Category: Race

Introduction

Race relations in the United States reflects the colonial and slave era when discrimination against some races was prevalent. The issue of prejudice against Native Americans, Asian Americans, Latin Americans, and African Americans has taken place over the years.

The marginalized groups do not exercise their basic rights, which include civil, social, economic, and political rights. Since the constitution of the United States has robust provisions that protect human rights, the criminal justice system and human rights activists use them in reducing the prevalence of racial discrimination.

The minority groups such as the Black Americans have endured racial discrimination since the period of slavery. However, the society has not embraced the racial equality as a way of life, even when the Black American president is in power.

Racial discrimination reflects itself on diverse socioeconomic arenas such as workplace, education, and the political realm in the United States. Race relations encompass the way people of different races and cultural backgrounds relate in a community.

Therefore, the term paper examines the occurrence of racial discriminations in the United States by examining how different races interact in the labor market, education sector, judicial system, housing sector, and fashion industry.

Racial Discriminations in Labor Market

In the employment, discrimination has been visible in the past few decades as some companies could openly indicate that they do not employ the Blacks. In the United States, the chances of a White American to get employment are higher than that of an African American, an Asian, or a Latino owing to racial discrimination.

The labor market tends to experience a considerable racial prejudice. The marginalized groups face racial and sexual harassment as illustrated by a recent case where McDonald’s workers filed a case of racial discrimination and sexual harassment.

Most industries fired the Black employees from their jobs with the claim that they do not fit the profile of a specific work environment.

Supervisors also insult their employees using words such as ghetto, nigger, and coolie, as in the case of McDonald restaurant, where the supervisors allegedly abused their employees with reference to their skin color and their origin.

However, no one seems to take serious legal action against these supervisors even when the employees report them to the corporate offices. The management explicitly writes the company’s core values that embrace diversity and equal treatment, but in most cases, the leadership team fails to implement them.

In the labor market, race discrimination is also evident in promotion, payment, and work motivation allowances. In 2012, a case of discrimination came to the fore when African American employees accused the United Air Lines of discriminating against them in the aspect of promotion.

White American employers deny them the right to job promotions, regardless of their enhanced skills, increased job productivity, and their work experience. The stereotypical norms against their skin color and race deny them the opportunity to compete for higher positions.

Actually, discriminated employees earn lower salaries than their White American co-workers do. Hence, the Blacks are prone to discrimination in their workplaces despite their noticeable performance. However, bosses perceive the Blacks as low class citizens; hence, they find it appropriate to violate their employment rights.

Racial Discrimination in Education Sector

In education sector, racial discrimination is also prevalent, as the Black students initially could not study in the same school as White American students. Over the years, the situation has changed and the government has ordered the schools to integrate all races. Nevertheless, the discrimination continued in those schools.

The disciplinary department gives the Black American students longer detention and severe punishment than the White American students. According to a survey done in 2011-2012 by the United States Education Department, the Black students receive more suspensions than the White students do in public schools.

The administration has stereotyped that marginalized groups are prone to riot and their moral values are always in question. The access to veteran teachers is more available to the White students than it is to the Black students.

The minority students suffer social and psychological trauma, which affect their learning process and performance in classrooms.

Race Relations in Fashion Industry

The racial discrimination in the fashion industry is still present in the United States. Statistics show that the Black models in the United States have dropped drastically in a period of one year. Women with black pigmentation have minimal chances of enrolling in the fashion and design company.

The advertising clients do not consider the Black women since they believe that the Black people are not attractive. For example, The Times Sunday Magazine in the New York has a lower percentage of the Black models compared to the White models because the clients find them unmarketable.

Through observation, most photos in a runway indicate that the minority races are under-represented. Some of the minority supermodels of all time are Iman, Tyra, and Naomi Campbell. However, since the departure of Tyra and Iman, race inequality in the fashion industry is still high.

Race Relations in Housing

Race discrimination in the housing industry started after the abolition of slavery and has continued until today. The constitution fights against housing discrimination, but it is still prevalent in most areas. The discrimination is evident in the housing sector as renting, buying, selling, and financing houses have racial orientation.

Prejudice against Hispanics, Asians, and Blacks seeking for housing is evident today. A national study commissioned by the department of housing in 2013 illustrates that minority customers have a lower probability of getting a house than the Whites with equal qualifications.

The study points out that minority citizen are victims of racial discrimination in the housing industry. Mostly they get low class houses that are far away from schools and have no access to essential amenities. Most of the local governments violate the Housing Act by failing to grant the minority citizens the right to housing and permits.

Racial Discrimination in Judicial System

Racial discrimination in the judicial system is also prevalent in the United States as the Latinos, Asians, Africans, African Americans, Native Americans, and other minority groups find the judicial system as unfair in its dealings. The local police department tends to subdue the minority people and keep them in custody on minor crimes.

