In Courageous Conversations about Race, Singleton and Linton propose starting discussions about the issue of race and promote antiracist leadership. The authors emphasize that the aforementioned discussions require a level of courage because the issues under review are extremely sensitive and, sometimes, controversial. In the book, the authors cover such topics as the racial achievement gap, institutionalized racism, whiteness and white privilege, and the concept of equity. It is appealing that in their discussion, the authors focus on a variety of issues of race, tracking back the history of racial relations in the United States, as well as the present state of affairs.
Also, it was interesting to see that at the end of each chapter, the authors added what they called “racial autobiography” – a segment written by various individuals for the purpose of describing their experiences in relation to race throughout their lives. Such experiences are very different and allow seeing how race can impact people’s lives on a daily basis. Personal stories of this kind help the members of the general public reading this book understand how pressing the issues of race are and why they need to be brought up and discussed with courage.
Finally, I found the focus on the racial achievement gap as a very appealing idea because I have faced this issue throughout my practice as an educator and I believe that this is a very relevant subject and a problem that required immediate action because due to the lack of equity our country may be losing a significant portion of its human capital – valuable future professionals who could work for the benefit of the state and lead the nation forward.
The Implications of Ideas in the Book for Me as an Educator
As it was mentioned in the previous section, the ideas in the book were focused specifically on the elimination of the achievement gap that is present between the academic performances of members of different races. In most cases, this tendency is a sign that students of color are not given equal opportunities to their peers. In turn, this phenomenon stands for institutional racism – a set of harmful racial biases imbedded in school policies and the attitudes of school personnel, educational leaders, and policymakers towards students of color. In that way, the problems explored by Singleton and Linton in their book are particularly relevant to educators.
The ideas of the authors imply that teachers and school administrators need to begin the reevaluation of the rules and laws practices in their workplaces in regard to the effects they produce on different groups of learners and on the students of color specifically. It is likely that professionals, who are good at critical thinking and free of personal biases, would be likely to identify the practices that harm students. However, it is possible that even if such flawed policies and rules would be identified, the administrations of schools may turn out to be reluctant to change their approaches and reassess some of its foundational principles and replace them with new ones.
The leaders’ reluctance may be based on the amount of work and effort required for the successful implementation of change, as well as the consequent difficulties and challenges that may occur during the implementation process. As a result, one of the long-term implications of the ideas expressed by Singleton and Linton is the potential clash between supporters of the reevaluation of school policies for the purpose of elimination of institutional racism in schools and the protestors who would prefer to keep everything as is in order to stay out of trouble.
The Ideas That I Challenge
First of all, I would like to note that I fully agree with the idea that the conversations about race need to be had in order to clarify all the issues or privilege and the lack of literacy. It seems that even though the problems of racism have been battled for a while now, the progress is still rather minor. Many groups of the modern American population are still affected by racism on multiple levels and on a daily basis. Unfortunately, this tendency persists in subtle ways as a part of approaches and visions in various institutions. Educational facilities, as some of the first places where children go through socialization and learn about their places in the society, should be the most eager to introduce changes and establish equitable treatment and equal opportunities.
However, exploring the need for courageous conversations about race in schools, Singleton and Linton specify that teachers have to gather and conduct collective discussions focusing on the problems of institutional racism in their diverse districts and communities. As much as I agree with the idea that such discussions need to happen, I would like to challenge the suggestion that only staff members participate in them. My major concern is that in many diverse schools, the staff is mainly comprised of white educators. In this regard, one has to wonder if the discussions about race carried out in a predominantly white group would be as effective and insightful as if they included professionals of color.
Race relations have been a continuous part of the American history, from the horrors of slavery to the melting pot of immigration. Unfortunately, racism has become the focal point of interracial interaction, as any minority population faces challenges in a society dominated by the Caucasian race. Throughout history, racism has undertaken various forms. However, in contemporary times of supposed equality and acceptance, bigotry has become more covert and intractable. *Race relations in modern America are defined by institutionalized racism that has been masked under the means of microaggressions and political ignorance, with the only solution being a massive reform of social values.*
The whole concept of race division is a social construct that has roots in the incriminating injustices of American history. The domination of socio-political and economic structures by the Caucasian race is unparalleled. Despite some progress of past decades in racial equality, with a recent political emergence of the Republican party the tensions are growing again. The politics of aggrieved whiteness, a concept that seeks to maintain a Caucasian hegemony in the social order, has gained traction.
There is a strong political context to this development. Liberalism is associated with profligacy, beholden to minorities. Meanwhile, conservatism seeks to encourage individual values of hard work and, by extension, equality for all. Furthermore, any attempt by the government to recognize racial inequality through policy or welfare programs comes under fire for supposed social injustice that puts whites at a disadvantage.
Consequently, there is fanatical support for forms of repression against racial groups, such as Muslims, illegal immigrants, and urban African-American communities. This approach to politics makes it ultimately impossible to overcome social injustice since any meaningful attempts to make a difference are obstructed by the status quo of white supremacy. Despite this, an average class Caucasian person feels like reverse anti-white racism is the dominant form of racial discrimination (King).
“Our brains are hardwired to think in terms of place and to associate psychic value or meaning to the places we inhabit” (Dickey 7). The racial divide in America is often visible most clearly in urban communities. Certain neighborhoods are a hive of existence for racial groups, as their culture takes root there. While in most of America communities are more mixed, there are still privileged neighborhoods which are predominantly white.
The minority race in an opposing community would experience social unease and even covert discrimination. The racial tension is evident as the communities seek to conserve the status quo of their demographics, creating a sense of tribalism (Vance). Race is a primary factor in the American class structure, which, in turn, instigates social segregation, even if it is unintentional.
There is an entrenched concept of institutionalized racism in the nation which is largely ignored for more easily vilified interpersonal prejudices. There is no consensus or medium where such controversial topics can be discussed, with racial groups radically disagreeing on basic issues and politicians using it as an electorate tool (Blow). Race relations in current society have become a carefully avoided issue filled with superficial illusions to mask its core motives.
In the novel The Underground Railroad, such a phenomenon is accurately described, “But nobody wanted to speak on the true disposition of the world…Truth was a changing display in a shop window, manipulated by hands when you weren’t looking, alluring and ever out of reach” (Whitehead 143). The pretense of racism not existing in the light of evidence of its devastating consequences has nothing but a derogatory effect to prevent it from being a recurrent issue.
The most typical exemplification of racial issues can be seen in social behavior. Racism exists both in institutions and personal prejudices. However, in most communities, outright racism is condemned or illegal; therefore, people begin to exhibit it covertly.
This happens subconsciously, as the societal way of thought has been embedded into behavior since childhood. Such daily behaviors and verbal interaction is a psychological concept that is essentially a clandestine expression of racism as racial groups are insulted and degraded. These may have a basis in the national origin, education, culture values, criminality, or even competency (Sehgal).
A prominent example, which is also evidence of institutionalized racism, is the recent spike in police violence against African-Americans. The disproportionate police intervention including racial minorities, and, consequently, their imprisonment is unjustifiable. The whole concept of the racial, social construct has pragmatic evidence here, as a racial profile is established around the black community. News and media outlets aid in this by showing a biased perspective of African-Americans as either involved or associated with criminality.
Consequently, society begins to exhibit prejudice and fear, in turn, leading to a conflict based on irrationality, creating a social crisis. Claudia Rankine frankly identifies this concept in her prose, “because white men can’t police their imagination, black people are dying” (135).
With the result of recent elections, racial tensions began to emerge. The new leadership despite its promises to unite the nation has done only the opposite to address issues facing minorities. Polls show that the majority of African-Americans think race relations are at a low point and only getting worse. There are obvious schisms in the perception of social justice amongst races. Obama at one point stated, “we’ve been blind to the way past injustices continue to shape the present” (Sack and Thee-Brenan).
The task to challenge white hegemony which instigates the racial tension begins with an honest conversation. By understanding history and accepting identity, socio-political structures will be morphed to create a truly egalitarian society. Such processes may take generations, but until then, the status quo will persist if people choose to be ignorant to injustice.
The so-called “category of race” has always been of extreme significance in the American society. All people of America prefer clear differentiation in terms of social, political, cultural, and, of course, racial identification. The article under consideration exemplifies the attempts of the American society to overcome the pressure of multi-racism through creating the scientific background for rejecting the idea of mixed-race people.
The article under consideration is entitled “An Invisible Monster: the Creation and Denial of Mixed-Race People in America”. The author of the article is Cynthia Nakashima, who provides readers with information about tendencies that have existed in the American society in relation to mix-raced people. The author emphasizes the fact that America has the tendency to fit everything into its system. Hence, mix-raced people also had to be identified in traditional terms of belonging to the particular race. The evolution of the understanding and acceptance of mix-raced people demonstrates not only the way all these people have been treated. It also shows the way the American culture and mentality has been changing through the history.
In my opinion, the American desire to explain the phenomenon of mixed-racism is predetermined by the fear of losing the dominance. The dominance of the White race has always been the core principle in all country starting from the times of slavery. Consequently, any other change in the social and, in this case, racial order was a threat to the whole society. When the problem of mixed-racism was raised, it was explained, mostly, with the help of adverse theories. The rejection and negative attitude are typical reactions to something previously unknown for all humans.
