. Atticus, the protagonist of the novel is called a ‘ni***r lover by townspeople. One instance of this is revealed through his daughter Scout questioning Atticus about this and he replies by saying “Scout ni**er-lover is just one of those terms that don’t mean anything—like snot-nose. It’s hard to explain—ignorant, trashy people use it when they think somebody’s favoring Negroes over and above themselves. It’s slipped into usage with some people like ourselves, when they want a common, ugly term to label somebody” (Lee. 112). Throughout the story Atticus, who is a well known lawyer believes in equality and defends an African-American man by putting his reputation in line as a white man. Atticus, Calpurnia and the many social events that takes place in the story teach Jem and Scout morality, truths about the society, and other lessons as the story progresses.

The Afrian-American people of Maycomb in To Kill a Mockingbird had to encounter racial segregation and confront the harsh reality of injustice and powerlessness vested on them by the Whites in several situations. Racial segregation is further portrayed when ‘The Negroes, having waited for the white people to go upstairs, began to come in'(Lee. 168) The fact that they had to wait for all the White people to go upstairs before being able to go to the court themselves, shows the differences in social standings between the white and the black community. Another occasion in which the discrimination becomes evident is when the Idler’s Club member says: ”Whoa now, just a minute,’ said a club member, holding up his walking stick. ‘Just don’t start up the stairs yet awhile”(Lee. 154). This demonstrates further the differences in the social standing, where the white people are allowed to have the first choice over the seats and the colored, second. The bias between blacks and whites is further emphasized by the way the blacks file in at the last moment and are seated in the balcony. ‘Reverend Sykes came puffing behind us and steered us gently through the black people in the balcony. Four Negroes rose and gave us their front-row seats’ (Lee ).The balcony is referred to as the ‘colored balcony’, which is a clear illustration of racial mentality of the townspeople and their law that gave blacks and whites separate public places. It also hints about the way in which the black people have been brought up.

A white man’s word was always running over a black man. No matter how low class or trashy a white man was, blacks were on the bottom of the social hierarchy. By their characters and predicaments, Calpurnia, Dolphus Raymond, and Tom Robinson tremendously presented prominent representations of racism and discrimination. Calpurnia brought Jem and Scout only to be shunned by Lula for First Purchase. Furthermore, Calpurnia is treated to be a slave by Aunt Alexandra. In like manner, Dolphus Raymond deceived the whole town to believe that he was a drunk, due to dissent, so to live his double life with a black woman was made possible. Comparatively to Dolphus Raymond, Mayella’s lust for Tom Robinson was not acceptable, which led to the beating of her by her father. Because it is understood that Mayella Ewell wanted Tom Robinson, the real issue was going to Finch questioning perceptions that whites and blacks couldn’t have any kind of relationship The impression is that the city sees this as a possibility, but the basic humanity of it is impossible, so it goes against their racist thinking. Although Atticus had a strong defense, Bob Ewell’s word was taken over a black man’s word; no matter how trashy Bob was.

To Kill a Mockingbird is a pleasant and truthful story that brings various contexts to life, and it helps the reader learn about each and every different character from Scout’s or an innocent child’s point of view. It also shows, as in the case of Tom Robinson, the disturbing truth of what can happen when racism goes to extremes. Nevertheless, the events of Tom represent another tale just as important to the book as Boo Radley’s racism is just as negative and unfair. Essentially decent men are oppressed in both cases because people do not want to see beyond the stereotypes they have built up against them.