The judicial system views the marginalized communities as gangster groups, which host dangerous elements in the community. This stereotype makes the Native Americans and other minorities subject to the unfair judicial system through the police department. The system does not follow up on violation of the minority rights.

The power structure that the White people dominate does not consider the minority groups, who experience discrimination. The law is explicit in its provisions, but stereotypes cloud the enforcers and hinder the administration of equality and justice.

Impacts of Discrimination in the United States

Race relations in the United States have a negative impact on the marginalized communities and on the government at large. The people, who face all these kinds of discrimination, have psychological trauma, cognitive disabilities, and physical infirmities because their opportunities to elevate their lives have been incapacitated.

The prejudice limits their cognitive abilities as evident in their performance in schools and workplaces. Racial discrimination also limits their physical performance because strong judicial system does not support their determination to compete fairly in the workplace, housing industry, and other sectors.

The students in high schools and institutions of higher learning are likely to perform poorly due to limited opportunities in school and unequal treatment. The minority citizens experience diverse health risks due to their overcrowding in residential areas.

Racial discrimination affects the United States government negatively because unemployment of its citizens and workplace discrimination reduces productivity. Most people in the minority groups earn wages that are below the poverty level.

The discrimination against the minority weakens the national development indicators of the United States. The issue depicts the United States as a violator the international human rights, which the national government has the responsibility of guarding.

The poverty level is high among the minorities in the United States, hence, hindering efforts to eliminate poverty. The negative impacts of marginalization limit the livelihood of United States citizens and the gap will continue to enlarge between the majority and the minority.

Conclusion

Social relations are very important because they form the basis of our diversity. However, negative social relationships, such as racial discrimination, have detrimental effects on diversity. Establishment of social institutions offers robust strategies that aid in the elimination of racial discrimination.

These strategies include public participation in formulating policies in the education sector, labor market, political arena, criminal justice system, and housing industry amongst others.

Hence, the government should come up with a system of policy, formulate appropriate laws, and enforce the formatted laws efficiently through the judicial system. Moreover, the government should train and educate societies on the problems brought about by racial discrimination to eliminate the stereotypical norms of the minority groups.

Introduction

Minority isolation is a stark reality in North America. However, its manifestation and magnitude differs tremendously between Canada and the US. While Canada has ethnic enclaves, its housing patterns do not represent the extreme stigmatization and isolation that is prevalent in US ghettos. In fact, research shows that the prevalence of racialized ghettos in Canada is quite questionable as most locations are highly dispersed and racially neutral.

Furthermore, economic mobility is possible for those who live in them. Conversely, US ghettos embody extreme stigmatization of minorities. Socialization systems fail their residents and lead to continuous perpetuation of poverty from generation to generation. Therefore, while racial segregation in ghettos is endemic, plagued by poverty and involuntary in the US, Canadian ethnic enclaves are voluntary and heterogeneous in terms of income.

Comparison of racial segregation in housing between Canada and the US

Polikoff (2006) explains that Ghettoization is very much alive in the US. Segregation in housing has led to the development of racially-defined ghettos which entrap their residents. These ghettos arose as a result of numerous economic and social reasons. First, policies in the US have historically favored white land and home ownership, which has led to segregated housing patterns.

In the 1930s, the Federal Housing Act created a policy that provided loans to white home owners. In the subsequent decades, whites could enjoy tax exemptions while non whites could not. Construction firms built cheap and massive houses in the inner cities while a series of whites left for the suburbs.

Attempts at integration in the 1960s only perpetuated further zoning as white sub urban communities created their own municipalities. This provided them access to funds meant for all urban residents. Realtors also perpetuated racial discrimination by leasing and renting to certain races. Therefore, black settlers only had cheap housing in which to live. The result was an excluded minority-based residential community.

Conversely, racial minorities in Canada, who live in the same residential areas, did not suffer from continued discrimination in housing. Instead, most of them chose to live together for voluntary reasons. They came together in order to communicate and commune with one other.

Most ethnic immigrants spoke different languages and adhered to different cultures from the mainstream. They chose to live with persons who shared their background in order to feel comfortable. Therefore, unlike their American counterparts who were forced into the ghetto by discrimination in housing, racial minorities in Canada chose to live in these locations voluntarily. These individuals had the option of leaving those ethnic enclaves if they wanted to because social and economic policies were not stacked against them.

In essence, those enclaves are temporary neighborhoods that meet the needs of residents and then prepare them to integrate into the rest of society. Several locations in Vancouver, Toronto and Montreal are increasingly heterogeneous. This implies that there is no systematic growth of racial minorities in these locations. The racial character of former enclaves keeps shifting to indicate that a lot of integration is taking place.