That is why American scientists attacked the issue of mixed-racism with the help of biological and sociocultural factors. The author of the article provides the examples of such biological and sociocultural approaches. Thus, the hybrid degeneracy theory is the most vivid example of protecting American people from the threat of multi-racism. The second step in explaining the phenomenon was based on the sociocultural ground. Thus, scientists aimed at proving that mixed-race people cannot fit into any modern society (Nakashima 165). Their behavior will be unacceptable and potentially deviant. The next step was the rejection of the idea of multi-racism.
All these phases of the American treatment of the multi-racism are directly connected to the development of society. Thus, hybrid degeneracy theory was formulated to prevent the spreading of interracial marriages. When it did not help, the next approaches tried to establish the connection between already existed mixed-race people and their adverse behavior and impact on society. The final stage was the denial of the existence of multi-racism.
As far as the article was written in 1992, it is worthwhile mentioning that tendencies towards multi-racism changed since that time. I consider that the American society became more aware of the problem. Besides, the rapid globalization should be regarded as one of the most significant processes that has altered the perception and understanding of mixed-race people. The U.S. also made a step forward towards the identification of race. Thus, in 1997, the U.S. Office of Management and Budget introduced new criteria for race identification. Also, five possible races were recognized. One more significant change happened in 2000 when the Race and ethnicity in the United States Census made it possible for mixed-race people to identify that they belong to more than one race.
Work Cited
Nakashima, Cynthia. “An Invisible Monster: the Creation and Denial of Mixed-Race People in America.” Racially Mixed People in America. Ed. Maria Root. Newberry Park: Sage Publications, 1992. 163-178. Print.
Doug Glanville looks like an ordinary African-American shoveling snow. He was shoveling snow in front of a beautiful home, located in one of the wealthiest neighborhoods in Connecticut. He was working a few hundred yards away from the mayor’s residence. The governor’s residence was a stone’s throw away from where he was standing. Two doors away from where he was clearing up snow, one can find the home of a state senator.
It was a pretty impressive neighborhood. It was therefore not a surprise when a police officer approached Doug, and without introduction asked him point-blank “So, you trying to make a few extra bucks, shoveling people’s driveways around here?” (Glanville 1). There was nothing inherently wrong with the question until the reader factors in the truth that Doug Glanville was the homeowner; a former Major League baseball player; and a baseball analyst for ESPN.
Class and Race Barriers
Glanville was offended because of several reasons. First, the police officer simply assumed that an African-American could not afford to live in an affluent neighborhood in Hartford Connecticut. Second, as a result of the false assumption, the police officer did not treat him with respect. Third, even after he introduced himself as the homeowner, there was still a certain level of disbelief in the mind of the officer, and this explains why he did not offer any apology on account of his actions. Fourth, Glanville realized that educational attainment, wealth, and social status are not enough to persuade a significant number of Americans to look beyond the issue of race.
The ambivalence towards racism in the United States is understandable. On one hand, great strides had been made in the struggle towards the creation of an egalitarian society. On the other hand, there are so many issues that are still unresolved. Furthermore, there are so many stories of inequality and racial profiling in the past few years that have prompted many to believe that Martin Luther King, Jr.’s dream is far from reality.
One of the best ways to frame the issue is to revisit Barack Obama’s best-selling book entitled The Audacity of Hope. In this book, Obama recounted his experience when he attended the memorial service in honor of Rosa Parks. She was an icon of the Civil Rights movement. Through her courage and selfless determination, Rosa Parks paved the way for the eradication of racial segregation in the South. Before she rode defiantly on a racially segregated bus, the Southern territories of the United States were plagued by inhumane racial segregation policies.
These policies prevented blacks from interacting with white people in a meaningful way. African Americans have barred entry from certain restaurants and other public places. Buses were segregated too. But Rosa Park’s civil disobedience emboldened people to fight segregation, and it was an eye-opener for a significant number of white people to the injustice that was committed in their midst.
Obama’s book provided evidence that the Civil Rights movement of the 1960s produced extraordinary results. Obama wrote: “Former President Clinton rose to speak, and began to describe what it had been like for him as a white Southern boy to ride in segregated buses, how the Civil Rights movement liberated him and his white neighbors from their own bigotry. Clinton’s ease with his black audience, their almost giddy affection for him, spoke of reconciliation, of forgiveness, a partial mending of the past’s grievous wounds” (Obama 35). Obama also described the benefits of the movement in terms of improving the socio-economic status of African Americans. He described a room filled with doctors, lawyers, accountants, educators, and real estate brokers.
The former senator and incumbent president were one of the primary pieces of evidence that the struggle towards the creation of an egalitarian society was not a hopeless cause. Nevertheless, in the same breath, Obama described the plight of African Americans wallowing in poverty, and reeling from the side effects of ignorance.
One-Step Forward and Two-Steps Backward
There is a good reason why Glanville was humiliated by a white cop in front of his upper-middle-class home. Consider the following famous quote:
Almost everything we read and hear about young Black males focuses on the problems of crime, violence, drugs, teenage pregnancy, and poor academic achievement […] Millions of Americans daily see the faces of these young men on television and in newspapers, and to many these faces look angry or hopeless, communicating danger and intimidation (Cuyjet 24).
It is foolish to shift the blame on other people. Teenage pregnancies did not occur because somebody placed a gun on their heads. It is hard to believe that the African American man who robbed a 7-11 store was totally out of options. It is hard to believe that black teenagers caught stealing cars were so poor, that they had no other way to acquire basic necessities. Therefore, they desperately needed to carjack somebody else’s car. It is hard to believe these excuses because they are not living in a war-torn country in sub-Saharan Africa. They are citizens of one of the most powerful countries in the world.
It is easier to believe that they needed money to buy drugs. The amount of money they will need to buy drugs is not available if they work menial jobs. There is nothing wrong with menial jobs because it is oftentimes the pathway to riches. But juvenile delinquents and hardened criminals have no patience and no humility to go through the process of character building. It is common knowledge that in the U.S. penal systems, African American men dominate the inmate population. If African Americans are a minority, then, the fact that they outnumber Caucasians behind bars speaks volumes of the challenges faced by this particular minority group.
Awareness and Education
It is not prudent to shift blame. Nevertheless, part of the solution is to acknowledge that African Americans are haunted by their past and the current problems are merely by-products of a chain of events that stretches back to the time when they were freed from the bondage of slavery. After the Emancipation Proclamation of 1863 and after the end of the U.S. Civil War, African Americans were assured that they would never again become the property of another human being (Crandall-Bear 20).
They were no longer slaves, but at the same time, they started from nothing. They had no savings and they did not own property. Many of them were better off when they were slaves because they were assured of food, clothing, and shelter. But after the Emancipation Proclamation, they had no steady employment. In the aftermath of the Civil War, the once prosperous farmers in the South were reduced to penury. The bleak socio-economic conditions in the South contributed to the creation of Jim Crow laws.
Awareness of the problems and solutions to the current racial problem begins with the acknowledgment of the problem. African Americans must face their worst fears. They must acknowledge the fact that a disproportionate number of husbands and fathers are locked up in prison.
After acknowledging the problem, African Americans must work hard to create awareness regarding the socio-economic factors that make it difficult for them to experience breakthroughs in their professional and private lives. They have to acknowledge the fact that they need to work hand-in-hand with other members of the community.
African Americans must acknowledge that education is the primary weapon against poverty and social inequality. Education is the stepping-stone that can help them to achieve their dreams. Education is the key to their future. Glanville and his wife are examples of highly educated African Americans (Arant and Mosley 45).
A study was made regarding African-American children and their proficiency in mathematics. The proponent of the study was an African American math major. At the end of the study, the said math major shared his experience and he wrote:
The reality of African-American under-representation in mathematics would become even more apparent in high school, where I was one of just three Black students enrolled in the accelerated math courses. This pattern continued through my years as an undergraduate student in mathematics and physics […] the more advanced the course, the smaller the proportion of African-American students (Maton 11).
The same math major made the following assertion: “many African-American students are enrolled in remedial or lower-level mathematics courses and few go on to take Precalculus, Calculus, or higher-level courses” (Maton 12). It is important to focus on math courses because it will serve as a good indicator that African-Americans are ready to change their perception with regards to the common pathways to success available to them. In the present time, successful African Americans are stereotyped as musicians, actors, and athletes (Harper and Stephen 15).
At first glance, it seems that the struggle towards equality is characterized by one-step forward and two steps backward. In other words, it seems like there is no hope. But nothing is further from the truth. The life story of Rosa Parks and Martin Luther King, Jr. are beacons of hope. They demonstrated that even in the sea of racism and segregation, the human spirit could triumph and transcend over seemingly insurmountable hurdles.
Although tremendous progress had been made since the eradication of Jim Crow laws, there is so much work that has to be done in order to experience social equality in America. Nevertheless, it must be made clear that Rosa Parks, Martin Luther King, Jr., Barack Obama, and Doug Glanville were able to overcome difficulties because of their educational background. The battle strategies must be redrawn on the basis of education.