US racialized ghettos are characterized by a high level of social isolation. Residents are cut off from institutions that form part of mainstream society. This implies that they do not have access to networks that would furnish them with employment opportunities. As a result, they are trapped in a cycle of continuous unemployment.

Other classes and ethnicities rely on business networks to secure employment, but African Americans in urban ghettos do not have such an advantage. They lack community associations that would provide them with such a platform. Members also do not attend school or political meetings regularly. Middle income blacks prefer not to interact with their low income counterparts as a result of fear.

Since crime and drug activities are rife in these ghettos, African Americans who would have helped the economically disadvantaged do not do so due to environmental constraints. Social cohesion, friendship ties and voluntary activities are elusive in racially segregated American ghettos (Whitehead, 2000).

Conversely, Canada appears to have the opposite problem. Ethnic enclaves in some parts of Canada like Toronto and Vancouver have immense levels of social networks. Chinese immigrant populations in these cities have high incomes and above average home ownership rates.

These networks emanate from community associations between immigrants of this particular group. The individuals have also taken advantage of their family ties in business to apply for mortgage loans, which have allowed them to own homes easily. It should be noted that these ethnic enclaves were not always like this in the past.

During the early 1900s residential locations with many Chinese immigrants were run down, filthy and crime-prone. However, adjustments in property taxes and the continued arrival of wealthy Chinese immigrants led to an adjustment of these racial enclaves (Evenden, 2004). Residential areas predominated by this ethnic community turned into historical sites rather than dysfunctional locations. Therefore, while the US ghettos continue to deteriorate, racial minority residential areas in Canada continue to flourish.

Decline in employment opportunities within ghettos in the US explains why the ghettos are racially segregated. Prior to the 1960s, African Americans in general could not access employment opportunities due to racial discrimination. However, after racial reforms and affirmative action, blacks could now access employment opportunities.

Most of them did blue collar jobs in manufacturing companies. However, subsequent decades saw a decline in manufacturing jobs as most of them were relocated to other parts of the city. Individuals from these ghettos could no longer access jobs and had to cope with increasing levels of poverty. Furthermore, even small business organizations that would have offered employment opportunities took a flight from these predominantly black ghettos. They left because manufacturers that supported the residents no longer existed.

It is difficult for residents in these neighborhoods to look for work in other parts of the city due to racial discrimination in white-only parts as well as challenges in transportation. As a result, a great degree of poverty is now prevalent in these communities. Many black, ghetto residents have turned to a life of crime and drugs in order to cope with unemployment. This has led to greater ecological deterioration of their housing units.

Canada does not seem to suffer from this problem. Persons of one ethnic community may represent the majority in a certain neighborhood; however their work choices do not necessarily come from the same area (Walks & Bourne, 2006). Racial discrimination is not as serious a problem in Canada as it is in the US. Blacks, Chinese, and other Asians can seek work in different parts of the city. This implies that even if unemployment levels diminish in their neighborhoods, racial minorities are free to look for it elsewhere.

Conversely, African Americans are trapped in their respective ghettos because they are likely to face suspicion from members of other neighborhoods. Their low income status also prevents them from owning cars and this limits their mobility. Immigrants in Canada do not seem to suffer from this challenge.

Migration patterns in US ghettos also perpetuated the racial demographics in those areas. First, high income or middle income blacks left the ghettos. Many of them explain that insecurity is the key driver for their departure. Financially stable blacks worry about the safety of their property in the racially segregated ghettos. Since unemployment is rife and policing is virtually ineffective, well-to-do residents have to worry about the theft of their property.

This has caused many individuals to leave the ghettos and move to the suburbs (Billingsley, 1992). Poor blacks have now been left in these residential communities. Another migration pattern is the entry of ethnic groups into these residential areas. Many immigrants lived in these urban ghettos and perpetuated the poverty situation in the locations. A number of them were willing to work for lower wages than their African American peers.

This has depressed minimum wages and added to the job competition among residents of racially-segregated ghettos. Immigrants from poor countries were also more qualified than their counterparts in the ghettos. Skill transferability was not possible for the immigrants.

Therefore, a number of them took low level jobs even though they were highly qualified. For instance, an engineer from Venezuela was willing to work as a carpenter’s assistant in the US. This made them preferable to the local population in the ghettos. Immense competition in these neighborhoods further narrowed employment chances for blacks and thus perpetuated poverty even more.

Studies indicate that migration patterns also have a large role to play in understanding ethnic enclaves in Canada. Immigrants who arrived in Canada after 1977 have had to deal with lower incomes than their counterparts before that. This is due to factors that have also been cited in the US ghettos. Foreign credentials are devalued in Canadian companies.

Therefore, immigrants cannot transfer their skills from their home countries into the Canadian labor market. Institutionalized occupational exclusion makes immigrants have fewer job prospects. Consequently, when they make residential choices, many of them will select neighborhoods that are easily affordable. This pattern explains why certain ethnic enclaves are characterized by low income workers. However, the extent to which these patterns exist is minimal as those enclaves are widely dispersed (Dib & Sriraman, 2007).