Conclusion
There is hope for a better future. African Americans must believe in the message of Barack Obama primarily because he is a living example that an African American male can beat the odds. There is hope because of the example provided by Doug Glanville. He did not allow pride and his emotions to overrule his decision-making process. He had the option to humiliate the police officer. He had the power to strike back.
But he did not do that because he saw the big picture. He realized that in order to win the struggle against social inequality, he would need the assistance of white people. He demonstrated this willingness to work with them when he crafted a response to the profiling incident. It can be argued that Glanville was able to develop a levelheaded approach because he was an educated man. It does not mean that an uneducated African American cannot display grace and humility under pressure. However, education gave Glanville a clear advantage when he knew the things that he needed to do in order to rectify the error that was made that day.
Glanville was a graduate of an Ivy League school. His wife also demonstrated exemplary character when she sought the assistance of her powerful neighbor. She could have resorted to name-calling and other undiplomatic actions, but she never acted in a way that would justify the stereotypes against African Americans. There is hope because Glanville refused to see the sin committed against him. He focused instead on the potential for good that could come out of the incident.
In his mind, he can see the advantage of creating an ally in the police department. He knew that it would create a chain-reaction of events that would snowball into something significant. His wisdom and his character shone like a precious jewel, especially when he tried to shield other police officers from the impact of negative perception. In the end, his son did not lose hope. His son decided that despite the negative experience, he would still work hard to become a police officer. Obama was correct to say that in this struggle, one must rely on the audacity of hope.
Works Cited
Arant, Wendi and Ann Mosley. Library Outreach Partnerships, and Distance Education. New York: New York University Press, 2006. Print.
Crandall-Bear, Dale. Exploring the American Past. New York: Tillerman Press, 2007. Print.
Cuyjet, Michael. African American Men in College. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, 2006. Print.
Glanville, Doug. I was Racially Profiled in my own Driveway. 2014. Web.
Harper, Shaun and Quaye Stephen. Student Engagement in Higher education: Theoretical Perspectives. New York University Press, 2009. Print.
Obama, Barack. The Audacity of Hope: Thoughts on Reclaiming the American Dream. New York: Crown Publishers, 2006. Print.
Race refers to a group of people who have similar biological, religious, cultural and ethnic characteristics. America comprises people of different racial and ethnic groups. Due to the diverse personal characteristics, issues of social inequalities and racial segregation occur. As a result, a need to handle such challenges through collective participation of the government and citizens arises. The government has formulated several strategies for racial equality and integration. Citizens should also play an active role in combating such issues by appreciating ethnic diversity. The report provides a case analysis ethnic diversity in America.
Race and Ethnic Groups
According to the 200 census statistics, there are six legally recognized racial and ethnic category groups in America. The first category is the White American, European American, or Middle Eastern American. This category comprises people whose origin can be traced from Europe, Middle East, and North America. The group makes the racial majority with 77% of the US population. The second category is black American or African American. Most of the people originated from the Sub-Saharan region. The third category is the America Native or Alaska Native. Their origin is traceable to North, Central, and South America.
The third category is the Asian American. These are people of origins in Asia and Indian continent. The fifth category comprise of people of origins in Polynesia, Melanesia, and Micronesia. This ethic group is referred to as Native Hawaiians or Other Pacific Islander. The final group referred to as “some other race” is a racial group comprising of individuals who do not belong to any of the above groups.1
The Respondent interviewed
The respondent was a black American man aged 23 years. Being a White American I was privileged to share some of my life experiences with the respondent.
Ways of interviewing
Information and data was obtained from the respondent oral interviewing. The process involved a face on face interview with the client on two occasions. The respondent was required to give his view on racism in different perspectives such as racial diversity and racial segregation, the respondents were required to share their experiences relating to their race or ethnicity. This state of play was based on matters such as segregations, favoritisms, and inequality in resource distribution
The interviewing involved a one on one interaction with the respondent. The first setting of the interview was a restaurant. During theone and half an hour meeting we shared experiences based on our differences in terms of our ethnic and racial characteristics.The second setting was recreational park, which took place on a weekend for about two hours. During this meeting, we engaged into an in-depth discussion of the subject matter. More questions that are personal and discussion of ethnic diversity dominated the talk during the meeting. We were also able to discuss the importance ofappreciating racial and ethnic diversity.
The respondent proved friendly and welcoming. Thus, felt free to ask any question. I felt comfortable to interact with the respondent.
Differences in Every Day and Major Experiences
The respondent revealed that, Inequality, prejudice and racial disparities are major experiences across a number of areas such as family formation, employment, ethnic violence, housing, health, schooling, judicial rulings and incarceration rates.
As a result, many whites felt that racial discrimination was the drawback behind socioeconomic problems. The survey also revealed that African Americans strongly believed that discrimination remained the major reason for their unsuccessfulness.
The respondent revealed that inequalities existed in many social areas like. In his view, there was uneven distribution of resources based on factors such as race, gender, wealth, and religion among others. According to Healey and O’Brien, this situation occasionally leads to favoritisms that inhibit fair allocation of resources to all people based on their racial and ethnic origin.
There is still a lot of work left undone regarding the equality between blacks and whites segregated vicinities.2
Most Unexpected Information you learned in the Activity
The most unexpected information was the revelation of social inequality is significantly pronounced in the education sector. The respondent revealed that Racial in equality has been rampant in the American schools. Being black (blacks form the minority group in America) one is alienated from the whites, who comprise the majority group. Although this situation has gradually changed, schools that are meant for both blacks and whites face discrimination challenges. This state of affairs has affected the quality of education of the black children owing to educational bias.
The Identified Similarities
From the activity, I learned that the respondent appreciated ethnic diversity just as I did. In addition, that the respondent attained education from a prominent school dominated by whites despite the segregation challenges. The respondent denounced all activities relating to discrimination based on personal characteristics of color, gender, race, sexual orientation, and/or disability. All this concurred with my personal perspectives of ethnic diversity,
The most surprising similarity was our consensus view on issue of appreciating racial and ethnic diversity. I view racial segregation as an issue that has added away. Those involved is such activities can be seen as laggards and uncivilized persons. This was the same perspective of the respondent who was not pleased with segregation experiences and criticized them. In his view, appreciating ethnic diversity and treating each individual with dignity are sure ways of promoting harmonious relationships.
Appreciating Racism and Racial Differences
By interacting with the respondent, I was able to know the different experiences faced by black people. I was able to understand the importance of appreciating ethnic diversity.
Some of personal characteristics where discrimination is rampant are personal traits such as race, origin, class, gender, age, and religion among other traits.
For one to appreciate personal differences it is essential to acquire the knowledge about the correlation of the differences.that way it will be easy to understand the underlying I issues that relate to racial stratification, inequality, prejudice and discrimination.3
Appreciating racial and ethnic diversity is essential for a harmonious living among people of diverse racial and ethnic backgrounds. Personally, I regard it civilised and dignified to appreciate all people despite their personal characteristics of colour, race, disability or gender. My personal perspective concurs with that of my respondent who denounced all acts of discrimination based on personal traits. The respondent criticized such acts terming them as ill acts.
It is true that most white Americans regard private acts of racial discrimination as undignified. Contrarily, studies disclose that nearly half a century after the abolishment of racial segregation, prejudice, and oppression still exist in America. However, significant progress has been done to end racial segregation.4
Racial and ethnic relations
There has been a gradual process of racial and ethnic segregation in America. There are noticeable changes 1960s in terms of racial and ethnic relations. The fading away of racial segregation led to reduction of racism based on skin color. Recent surveys to study the perceptions of the whites towards the blacks show a steady trend of positive attitudes towards racial equality and integration. However, racial segregation has not been dealt with to satisfactory levels.5 Despite the fact that most Americans support the ideal of racial equality, not everyone believes that the country has overcome poor racial relations.6
Conclusion
Although racism and ethnicity in America is gradually declining after embracing racial equality and integration, there is a long way towards the implementation of these ideals. Racial segregation and unsubstantiated denial of rights has declined over the years. However, the civil rights movement failed to deal with many aspects, and racial inequality still persists and is yet far from over. Therefore, embracing and appreciating ethnic and racial diversity is the by the citizens is the sure way to promoting a harmonious existence where every individual is treated with dignity despite such personal differences of skin color, gender, age, sexual awareness, ethnic, and disability. American governments should seek a common understanding of ethnic diversity and encourage schools to integrate rigorous ethnic studies in both elementary and middle schools.
Reference List
Healey, Joseph, and Eileen O’Brien. Race, ethnicity, gender, and class: The sociology of group conflict and change. London: Sage Publications, 2014.
Henry, Norah, Eugene Tettey-Fio, and John W. Frazier. Race, Ethnicity, and Place in a Changing America. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2011.
Footnotes
Joseph Healey and Eileen O’Brien, Race, ethnicity, gender, and class: The sociology of group conflict and change (London: Sage Publications, 2014), 32.
Joseph Healey and Eileen O’Brien, 34.
Ibid, 45.
Norah Henry, Eugene Tettey-Fio, and John Frazier, Race, Ethnicity, and Place in a Changing America (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2011), 75.
Unfortunately, certain gendered and racial stereotypes tend to negatively influence people and especially females of color and result in the lack of mentorship of African American women. The study by Rosette et al. (2016) aims at exploring the influence of racial stereotypes of Asian and African American women on the two types of agentic bias, namely, agentic deficiency and agentic penalty. This is a mixed-method article as it uses both qualitative and quantitative types of research to gather, analyze, and process information related to the discussed problem.
For conducting their study, the authors used the conceptual framework based on intersectionality and subgroup research (Rosette et al., 2016, p. 2). In other words, they achieved the research results by analyzing the existing literature, conducting a free-response survey, establishing the connection between these findings, and proposing their own ideas. As for the methodology, the researchers conducted a survey with 180 Americans from ClearVoice Research and provided a Secondary Data Analysis (Rosette et al., 2016, p. 7). These findings together helped the authors understand and evaluate the stereotypical content that is associated with White, Black, and Asian American women subgroups.
As a conclusion, Rosette et al. (2016) propose that it is possible to find out how agentic deficiency and agentic penalty biases can prevent the advancement of women to leadership positions in case particular gendered and racial stereotypes become isolated and coherent with a certain agency dimension. This study may be evaluated as quality research that uses appropriate methods, draws significant conclusions after a thorough analysis, and contributes to the field and solution of the problem. It is also of great importance for my research topic about the lack of mentorship of African American women as it explores some stereotypes and biases against Black women and their leadership positions.
Reference
Rosette, A. S., Koval, C. Z., Ma, A., & Livingston, R. (2016). Race matters for women leaders: Intersectional effects on agentic deficiencies and penalties. The Leadership Quarterly, 1-17.
The article presented views regarding how people are defined by their religion, race, creed, culture amongst several factors. Society plays a role in determining the role that each of these various groups plays in influencing the activities of society itself. In certain cases, some groups can exert more influence than others while others continue to remain the suppressed and the “underdogs´, in a matter of speech.
The main focus was on women in particular who have had to face several discriminatory actions over time and hence, the struggle to assume equal rights has been long and persistent. The social conventions and norms have created an unappealing world for women to live and operate in. Gender and race are the defining aspects according to which the race to success can be achieved.
There is an underlying sense of resentment not only for the men’s oppressors but even for the “white” women who continue to play a vindictive role in this power-sharing process. Not only have they been presented as ignorant but they possess the ability to enhance the role of oppression within the society.
Society, therefore, is presented as a biased mixture of people who are bound by race more than anything else. Race precedes all differences and therefore, the struggle for equality is much greater for black women than for women.
The rule of divide and conquer is presented by the lack of unifying interests that take place within the black community. Black women view feminism as a weapon that would act against the interests of the black community. However, its view is presented in a rather harsh light as the fight for equality in all aspects has unified all women in several cases. And as the years go by, the differences have decreased and the situation has improved to a certain extent. The article does provide stark views due to the staunchness of the belief of the writer of the prevailing differences that have continued to dominate and will continue to do so thereon as well.
The article begins with a personal introduction of the author which is done to familiarize the readers with the personal biases that exist and the following essay outlines why they do. The essay centers on the negative forces that pertain to the way society continue to uphold racial differences and the bleakness of the situation is presented by the refusal of the black community itself to take corrective action.
The oppression has been dominant for so long, as the author points out, due to the inability of the black community to gather and act as a collective force. Somewhere the underlying tone presents the resentment that exists within the black community as a result of the above inability. The weaker sex; women are highlighted as the most oppressed as a result of the biases that pertain in society and which continue to exist.
Society is presented as a state of macabre where the people have been used for their benefits and purposes and continue to be used in this manner. Man has been pitted against man and history has several instances of wars having been fought for several reasons. These very divisions have threatened the structure of society and hence, the inequalities.
Women have continued to assert their rights but what this article places into question is the progress that has been made by them. Has this gender been able to achieve some level of equanimity or has the façade been just that-a a mere façade?
The reader is made to sit up and question these norms which bound us all to the present state of confusion and division that still exists and the various quotes and examples are portrayed to highlight the stark differences that these divisions have created. These instances are provided to certify the reason for the existence of feminists in the world of today.
The underlying irony that the author presents is the fact that these feminists are scorned as perpetrators and the cause of mayhem in an otherwise convention-bound society. The very fact that these feminists are the cause for some of the rights given to women today has been overlooked by men and hence, here lies the real matter. The questioning of those activities which seek to overtake social norms which themselves have created well-defined inequalities and discriminations.
The author questions the notion of sisterhood; the notion of all women being alike irrespective of their racial and cultural differences. This very notion is laughable due to the basic discriminations that exist within women today. Color has defined the rights the women have been granted and what has been overlooked is the abysmal role of history and precedents.
The “generation” gap is presented as one of the major causes behind this normative slavery. Slavery comes across each time a black woman goes to the grocery store. It is slavery that penetrates the existence of every black girl born today. The sad fact is that the older generation and the present generation refuse to align themselves to overcome these and hence, these differences are passed down generation by generation. Examples of art and literature are presented as the suffering occupancies which have had to face the brunt of a society that has been relentless in its pursuit of power and autonomy. The oppressed continue to be oppressed for the sake of maintaining the status quo and the power of the dominant ones.
The differences that exist between women even today have been overlooked by the fairer sex due to their fight for equality. For them, the fight is about obtaining their won rights and hence, the oppression of the black women, in particular, is somehow overlooked by them. The author outlines the basic weakness that exists even within women themselves.
The article highlights their failure to act as a collective force has allowed the men to dominate and subjugate them to even greater oppression. The feminists are even presented in an unfavorable light by the same men as it allows them to create differences and discord amongst women in general.
True awakening and realization, as outlined by the author, can never come across unless all are treated alike and meted the same way. What the article is insistent upon and the reader made aware of is the necessity to overcome these inherent divisions. As long as the black community women continue to hold each other with the eye of disfavor, progress is unquestionably limited.
What the reader realizes is that certain issues cannot be shared by all and hence, there lies the power of dominance. The violence and crimes that are experienced by black women on each walk of life cannot be shared by white women and hence, there lie the differences to which the black women are treated. The violence that is meted by black men to black women is seen as another measure of control which the women are subjected to each day of their lives and the very fact that feminism is scorned by them highlights the extremity of the situation.
These women have no source of escape as their gender refuses to accept these violent crimes, men subjugate them to the worst sort of human deprivation possible while society continues to threaten the fabric of their existence.
The reader might be horrified by the situation but what has to be hence, understood is the resilience and strength of character that these women have possessed for so many decades. They have continued to remain strong and the fight has been persistent. Despite all sorts of depraved activities and actions, their pursuit for a fairer and more equal world remains strong.
Lesbianism within the black community is akin to the existence of a sin-another prominent concern of the author. The underlying ironical tone is the fact these lesbians are scorned by those who themselves are the cause of much mayhem and evil activities. Due to this form of social control, the women have rejected their roles and are caught behind a shroud of fear of discovery of their actual existence.
This fear has penetrated the existence of many black lesbians and hence, the level of discrimination within the black community.
What this article has presented and made the reader aware of are several critical shortcomings of a society that has refused to allow equality to dominate and it is way past time that important changes culminated in order to resolve the above issues.
Angela Davis argues that countless chores collectively are referred to as “housework”. Among those are cooking, doing laundry, washing dishes, making beds, sweeping, shopping, and other chores. These types of chores are believed to consume approximately three to four thousand working hours of an average housewife’s year. These statistics are startling even though it concerns house chores alone without taking into account maternity responsibilities. Though years ago both black and white women have these house chores, Angela Davies keeps to the idea that black women experienced far worse treatment not only because of their gender but due to their race as well (“Women, Race, & Class” section 2, page 18). These days, the issue of housework concerns all women equally and irrespective of their race. Angela Davis’ point of argument is that women’s maternal and household duties have never been duly appreciated and are, as a rule, just taken for granted.
A woman goes through an ever-ending toil daily, and it is a rather rare occurrence that she gets appreciation for this. Maybe housework ought to be regarded as being virtually invisible since it is rarely noticed unless it is not done. This is often felt as the unmade bed or the unpolished floor. These are the kind of duties that are generally viewed as being invisible, in most instances repetitive, very exhausting, unproductive, and, unfortunately, uncreative. The result is that these adjectives eventually “perfectly capture the nature of housework” (Davis, 1989).
Therefore, one major question arises out of the above observations. Is there any chance of simultaneously eliminating the idea that housework should be only women’s responsibility and sharing this responsibility between men and women equally? Can this suggestion indeed bring about a satisfactory solution? It is expected that most women will joyously accept the advent of what may result from that assumption “househusband,” but unfortunately, “the desexualization of domestic labor would not alter the oppressive nature of the work” (Davis,
1983) that women experience from the type of work usually attributed to them. The final analysis of this issue concluded that there should be neither women nor men who should waste their time for work that is not even stimulating or productive.