In the near future, it is likely that poverty, disadvantage and entrapment will pervade the racially-segregated ghettos of the US. The factors that created the ghettos are too deeply engrained to be eradicated immediately. Several housing stakeholders, like banks and mortgage lenders, have redlined racially-defined ghettos, so residents have minimal hope of owning or improving their houses.

Furthermore, some economic problems like the departure of industries and competition from immigrants are difficult to reverse. It is also hard to change social habits like networking when basic safety is a challenge.

Conversely, Canada is unlikely to witness emergence of racialized ghettos because the composition of most of its low income residential areas is mixed. Furthermore, visible minorities are few in number thus implying that they are likely to be dispersed. Avenues for social mobility are extensive, and this allows racial minorities to move or leave in ethnically-oriented neighborhoods.

Conclusion

Racially-defined residential areas in the US are ghettos. Residents have been forced there by involuntary factors like racial discrimination in housing and employment. This has led to unfavorable social traits like poor networking or community interactions amongst these racial minorities.

As a consequence, poverty keeps increasing and members have no way out. Conversely, Canadian racial minorities living in homogenous areas are not entrapped. They chose to live in those locations and can leave them. Minorities are few in number, have networks and are highly dispersed. Their situation is much more favorable than their counterparts in the US.

References

Billingsley, A. (1992). Climbing Jacob’s Ladder: The Enduring Legacy of African American Families. New York: Simon & Schuster.

Dib, K. & Sriraman, B. (2007). The myth of ghettoization in urban Canada and Le Ghetto Francais. Plan, 3(6), 22-27.

Evenden, L. (2004). Vancouver’s Chinatown: Racial discourse in Canada. NY: Routledge.

Polikoff, A. (2006). Racial inequality and the black ghetto. Northwestern Journal of Law and Social Policy, 1(1), 1-25.

Walks, A. & Bourne, L. (2006). Ghettos in Canada?. The Canadian Geographer, 50(3), 273-297.

Whitehead, T. (2000). The formation of the US racialized urban ghetto. Web.

The literature of the 17^th century is characterized by the emergence of various works describing the life of African slaves in the New World. The books by European writers were largely influenced by the stereotypes and theories that existed at that period in Western society (Ferguson 166). At present, many scholars claim that the works by White authors were racist while some researchers argue that the preconceptions of European novelists (and Europeans in general) cannot be regarded as racist as modern people see it.

For instance, Hughes emphasizes that the perspectives of the people of the Old World were shaped by the existing focus on systematization (204). However, such books as Aphra Behn’s Oroonoko can serve as an illustration of the racist perspective of the author whose concepts of race are similar to the ones existing in modern society.

The author tells a story of the African “royal slave” named Oroonoko and his hardships in Surinam (Behn 123). It is noteworthy that the writer has a very positive view of the main character of the book and often stresses that he is much nobler than many Europeans. It seems that Aphra Behn simply tries to refute the notion that reigned at that period. It was believed that Africans were inferior in the mental and spiritual, and sometimes in the physical, aspects.

For this purpose, the author contrasts the African prince to the rest of “that Nation” and White people (Behn 130). She seems to idealize him and make him stand out against the rest of African slaves who were referred to as a “gloomy Race” (Behn 128). Although the woman admires the slave, she does not place him in one line with herself as she is White. Certain signs of White superiority or even supremacy can be traced in the book, and these instances are often camouflaged with admiration.

The concept of race is central to the book unveiling the peculiarities of life in the New World where Whites enjoyed many rights while other races (Africans or Local People) were seen as inferior. This inferiority was one of the founding blocks of the institution of slavery as Africans were thought to be suitable for physical work as they were void of White People’s spirituality and mentality. Ferguson emphasizes that the author tends to employ racial categorization as a means of “securing group identity by a (frequently mythical) set of genealogical rules” (162).

The researcher claims that the White author evaluates the nobility and virtuousness of Oroonoko and his wife, Imoinda, by applying the norms and values of the western world. For instance, the writer admires Imoinda for her being “the perfect embodiment… of an image of the ideal English wife as the property, body and soul, of her husband” (Ferguson 169). Other qualities that cannot be placed within the boundaries of the European paradigm are seen as innocence or a manifestation of the barbarism of the race.

However, this kind of categorization is what some researchers see as a product of the scientific culture of that period rather than racism as modern people understand it. Hughes argues that Behn does not provide a “racial classification” but rather utilizes “religious classification” (216).

This view is partially valid as religion serves as one of the most significant differences between races, but these beliefs were still racist. The entire book is permeated with a sense of condescension of the White author. Notably, the White woman expresses her sorrows as to the challenges and even tortures African slaves have to face each day. However, Behn does not try to condemn slavery or the stereotypes that existed at that time.