Angela Davis gives her personal experience from the observations she made in Masai in 1973 when she took a jeep trip “across the Masai Plains” (Davies, 1983). (She describes this trip in her book “Women, Race, & Class”, section13, page 224). On an isolated small dirt road in Tanzania, she noticed six Masai women trying to enigmatically balance an enormous heavy board on their bare heads. From the explanations she got, these women were most likely transporting a house roof from one village to a new one which they were suspected to be in the process of putting up. Angela Davis got a rare lesson here about the Masai for whom it is the women who are responsible in nearly all circumstances for all of the domestic activities, among these being the construction and maintenance of their nomadic people’s temporary houses. In this instance, therefore, housework for the Masai women entails not just cooking, cleaning, sewing, and child-rearing but also house-building, a task that a majority of people would naturally expect from their cultural background to be for men. No matter how important “their men’s cattle-raising duties may be, the women’s “housework” is no less productive and no less essential than the economic contributions of Masai men.” (Davis, 1983).
In colonial America, women were responsible only for domestic chores; they were not allowed to take part in their country’s economic activities, especially outside the home. In this period, it was completely acceptable, for example, for a lady to be a tavern keeper. As industrialization advanced, there was a general change in the economic production of women to the factory. Though this may on one side be viewed as progress, the importance of women’s work suffered great systematic erosion domestically. It is thus not disputable here that women were at this point the losers much more in a double sense: first, the traditional jobs that they were accustomed to were usurped by the factories and eventually the entire economy slowly moved away from the norms of home duties thus leaving several women largely without significant economic duties. It was only in the middle of the 20th century that the factories provided textiles jobs for the majority of women. Unfortunately, another blow befell the women since “butter, bread, and other food products [which used to be produced by women at home] began to be mass-produced.” (Davis, 1983).
However, namely, the women who could work were able to struggle with the image of a housewife, as well as with the work of motherhood. Unfortunately, this concerned only white middle-class women who had more succeeded in gaining relative independence. In her book “Women, Race, & Class” Angela Davis addresses this issue (Section13 “The Approaching Obsolescence of Housework: A Working-Class Perspective”). She points out that having a job for women “is a powerful argument for the alleviation of the burden of housework.” (Davis, 1983) The woman who is working gains freedom from the house chores for she has financial independence from her husband; whether or not to become free from motherhood is the choice of her own since only the woman herself can decide which is of more importance for her – being a mother or being a worker. The attempts to balance between these two “occupations” sometimes prove to be unsuccessful, which often results in abandoning one of them. Nevertheless, what remains the fact is that women’s getting jobs and earning money changed the attitude towards them and led to their struggle with the image of a housewife.
It was at this point that the birth of a “housewife” was felt. Women’s roles began to get an ideological redefinition; women started to be referred to as the guardians of domestic life. This kind of redefinition was highly disputed and rejected by a large group of immigrant women that were flooding several working-class ranks, particularly in the Northeast. “These white immigrant women were wage earners first and only secondarily housewives”. (Davies, 1983) On the other side of the economy, there were several other women – millions in number– who worked away from home unwillingly in the South. The place of a woman in the U.S. of the nineteenth century consisted in working at factories for unbelievably small wages; this concerned both black and white women with the only difference that black women were forced to work due to the enslavement, whereas white women chose to work for independence reasons. “The “housewife” reflected a partial reality, for she was a symbol of the economic prosperity enjoyed by the emerging middle-classes.” (Davies, 1989)
The “housewife” perspective, however, remained rooted in the social status of the bourgeoisie as well as middle classes and later on “the nineteenth-century ideology established the housewife and the mother as universal models of womanhood” (Davis, 1983). The popular general view represented various women’s vocations as nothing but a general function of their duties more so in their homes; the eventual result is that those women who felt compelled to work for the wages were much later on treated as mere visitors into the masculine world economy. Since they were viewed as having stepped out of their “natural” sphere, they were not supposed to be treated in any way as full-fledged workers who could get salary. The eventual price they paid for this involved long hours of work, substandard working environment and inadequate wages. Their exploitation in the workforce was more intense as compared to that suffered by the male counterparts. It was at this point that sexism emerged as a vital tool that can be exploited to the maximum for the super-profits gains targeted forth by the capitalists (Davis, 1989).
If this industrial revolution would have resulted in some structural or even virtual separation of home economy from that of the public economy, it would be right not to regard housework as a vital and “integral component of capitalist production” (Davis, 1983). It is on the other hand related to the entire production just as a necessary precondition. This is because the employer is found not to be concerned in any way with the various ways in which labor-power is either produced or even sustained. They are only concerned with whether it is easily available and whether it will generate profit in the long run. It can thus be said that the capitalist production system is one that presupposes an existence of a certain type of body of easily exploitable workers (Davis, 1989).
Angela Davis has also noted racism and the effect it had on gender disparities. South African society is a good example since racism led to economic exploitation all the way down to brutal limits. In this kind of structures, the capitalist economy does betray its separation from the domestic life in a manner that can be regarded as being characteristically violent. The social architects found in the famous apartheid structures Black labor force portrayed as one that does yield greater profits as compared to the whites if the system does succeed in completely discarding their domestic lives. “Black men [were] viewed as labor units whose productive potential render[ed] them valuable to the capitalist class” (Davis, 1983).
In the United States of America, women of color, in particular the Black women, have for long been paid wages just for housework in over several untold decades. World history abounds with the cases when black people were not paid for their work even after the abolishment of slavery. For instance, in 1910 around a half of Black women worked outside their homes, but only one third of this number were paid for being domestic workers. Much has changed over the last decades. By 1920 approximately over one-half worked as domestic servants and later on in 1930s, the fraction had risen to three out of every five (Davis, 1989).
Considering these issues, one may start wondering where women would go if they could leave the confines of their home (some cultures still forbid women leaving their native countries with the purpose of working). It can thus be generally concluded that if the improvement in wages for housework did eventually achieve minimal in providing a basic solution to the centuries’ eternal problem of women’s oppression, then neither will the solution substantively solve the discontent that is felt by a contemporary housewives. It is worth not forgetting that as the world technology and economy greatly advanced, housewives generally became more frustrated with their lives as compared to the previous centuries and thus a need to accept the need to change the perceptions and opinions about the women (Davis, 1983).
Are Lesbians women, by Jacob Hale
Jacob Hail raises an argument that challenges the position of Monique Witting who held that lesbians are not women. Towards this, he develops an articulation that examines who a “woman” is in the contemporary United States and towards this end, he uses 13 defining distinct characteristic to put up his argument.
Though Hale does not agree with Monique, the paper addresses other scholars who have seconded Monique. There are positive reactions towards Monique’s comments and some of them are in reputable academic journals. Witting held on to the view that lesbians ought not to be viewed as women but rather as something else. Hale however does not find her juxtaposition of the various reasons that she puts up the claim to be satisfactory. This view from Hale is because the argument that is put up by witting is one that fails to have a clear border between the truthful claim and a strategic refusal. Though witting uses the view that lesbians are not real women because to be one ought to be ‘real’, her mistake as Hale sees it is that she uses the word “real” in such a manner that it does conform to her own principles. In her explanations of marriage, there is no evidence to show that heterosexual marriage happens to be the only type of relationship that does count as a type of binary relation which can exist between a woman and a man.
The Five Sexes. Why Male And Female Are Not Enough
By Ann Fausto-Sterling
The western culture boldly holds that there are only two true sexes. This is clearly denoted even by the language as it is depicted in this paper. A human being is either referred to as he or she. Also noted is that legally, one is recognized as either being a woman or a man. Ann Fausto-Sterling shows that if the legal systems of the state strongly maintain their stand on the two-party sexual system, then they can only be said to be in complete defiance of the nature. It is however accepted that it is difficult to estimate the intersexuality frequency. The modern advancement in surgical technology and physiology does give the intersexuals a chance to go through the “normal’ development through hormonal and surgical interventions. It is however worth noting that the challenges that the intersexuals face during socialization call forth for better analysis of this issue.
The Five Sexes Revisited By An Fausto-Sterling, 2000
The paper addresses the great question of who is an intersexual and also the concern of how many intersexuals that there could probably be. The paper gives a highlight that approximately 4% of all births at one point eventually turn out to be intersexuals. The idealized, biological and platonic world has that human beings are perfectly dimorphic species and thus the question of where the intersexuals are categorized arises. Nature has proved to be a challenge to the physicians who decide for the newborn intersexuals children as to the type of sex they belong. The paper gives several examples such as of John/Joan who later on refused what the physicians predetermined for him to be a girl but later on turned as an adult who adopted masculinity even without the sexual organs. Some cases of success have been reported but much more is left to be discovered as nature has in several instances disapproved the physicians.
The Lost Boys of Sudan suffered from the externalized costs of the US and other developed countries’ consumption habits. The reasons for the Sudanese Civil Wars, during which the children became lost or orphaned, were in the natural resources of Sudan. The population of the country, which territory is rich in oil, was sacrificed to the interests of the developed countries. Looking for sources of cheap raw materials, the governments of these countries fueled the conflicts. These were not oil resources but the consumption habits of the aggressors that caused the warfare.
One of the main exporters of Sudanese oil is China. It means that the government of the country was interested in accessing the resources. The Sudanese government did not manage to resist the aggressor’s policy and China became one of the main Sudanese suppliers of arms. The population of the country was sacrificed to consumption interests. Sudanese government not only did not resist the invaders but even helped them, buying arms in China.
Dehumanization prevents people from leaving the lower class and crossing the conceptual border into the middle and upper classes. Regarding the Afro-Americans being inferior and dehumanizing them, the government policy deprives them of the opportunity to leave the lower class. The accidents after Hurricane Katarina, when the Afro-Americans survived in the natural disaster but were shot by white people in the street, are striking. For example, Alexander and Collins were not shot in Algiers Point, having promised not to return to the place. In this situation the Afro-Americans could be killed, they were oppressed, not to mention the opportunity to leave the lower class.
Another example is Barbara Ehrenreich, who investigated the lifestyle of the average working Afro-American. The author concluded that these people are deprived of elementary essentials. They sleep in their cars, not having enough money for renting a flat, and dream of a day off. The process of dehumanization, when their human rights are not taken into consideration, rules out the possibility of increasing their standards of living. The citizens’ narrow-mindedness coupled with the government policy does not allow the Afro-Americans to enter the higher classes.
The documentary When the Levees Broke by Spike Lee exemplified the central questions of Sociology and Political Science. These questions are the social inequality and use of political spin in order to gain the voters’ voices. The measures were not taken for saving the lives of the Afro-American citizens during Hurricane Katarina. One of the talking heads of the documentary, a resident of New Orleans, expresses his disregard for the government, the president and even St. Bernard Perish. This demonstrates one of the sociological issues and the citizens’ assurance, that the government did not solve the problem because of the attitude to the black population of the region, as nobody helped them.
Another vivid example that raises one of the questions of Political Science is the talking head dictating her phone number for Barbara Bush. The woman is indignant at the fact that the government breaks the promises. The citizen admits that the government discusses the questions of democracy using fine words, while its citizens are dying from starvation and diseases. The government ignored the problems of the region, though the disaster could have been prevented. The contradiction of the government’s words and actions as one of the issues in Political Science is exemplified in the documentary.
In the video New Orleans: Victims and Vigilantes Marcel Alexander says that his attitude towards the white people has changed. This statement may correspond to the representatives of the government, vigilantes. At the same time, it can correspond to the white marauders, killing the black population during Hurricane Katarina. All the crimes committed by the white people – on the level of government and citizens reminded the Afro-Americans about the conceptual border of race in the United States. These events formed the stereotypes of the white population in the consciousness of the blacks and broadened the gap between the races.
The natural disaster only escalated the conflict. The pre-conditions of the tragedy were in the consciousness of the citizens. Neither government nor vigilantes supported the victims. It was hard for Afro-Americans to believe that they were left to die only because of their racial origin. But the nation that dehumanized the blacks did not pay attention to the tragedy.
Writing the essay regarding the characteristics of the border communities at the beginning of the semester I was assured that racial prejudices are the survival of the past. But it appeared to be that the conceptual border of race remains in the consciousness of the Americans of the twenty-first century. The course drew my attention to the recent events and demonstrated them from a new perspective. The videos and documentaries with the talking heads provided the opportunity to hear the voices of the true victims. I realized that the problem of conceptual borders is up to date for present-day society.
Before taking the course I, as well as most of the victims, did not think that the conflict is so acute. It was hard to believe that people can dehumanize other people and kill them without pangs of conscience. The fact that the law does not protect the rights of rightful citizens shocked me. The numerous questions of the racial discrimination illuminated in the course opened my eyes to the social inequality in the state that is named democratic. The course made me realize that the conceptual border of race is one of the important factors influencing government policy.
Bibliography
“Borders and Regions: Interdisciplinary Perspectives”. The California State University. n.d. Web.
Holden, Joan, Ehrenreich, Barbara. Nickel and Dimed. Dramatists Play Service, 2005: 67.
Leonard, Annie. The Story of Stuff. Simon and Schuster, 2010: 352.
Today, in contemporary American society comprising different cultural and ethnic backgrounds, differences have emerged between cultures and ethnicities. The act of distinguishing oneself from another group of people either culturally, ethnically, socially, or racially defines segregation (Brown, 2020). Furthermore, Yi et al. (2019) insinuate that segregation is a term that reflects the extent to which social groupings are geographically isolated from one another and implicitly socially isolated. This idea is connected to a concern in the degree to which residents of an area share standard social features (Yi et al., 2019). Such qualities have historically been assessed based on ethnic origin or socioeconomic class, while attention in the aggregation of the fortunate has grown (Yi et al., 2019). Segregation creates significant issues since many communities have economic and racial segregation (Yi et al., 2019).
During the Great Migration, many African-Americans fled the Jim Crow Peninsula’s impoverishment and misery in seeking a better life in urban centers. However, they quickly realized that the North had its framework of racial discrimination, most notably in real estate markets (Akbar et al., 2019). Due to a combination of intimidation, malicious attack, and exclusionary real estate techniques, black immigrants were confined mainly to dwellings in established black communities (Akbar et al., 2019). The fictional history stresses whites’ collaboration to preserve the segregation laws, which evolved from furious masses in the initial periods of the Great Migration to the development of elegant community construction (Akbar et al., 2019). These groups were formed to reduce the cost of implementing prohibitions, which were deed restrictions that prohibited the selling of a home to an immigrant community (Akbar et al., 2019). The Great Migration led to the immigration of other groups such as the Hispanic and Latino Americans.
Cities grew at an extraordinary rate throughout the first half of the 20th Century, but African-American migration from South was only one factor contributing to this boom. Immigrants from Europe were more numerous quantitatively, notably before the first National Immigration Act’s (NIA) introduction in 1921 (Shertzer & Walsh, 2019). Consequently, segregation arose in increasing urbanization, contrary to the post-war years, which saw significant suburbanization and demographic losses in cities (Shertzer & Walsh, 2019). Between 1880 and 1930, the proportion of people dwelling in center cities increased from 14% to 33% before plateauing (Shertzer & Walsh, 2019). Three cities expanded due to population growth and the acquisition and industrialization of peripheral areas (Shertzer & Walsh, 2019). Furthermore, between 1900 and 1930, the density of the population of the typical affluent community grew by 68 percent.
Several working-class and lower-middle-class families lost their homes during the Great Depression. They were unable to make their bills on time. As a result, the Public Works Administration created the nation’s first civil government housing (Shertzer & Walsh, 2019). Initially, it was mostly for whites in restricted white complexes, and a few developments for Blacks in isolated African-American complexes were created at some point housing (Shertzer & Walsh, 2019). This method frequently fragmented communities that had not been separated earlier. The Depression provided the impetus for constructing the first citizen social housing (Shertzer & Walsh, 2019). Without that regulation, most of these municipalities would have expanded differently in terms of the residential arrangement. Because of the Great Depression and the Great Migration into the United States of America, the inhabitants, who were white Americans, felt insecure with the influx of different groups within them. This paper aims to analyze the relationship between segregation and other variables such as race, employment, and a criminal record in the United States of America.
Segregation and Race in the United States of America
Segregation that is race based takes various forms in the United States today. Benton (2018) enumerates that the United States of America is among the top leading nations globally with a higher prevalence of racial segregation. Furthermore, Benton (2018) insinuates that Saint Louis is hyper-segregated on a white-black basis, which means that at most 60% of blacks and whites would have to relocate to a new demographic unit to cease discrimination. Particularly, 65% of the Saint Louis neighborhood’s African-American and white population would be displaced, ranking the town as the twenty-first highest segregated in the country. Inside Saint Louis, inequality is predominantly along a south-to-north axis along Delmar Boulevard. Today, racial segregation in the USA is evident in learning institutions, housing markets, the prison industry, and health access (Benton, 2018). Racial segregation is a continuous phenomenon that requires urgency if it is to be done away.
Racial Segregation in Learning Institutions in the United States of America
With the continued immigration of different people into the United States of America, there is expected to be an interaction of different people with different racial backgrounds. The interaction is further extended to learning institutions across all learning levels. Despite the 1954 Brown decision finding that explicit acts of prejudice in learning, notably the doctrine of separate – but – equal, unlawful, in the early twentieth Century, light and dark children in the USA have significantly different academic opportunities (Hahn et al., 2018). For instance, in Alabama, Black children received far limited resources than White children (Hahn et al., 2018).
Inequality in schooling among whites and blacks is evident as expressed by the inability of black students to attend better and performing schools. Hasan and Kumar (2019) insinuate that this inequality in obtaining better schools by black children is attributed to the low-income earnings of their parents. The fast rise in top-income families’ earnings, along with the substantial rising inequality for low and middle residents, has transformed numerous elements of life in communities across the United States. For instance, Hasan and Kumar (2019) discovered that income-based geographical discrimination expanded when income disparity climbed from the 1970s to the 2000s.