Moreover, Behn’s racism and contemporary race-related opinions have much in common. Modern White racists believe that African Americans are completely responsible for their hardships that are regarded as a result of certain traits of their characters. Behn also seemed to believe that Black People could be more suitable for heavy physical labor. One of the most striking features of racism of the 17^th, as well as 21^st, the century is White People’s unwillingness to see Black People’s cultures as equally important and sophisticated. Behn believed that Christianity and other attributes of the civilized world could make Africans closer to Europeans, but not their equals. Contemporary racists also think that Western values are more refined and appropriate for being successful in this world.

On balance, it is necessary to note that Aphra Behn provided a White view on the experiences of a Black man. The author is racist in the modern sense of this word as she tries to contrast Whites and Blacks with the focus on Western values and standards. According to such worldviews, the White race has the right to dominate and take away all possible resources from inferior races. Behn repeatedly tries to make Oroonoko stand out against the rest of the Africans. This glorifying is still an illustration of the stereotypes and prejudice that formed the foundations of modern racism.

Works Cited

Behn, Aphra. “Oroonoko.” Versions of Blackness, edited by Derek Hughes, Cambridge University Press, 2007, pp. 117-191.

Ferguson, Margaret W. “Juggling the Categories of Race, Class and Gender: Aphra Behn’s Oroonoko.” Women’s Studies: An inter-disciplinary journal, vol. 19, no. 2, 1991, pp. 159-181.

Hughes, Derek. “Blackness in Gobineau and Behn: Oroonoko and Racial Pseudo-Science.” Women’s Writing, vol 19, no. 2, 2012, pp. 204-221.

Racial discrimination happens where people are treated in unfavorable ways because they belong to certain races. In addition, people may be mistreated because of having characteristics associated with certain races such as hair texture or skin color. In fact, any connection with certain race based organizations may cause mistreatment of people. This means that married people may be accorded unfavorable treatments because of their association with their spouses’ races.

Racial discrimination is experienced in work places and other public places (Miller 86). For instance, people from certain races may be denied job opportunities or other services that are readily available to those from other races. In some parts of the world, racial discrimination is particularly rampant and it results to loss of lives. This happens where people attack those from other races causing physical harm and death in some instances.

My first cognition of race segregation happened when my close relative was denied an employment opportunity in Canada because she came from Nigeria. It was difficult for me to understand the reason behind this inhumane treatment regardless of their qualifications. She had completed her master’s degree, and this proved that she had what was required for that job. The job was given to a white person who did not have an undergraduate degree. This is particularly serious since it affects employment in various parts of the world. In addition, she was harassed by her fellow candidates when she went for the interview. Some made fun of her skin color and went ahead to openly laugh at her right. The whole incident was so sad since there was no much she could do. Relevant authorities in that place did nothing to stop the vice.

Nigerian culture does not support racial discrimination. In fact, Nigerians love white skinned people as they associate them with wealth due to the fact that whites visit the country as tourists. On the other hand, most African countries were colonized by white people hence they believe that there is a lot of power in them. In fact, nobody thinks of discriminating against white people in Nigeria. Although there have been claims of discrimination by some Nigerian companies, such cases are minimal (Miller 86).

The government in Nigeria has put in place rules that prohibit any form of discrimination. In addition, many people in Nigeria do not know anything about discrimination. Nigerian people who have ever traveled abroad may have experienced various forms of racial discrimination.

American attitudes towards race are different from those in Nigeria and other African countries. American’s perception on race has been influenced by their experiences with strong discriminations against blacks. In fact, in some states it was impossible for blacks to get any form of employment. In many cases, blacks have died from assault and harassments from white people. Situations were worsened by the fact that blacks were harassed by white law enforcers.

This means that governments in American states were doing nothing about racial discrimination unlike their counterparts in Africa. Nigerians treat white people as visitors who are bringing wealth to their country. In America most blacks are not treated like human beings. In fact, some white people end up insulting black people associating them with animals such as monkeys. This is unfortunate because American governments are not doing enough to curb the vice.

Works Cited

Miller, James. Acting Out Culture: Reading and Writing. New York: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2011. Print.

Introduction

The United States (US) is widely perceived as a melting pot, a place where people of various races and ethnicities live together and mix their cultures. A range of challenges occurs when they have to live in one neighborhood. In particular, Mexicans, Chinese, Vietnamese, and African-Americans are considered the minorities that experience the problems associated with their race and identification. This paper will discuss the inversion of race norms based on two books: the Madonnas of Echo Park by Brando Skyhorse and Phoenix Eyes and Other Stories by Russell Charles Leong.