When high-income white families clustered regionally, wage and racial discrimination trends increased (Hasan & Kumar, 2019). As a result of this increase in income segregation, the impact on the American populace’s education – a fundamental engine of economic opportunity – has been significant (Hasan & Kumar, 2019). For instance, they discover that discrimination had a major influence on the structure of public schools, with high-income white households disproportionately receiving access to higher-performing schools (Hasan & Kumar, 2019). One consequence of this segmentation is that lower-income black pupils’ educational progress is harmed without access to high-quality schools.
Schooling is an important human capital accumulation that expands future chances for meaningful jobs, discouraging engagement in crime. Therefore, it is commensurate with several studies demonstrating that increased wages lower crime and decades of employment market research demonstrating that education raises pay levels (Lochner, 2020). The human capital development and education should reduce crime if productive capacity increases the optimal rewards to employment far beyond crime (Lochner, 2020). Thus, programs that raise school enrollment should reduce most adult gang activity (Lochner, 2020). However, particular forms of white-collar crimes, such as corruption and forgery, improve with academic knowledge if the talents taught in school are properly rewarded.
Racial Segregation in Housing Markets in the United States of America
Housing is the primary asset for most mainstream households in America and a significant factor in racial wealth inequality. In their study, Akbar et al. (2019) observed that enormous concentration levels of black families residing on nearly all-black blocks grew from 52% in 2010 to 63% at the decade’s end. Additionally, racial transformation plays a significant role in the immigrant experience during this decade (Akbar et al., 2019). Akbar et al. (2019) insinuate that only 4% of black households reside on mainly white blocks in 2019. Therefore, it is evident that racial segregation still exists today in the USA.
The Housing Act of 1949 and the Supreme Court’s decision on the Buchanan v. Warley case have contributed to the continuance of racial segregation in the housing industry in the United States today. Akbar et al. (2019) enumerate that in the early 20th Century, several cities, particularly border cities like Kentucky, St. Louis, Baltimore, and Louisville, passed zoning ordinances. These zoning regulations are meant to prohibit African-Americans from moving onto a block that is majority white. For one thing, many African-Americans cannot afford to reside in wealthy communities during the height of these systems of public discrimination (Martin & Varner, 2017). Large communities established with FHA support, such as Levittown and New York, were required to be entirely white. While whites claim to welcome the inclusion of African-American neighbors, in reality, they ignore communities with more than a few African-American residents and limit their exploration to predominantly white populated neighborhoods (Massey, 2020).
The residences in those areas sold for around $100,000 each in the modern currencies. The resident and housing cost is twice the national wage and are affordable to minorities and whites alike, yet they were exclusively available to employed whites (Martin & Varner, 2017). Those properties will sell for seven to eight times the national average income within a few generations, rendering them unattainable to low African-American earners (Martin & Varner, 2017). Thus, the discrimination that occurred during the construction of the homes established a permanent system that kept African-Americans out as valuation developed (Martin & Varner, 2017). White households benefited from the development of their homes in terms of home equity and wealth (Martin & Varner, 2017). African-Americans who were made to remain in condominiums and were not allowed to purchase a home received none of this praise.
Racial Segregation and Health Access in the United States
Children of African-American women have inherent susceptibility problems during birth due to their well-documented elevated risk of premature birth and higher mortality. This gap is partly because women of color face higher concurrent income poverty rates (Beck et al., 2020). This deficit has raised the likelihood of prematurity and the consequent health problems and cognitive development of infants (Beck et al., 2020). Care quality is an essential and theoretically adjustable element that contributes to differences and is one of the mechanisms through which discrimination, marginalization, and disparity severely impact the effectiveness of very premature newborns.
In two ways, variations in care quality have resulted in ethnic and racial inequities. First, white and minority newborn children get treatment in various NICUs, and NICUs that serve minority newborns predominantly may have physical properties linked with poor care quality (Beck et al., 2020). Furthermore, Beck et al. (2020) suggest that the development of communities or putative therapeutic contribute to lower quality of care among women of color (Beck et al., 2020). Second, the quality of care obtained by preterm newborns in individual NICUs varies by ethnicity and race. Significant and enduring gaps in clinical outcomes and access to healthcare are extensively observed in the United States of America, notably among non-Hispanic African-Americans.
These paths may be determined by organizational and clinical processes rather than structural traits, which disadvantage minority newborns (Beck et al., 2020). Racial segregation in the health sector in the United States is still an ongoing practice in the 21st Century. Income levels in the USA are a major contributing factor in racial health segregation among African-Americans, Hispanic and Latino Americans, and Mexican Americans. Additionally, Bailey et al. (2017) suggest that neighborhood segregation has been linked to adverse birth outcomes, higher susceptibility to air contaminants, shorter mortality, and a higher likelihood of serious illness. Social inequality significantly impacts treatment access, consumption, and effectiveness at the community, medical system, clinician, and personal level.
During the last two decades, evidence has accumulated showing very low birth weight (VLBW) infants of African Americans being cared for in a small number of healthcare facilities. Minority-serving healthcare institutions have significantly greater neonatal death rates for African-American and white newborns (Beck et al., 2020). Beck et al. (2020) enumerate that recent researches have moved beyond death to include severe newborn morbidity, with similarly conclusive results. Black and Hispanic premature birth babies have much more probable VLBW newborns to be conceived in medical facilities with greater risk neonatal deaths rates (Beck et al., 2020). (Bailey et al., 2017) insinuate that divergent dynamic analysis today in the USA accounts for 40% of the African-America and white difference in very premature birth neonatal death rates. In the USA, healthcare there has been a discovery that African-American infants have low prevalence rates to be delivered at Magnet-designated facilities (Beck et al., 2020). There is an increased risk of death of minorities’ children who most likely are born in non – Magnet healthcare institutions.
Racial Segregation in the Prison Industry in the United States
Segregation has been practiced in American Prisons, but historical sources date it back to the 17th Century. Brown (2020) enumerates that racial segregation persists in contemporary American society. In the prison industry, as defined by Brown (2020), racial segregation is evident in the following scenarios as discussed in the following literature. Situations of segregation can vary significantly in terms of the number of hours spent in the cell, the amount to which intentional activity is permitted, visitation qualification, and the accessibility of literature and other entertainment activities (Brown, 2020). First, considering the amount of time spent in a cell greatly differs between the prison inmates. Brown (2020) enumerates that African-Americans spent long hours in the cells than other inmates from other races. Despite the degree of crime for which an African-American has been incarcerated, from high-degree crimes like homicide to lesser crimes like burglary and theft, their cell hours are more.
Intentional activities that an inmate may be permitted to do, such as participation in various sporting activities, are restricted to African-American inmates. Brown (2020) ascertains that today’s United States of America prison industry has limited the intentional activities of African-American inmates compared to their white counterparts. A majority of the African-American inmates incarcerated in the USA prisons have inadequate access to physical activities, and as a result, most of them have deteriorating health (Brown, 2020). Additionally, visitation qualifications for the African-American inmates are had to attain due to the cumbersome and the extent of difficulty the qualification procedures made for them (Brown, 2020). Thus, this has increased the rate of social exclusion of African-American inmates from their families.
Consequently, accessibility to learning materials and entertainment is proportionately low to African-American inmates compared to other inmates of other racial origins. Brown (2020) enumerates that a greater percentage of African-American inmates in most USA prisons have lower literacy levels than whites. Brown (2020) associates the low literacy levels among African-Americans with limited access to education that leads to criminal activities, hence their higher number in the US prison industry. Therefore, the low literacy levels have further impacted the unavailability to access white-collar jobs even after their release from prisons.
Segregation and a Criminal Record in the United States of America
While most scholar research differentiation emphasizes learning institutions, labor markets, and families as the key households driving disparities, a new organization has surfaced. The new system is critical to selecting and classifying youthful and marginalized men: the criminal justice industry. The increase in the incarceration rate has had a disproportionate effect on African-Americans (Lochner, 2020). Currently, in the USA, there are over 2 million people detained (Lochner, 2020). Additionally, another half a million are acquitted each year, leading to the rapidly growing percentage of men handled via the criminal justice system (Lochner, 2020). Thus, it presents a serious challenge about the repercussions of this enormous organizational involvement. Confinement, particularly, is related to diminished potential career chances and financial prospects, both of which are powerful determinants of rehabilitation (Lochner, 2020). The increase in the inmate population has had a disproportionate effect on minorities. In 2000, the imprisonment rate for African-Americans was approximately 10%, contrasted to slightly over 1% for white Americans of the same age range (Lochner, 2020).
Today’s young African-Americans face a 28 percent lifetime risk of imprisonment, a statistic that jumps to more than 50% for youthful African-American high school dropouts. These massive prison populations result in a sizable and growing community of minority ex-offenders emerging to their neighborhoods in search of employment (Lochner, 2020). The stigma associated with minority status and a criminal background exacerbates these males’ difficulties in achieving economic self-sufficiency (Lochner, 2020). Such changes have the potential to have far-reaching ramifications for expanding racial inequality (Lochner, 2020). Americans have strong and pervasive unfavorable preconceptions of blacks, with one of the most frequently stated current clichés involving thoughts of delinquent and dangerous inclinations (Lochner, 2020). The same assertion is supported by Massey (2020), who elaborates that most whites equate the simple existence of African-Americans to increased incarceration rates, underperforming schools, and reduced housing values regardless of the community’s proper conditions. If managers consider all African Americans as potential violent criminals, they are likely to make fewer distinctions between those with and without formal criminal backgrounds.