Overview of Books

The Madonnas of Echo Park presents eight stories that are told from the perspective of several people living in Echo Park, a neighborhood in Los Angeles. The book portrays feelings, lives, and thoughts of characters that are integrated by living in a barrio, the area of the city with primarily a Spanish-speaking population. The lives of all the heroes are inextricably linked, and their behaviors and personalities are affected by this area.

Phoenix Eyes and Other Stories is also a collection of 14 stories that depict Asians and Asian Americans living in California. The issues of immigration, identity, the inability to accept gay children and AIDS, prostitution, and other subjects are covered in this book. It should be stressed that the characters such as Buddhism priests, street people, and hustlers struggle in finding their place in life. There are three parts of the book called Leaving, Samsara, and Paradise, which are reflective of one’s the development and life journey.

Attitudes of Racial Minorities to their Background

Since both identified books contain a lot of stories and themes, it seems to be appropriate to focus only on some of them to analyze them in detail. Such an approach will also be useful to answer the key question of how race norms are inversed in the US. Thus, the first story about Terence will be targeted in Phoenix Eyes and Other Stories and chapters 4-5 in The Madonnas of Echo Park.

In both books, the protagonists are racial minorities in the context of the US, and they try to understand their race and how it affects other people’s views. The first part of Phoenix Eyes and Other Stories focuses on Terence, a Chinese-American person who attempts to provide vows to become a monk (Leong 5). However, one of the vows, namely, the one associated with giving up sexual intercourse makes him stop and reconsider his views.

The narration of Terence shows that he identifies himself as gay, while his parents rejected them because of that. The family of the main character is described as traditionalist immigrants with a Chinese conservative perspective on relationships (Leong 24). The dilemma between Terence and his family becomes evident, and it seems that he is frustrated and afflicted by this situation. Indeed, it is the most complicated challenge when a person has to select between his or her family and personal identification.

If at the beginning of the story Terence’s racial awareness looks clear to him, he starts to doubt it, falls in love with a young male, and moves to Taipei, Taiwan. Furthermore, it is essential to point out that their relationships ruin, and the protagonist finds himself alone in an unknown city with no money for livelihood and no opportunity to seek help from his parents. He becomes an escort for wealthy American and Japanese men as an exotic person and the one who can support a conversation on various themes regarding politics, economics, current events, and art. The fact that Terence is engaged in this activity for over 20 years demonstrates that he has a great amount of time to learn lessons and ponder over his position in life.

At first glance, the story of the main character seems to be a mere presentation of how a Chinese-American person starts working as a prostitute due to a lack of money, and some romantic features of the narration are evident. However, the end of this part of the book shows that Terence concludes to reunite with his family through his father’s 70th birthday party. At this point, readers understand the message of the author that is to logically depict the transformation of the main character’s identification regarding race and ethnicity. During the party, the family, friends, and colleagues are gathered together, and they have a good time spending it together.

The readers comprehend that over time, society changed its perception of race and sexual orientation by becoming more tolerant. Most importantly, the protagonist also accepted his origin and learned that it is an integral part of his life, thoughts, and behaviors.

In the Madonnas of Echo Park, the events about Mexican-American families are united by one place and motif – Echo Park and the music video of Madonna called Borderline. All the stories are designed around one issue: while girls were reenacting the mentioned video, a street shooter killed a 3-year old girl who was given the name of Baby Madonna (Skyhorse xvii). In this book, chapter 4 titled Rules of the Road with its focus on a race-driven conflict seems to be the most representative of how norms are reversed. This story tells about the event with a bus operator, Efren Mendoza, who was driving on his route when a fight occurred between a Mexican-American and an African-American young male (Skyhorse 73).

The driver asked the latter to exit the bus and after a while, he accidentally runs over this person. At this moment, other African-Americans who were under the stress started showing aggressiveness towards Efren, blaming him for racial discrimination. They also accused him of doing this because the man was African-American and his skin color made him invisible in the night.

It should be stressed that Efren considered the conflicts between the mentioned racial minorities disdainfully, considering them something that is not worthy of attention. Since he closed the doors of the bus and moved away with passengers who were primarily Mexican-Americans illustrates that he wanted to protect them. The driver notes that his responsibility was to stay at the place of the accident until the arrival of the police, yet his actions demonstrate his changing attitudes towards race and related conflicts.

When all the passengers went to leave the bus, Efren drove the empty vehicle, and the streets seemed to be deserted as well. It was a night, and a stranger came to the bus and asked the driver to take him somewhere with no further clarifications. It seems that the bus operator found that they were similar in their thoughts and frustration even though the causes might be different. Ultimately, this character states that “I would learn a new set of rules. I would find another way home” (Skyhorse 88). This is a metaphor that refers to the need to reconsider interracial conflicts and find ways to eliminate them.

Another story offered to readers is associated with Manny Mendoza, the brother of Efron, and his views regarding interracial relationships. Namely, his son, Juan, wanted to marry Angie, a Mexican-American young woman, because he believed that it would be inappropriate, while his mother also was of the same attitude. Manny felt aggressiveness every time he observed a White girl kissing an African-American person or any other interracial expressions of love.

The observation of the street life in their neighborhood forces the protagonist of this chapter to think about his opinion. He discussed the shooting, murders, and stealing, concluding that human life is too short to face all these issues. It is clear from reviewing the chapter that Manny repents in his actions, including the words about Angie. In his turn, Juan is depicted as a responsive and understanding young man, who did not reject his father but accepted his new point, thus symbolizing the revival of this family’s racial identification and recognition.

Race in the Context of the US

Speaking of the social meaning of Phoenix Eyes and Other Stories, namely, the story about Terence, it is critical to pay attention to that epoch of the Cold War, when relationships between the US and China were rather tense. In major American cities, more than 80 percent of the Chinese population was concentrated in Chinatowns, which remained mostly isolated and ignored by the US government until the end of World War II (Ma 88).

Nevertheless, likewise, at the end of the 19th century, these areas were discriminated against in the 20th century as well. This situation is portrayed in the given model through Terence’s family that had to handle immigration difficulties.

Moreover, Chinese immigrants united into district and family associations that were organized depending on the areas where they live in China. Such associations acted as employment agencies, assisted in finding housing, participated in resolving disputes, and identified social and cultural events. In other words, despite the harshest discrimination, Chinese immigrants gradually organized their way of life and adapted to life in the US, developing a concept of patience about life difficulties and racial discrimination. The traditional Chinese way of life – modest living needs as well as adherence to traditions – shaped the foundation for it.

In the novel, the readers observe how the perception of the main character’s family and the whole Chinese community living in Los Angeles changes. At the beginning of the narration, they look like a conservative family that cannot accept that their son is gay. During the story, some thoughts regarding their son’s identity are shown, and Terence’s father becomes thinking that the Chinese family may also be different. Ultimately, they accept their son and unite the family, thus proving that even the deepest wounds may be healed if people are open to each other.

In the Madonnas of Echo Park, the inversion of norms regarding race is described through the placement of the main characters into their cultural context. On a larger scale, the bus driver showed the people who were on the street and inside the bus that conflicts can and should be resolved. The message of this passage is evidently to promote a better understanding of racial minorities of each other, ending fights and discrimination, and recognizing everyone’s right to live in peace. In his turn, Juan helps his father to realize his identity and the features inherent in him as a representative of Mexican-Americans.

According to Ibarrarán-Bigalondo, “this feeling of non-belonging … is experienced as a loss of dignity which the characters often overcome by inflicting on others in a socially inferior position” (83). The given feeling is replaced by in-depth self-awareness of Manny, who starts to consider himself and people around him as an integral part of the same community. Thus, the topic of public attitudes towards the inversion of norms of race is illustrated in this book through particular people as vivid examples of potential changes.

Conclusion

In conclusion, it is important to emphasize that the Madonnas of Echo Park and Phoenix Eyes and Other Stories are two books that describe the life of racial minorities, Asian-Americans, Mexican-Americans, and African-Americans living in the US. To portray the inversion of norms regarding race, the authors of these books provide a collection of stories that are presented from a different perspective.

They are written in an appealing and understandable language to allow the readers to penetrate the context. In the Madonnas of Echo Park, the Chinese-American immigrant, Terence who was rejected by his family since he was gay, founded his way home, while his family accepted him. Phoenix Eyes and Other Stories book shows how norms regarding interracial relationships and conflicts changed.

Works Cited

Ibarrarán-Bigalondo, Amaya. “On Identity, Place, Dignity, and Honor: The Madonnas of Echo Park (2010) by Brando Skyhorse.” Alicante Journal of English Studies, vol. 27, 2014, pp. 79-90.

Leong, Russell. Phoenix Eyes and Other Stories. University of Washington Press, 2000.

Ma, Eva Armentrout. Hometown Chinatown: A History of Oakland’s Chinese Community, 1852-1995. Routledge, 2011.

Skyhorse, Brando. The Madonnas of Echo Park: A Novel. Free Press, 2010.

Introduction

United States has stood to be one of the world’s economic power houses. The country has been recognized as one of the nations with more than enough resources that could fully support its citizens. This however, resulted in some negative effects which include ecological destruction and racial discrimination.

Though considered as having some of the best environmental laws, the communities within the country are not given equal treatment. The policies safeguarding the environment have not fully addressed some equal benefits to all members of the society since some communities are generally overlooked when it comes to usage of land and agriculture (Schelhas 7).