Actual substantiation of illegal activity would then supply false alarms while supporting evidence would be ignored. In this context, consequences should be worse for all African-Americans, with less disparity amongst those with and without a history of violence (Lochner, 2020). On the other hand, a criminal background may have a detrimental impact on African Americans if organizations, already suspicious of African-American applicants, are more reluctant to take chances on African Americans with demonstrated violent backgrounds. Furthermore, in the USA today, there is a higher likelihood of a police officer shooting an armed or unarmed African-American than a white (Johnson, 2018). Bailey et al. (2017), in their research on institutionalized racism, found out that there is the continued discrimination of African-Americans in their neighborhoods, linking them to rising incidence of murder and other criminality.
The police industry association of African-Americans with criminal behaviors has had a detrimental effect on the lives of African-Americans. The extension has been observed in the police industry, where racial killings have been witnessed even without proper criminal evidence. Cases in point in point include the killing of Gorge Floyd in 2020 and Tamir Rice (Johnson, 2018). For the case of Tamir Rice, Johnson (2018) enumerates that authorities were alerted after receiving a complaint from a pavilion reporting the presence of a man with a handgun, which was most likely a hoax. Additionally, the caller stated that the individual seemed to be a youngster. The operator reportedly did not convey to the attending cops the intelligence that the pistol did not happen to be actual, and the person seemed to be a minor.
Officers attending spotted an African-American individual seated beneath the pavilion with a dark revolver on the table. The cop noticed the African-American male picking up the weapon and stuffing it into his belt. The cops responded and presumably called many times from inside the moving vehicle for Tamir to come to a halt. As the police exited the car, Tamir went into his waistline and drew the revolver out; the police promptly shot Tamir. According to the police, the suspect seemed to be a young man in his youth (Johnson, 2018). Tamir appeared to be older chronologically. Prosecutors stated that many onlookers observed Tamir with the plastic pistol throughout the day, removing it from his waistband and aiming it at people. Furthermore, in the USA today, there is a higher likelihood of a police officer shooting an armed or unarmed African-American than a white.
Police officers’ explanations for why they are more willing to attack a defenseless or dangerous African-American suspect differ. Cops shoot African-American suspects at a higher rate than other races because of stereotyping due to racial clues (Johnson, 2018). In this situation, African-American suspects are deemed more threatening than other offenders and more likely to be assaulted by police during interactions (Johnson, 2018). Police officers kill young African-American guys at six times than young white males (Johnson, 2018). Additionally, it has been established that cops of any race are equally prone to use lethal force. In shoot-or-don’t-shoot circumstances, officers and non-police respondents pressed the shoot toggle more quickly for African-Americans than for Whites. Johnson (2018) asserts that law enforcement officers exhibit unconscious prejudice and bigotry toward African-Americans, resulting in increased surveillance and arrests relative to White suspects.
The other reason that African-Americans are gunned down or killed by cops at a higher rate than Whites or other races is that African-Americans commit more heinous crimes in the communities where they live. Although African-American account for around 13% of the US demographic, they are more likely to murder law enforcement officers and commit some forms of criminal activity than Whites (Johnson, 2018). Johnson (2018) discovered that nearly 90% of police killings featuring African- American suspects occur in locations where the African-American population outnumbers the white people and in impoverished communities. Environmental influences, such as elevated crime communities, seem to substantially impact determining where law enforcement officers are more presumably to use excessive force or physical force on African-Americans defendants. Additionally, Johnson (2018) argues that there is an assumption that violence is permissible in high-crime communities.
Segregation and Employment in the United States of America
Segregation in the employment sector in the United States of America takes various forms. There have been gender discrimination in the employment sectors in the USA more in tourism sector (Hutchings et al., 2020). Hutchings et al. (2020) enumerate that women make up a vast percentage of the tourism workforce internationally. However, they continue to be disadvantaged in managerial positions and extensively employed informal labor and low-wage professions. According to Hutchings et al. (2020), women in labor, especially in the tourism sector, face gender inequality, labor force, and occupational discrimination. Additionally, they work under family confrontation and other hurdles to jobs and career advancement.
Tourism, which represents over USD 1.4 trillion in export earnings, is an employment industry with various professions. The diversity encompasses part-time, contractual, or needless academic training, providing the potential entry into the work (Hutchings et al., 2020). Tourism employment is also significantly gender-segregated and remains so (Hutchings et al., 2020). While women make up 54% of tourism workers, they receive 14.7 percent less than males and are disadvantaged in tourism management and ministry positions (Hutchings et al., 2020). The female gender is prominently recognized in poor and part-time, informal, and irregular occupations and are more likely to face terrible working circumstances, abuse, victimization, frustration, and sexual assault due to their employment (Hutchings et al., 2020). Nonetheless, Hutchings et al. (2020) stated that tourist employment presents a composite image of autonomy and victimization for women. They indicated that jobs in tourism reinforce women’s economic and sexual oppression through oppressive work conditions, which are particularly prevalent among young, minority groups, and migratory employees.
Employment segregation is also evident in American society through the increasing percentage of immigrants and African-American individuals in the informal employment sector. During the Great Depression and the Great Migration, the influx of immigrants saw many minority groups fill the employment market. One of the factors that led to their immigration into the United States was the search for better job opportunities and improved living standards (Klaesson & Öner., 2020). Therefore, immigrants need to access better living standards, which meant that they were to compete with the whites for the available jobs in the employment sector (Klaesson & Öner., 2020). Today, as Klaesson and Öner (2020) insinuate, more African-Americans have acquired formal education and are better placed to compete with their white counterpart in various top managerial jobs.
As such, segregation based on racial prejudices exists widely in the United States employment sector. Klaesson and Öner (2020) enumerate that most employers in the various American agricultural and manufacturing sectors segregate African-American when it comes to job application. As Klaesson and Öner (2020), most managers associate these minority groups with criminal activities and violence even when the case is not so. Therefore when it comes to employment, racial segregation in employment ventures is evident. Additionally, Klaesson & Öner (2020) insinuate that most managers racially segregate when it comes to the provision of employment because they feel like the immigrants and the minority group would take away what they have worked for so long away from them.
Segregation and employment are also evident, as portrayed in class inequality and social hardship. As Tan et al. (2021) enumerate, the signs of racial oppression in employment are ethnic differences in income inequality and occupation in academic, technological, or management jobs. Inequalities in financial achievements between African-Americans and whites have been linked to various factors, including racial segregation in employment, spatial impediments to jobs, and learning institutional chances (Tan et al., 2021).
Conclusion
In conclusion, the above discussion on the relationship between segregation and race, employment, and a criminal record in the United States of America shows that segregation has detrimental effects on the social and economic lives of the Africa-American and other minority groups in the United States. Racial segregation has seen several minority groups suffer when it comes to accessibility to quality healthcare services. Furthermore, racial segregation has seen minority groups have low access to quality education leading to school dropouts accelerating crime rates. Gender discrimination against women in the USA has seen women rights violated, and as such, their value in society is diminished. Lastly, segregation has seen the whites associate African-Americans with vices even when it is not so. Various human intervention strategies should be incorporated into the United States’ legislation to see segregation brought to an end in all its forms for a harmonious and productive society.
References
Akbar, P. A., Li, S., Shertzer, A., & Walsh, R. P. (2019). Racial segregation in housing markets and the erosion of black wealth. National Bureau of Economic Research, 1-60. Web.
Bailey, Z. D., Krieger, N., Agénor, M., Graves, J., Linos, N., & Bassett, M. T. (2017). Structural racism and health inequities in the USA: Evidence and interventions. The Lancet, 389(10077), 1453-1463. Web.
Johnson, S. A. (2018). Police shootings: A review of the literature and the role of media in current racism & misrepresentation of the facts. Forensic Research & Criminology International Journal, 6(4), 269-278. Web.
Klaesson, J., & Öner, Ö. (2020). Ethnic enclaves and segregation—self-employment and employment patterns among forced migrants. Small Business Economics, 1-22. Web.
Lochner, L. (2020). Education and crime. In The economics of education, 109-117. Web.
Martin, L. L., & Varner, K. J. (2017). Race, residential segregation, and the death of democracy: Education and myth of post racialism. Democracy and Education, 25(1), 4. Web.
Shertzer, A., & Walsh, R. P. (2019). Racial sorting and the emergence of segregation in American cities. Review of Economics and Statistics, 101(3), 415-427. Web.
Tan, S. B., DeSouza, P., & Raifman, M. (2021). Structural racism and COVID-19 in the USA: A county-level empirical analysis. Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities, 1-11. Web.
Yi, H., Kreuter, U. P., Han, D., & Güneralp, B. (2019). Social segregation of ecosystem services delivery in the San Antonio region, Texas, through 2050. Science of the Total Environment, 667, 234-247. Web.