Access to arable land has been a difficult task for the minority blacks who live in the USA. Large chunks of land and other natural assets have been dominated by the wealthy, majority of which are whites. The less privileged have been denied access to these natural resources and also used as damping sites for environmental wastes. This calls for the importance of including asset-building in the democratic strategy in order to account for sustainability and most importantly empowering the community (West 13).

Research questions

The research will seek to answer the following questions;

1. To what extent do public policies contribute in reducing or increasing the cases of racial inequality in agricultural and environmental affairs?
2. What brings about the unequal exposure to environmental protection?
3. What policies can help reduce racism, raise productivity and increase employment opportunities?

Literature Review

According to Collin and Robin (13) political and logistical problems are the main barriers to environmental and agricultural justice. There is no fixed relationship, between agricultural development and environmental stress. Both are determined by national policies and by investments that seek to increase research capacity and the knowledge needed to move from racial based society to a liberal society which treats human being with equal rights (Collin and Robin 13).

Studies have revealed that agricultural work is crucial in the economy of a nation, and much attention should be given to both the rate and pattern of its development. Non-farm activities and policies that affect interactions between agriculture and industry are also important determinants of the level of employment and social status (West 13).

According to Pefia (6), “there is a direct relationship between the persistence of environmental racism in farm work and the political, legal and economic conditions that maintain farm workers in a state of labor repression.” This was an implication that unequal trends in the environmental protection as well as unequal exposure to the environmental dangers emanated from the collective effects of several conditions and these conditions were more of economical, political and legal.

The government’s public policies and laws that were put in place to give support to the farm labor contractor system gave limitations on legal grounds that could enable farm workers to organize themselves for the protection of their rights (West 13). According to Majka, immigrant status which has not been documented of a large number of farm workers weakened even more the farmer’s capacity to deal with the injustice challenge that face them in the agricultural place of work.

The absence of the legal frameworks or the frameworks that are weak for organizing unions, attaining collaborative rights for bargaining, and the right to protest, presented greatest grave barriers to the achievement of the environmental justice for these workers (Majka and Majka). Basically, this implied that as long as the farm workers were still defenseless and unorganized, they still had limited ability to deal with the environmental racism in their work places as well as in the places they live.

There existed some level of discrimination in US Department of Agriculture (USDA) loan, credit and subsidy program (Schelhas 7). Unequal treatment of farmers of color as well as discrimination imposed by the United States Department of Agriculture engaged a well documented legacy of institutionalized racism. There was acceptance by the internal report made by the Civil Rights Action Team of lack of success of the United States Department of Agriculture to go in line with the laws of federal civil rights.

In the United States of America, Racial discrimination in USDA was left greatly unchecked at a time when Reagan administration came to an end. This was brought back by the Clinton administration in the year 1996 but the destruction had been done and the civil rights enforcement complaints were still eminent all through the 1990s (Swanston, 82).

Global environmental study shows that there are so many environmental issues around the world that people have to contend with irrespective of their race or color. Amongst these environmental hazards include; dirty water, polluted air, waste treatment areas, municipal dumping sites, and government or industrial disposal facilities amongst others.

However, researches have revealed that within the United States these environmental hazards have been worsened by the practice of racism. The existing environmental policies and practices are of great disadvantage to some individual communities of the same race.

These policies have brought about environmental racism which has really benefited northern counties as opposed to Southern counties. According to Majka and Majka, environmental discrimination can be likened to institutional discrimination which is defines as “actions or practices carried out by members of dominant racial or ethnic groups that have differential and negative impact on members of subordinate, racial and ethnic, groups.

These policies brought about extreme exploitation of arable land and the natural environment in favor of the native population. Those who form the numerical minority in politics and in any other sector were subjected to policy discrimination (Majka and Majka).

The country under its current policies placed numerous strains on the environments associated with the under-privileged within the society mostly people of different race. This is seen in industries dealing with massive mining and extraction of resources. Globalization has made it easier for international companies to occupy places that have least environmental rules and regulations, cheap labor and good consumer base.

Relevance of the Study

This research tends to champion for the restoration and non-discriminating use of natural assets. It brings to the realization that natural assets are not limited but comprise variety of things such as land, clean air and water. The study seeks to show the necessity of utilizing agricultural land and environment with equality in mind.

This focuses on reducing poverty level alongside building of financial wealth amongst the communities. The study will seek to identify give clear effects of public policies on natural resources and their effects on both rich and poor (West 13). The report will seek to find out why minority farmers have lost significant amounts of land and potential farm income as a result of discrimination by Farm Service Agency programs and the programs by its predecessor agencies (Schelhas 7)

Methodology

Both quantitative and qualitative methods of study will be applied in this case. Literature survey study on the uses and challenges of environmental policies on agriculture and racism will form the basis of the study. The risks, challenges and benefits of Environmental policies will be identified and accounted for by use of examples.

Part of the data will be obtained from the primary sources which provide explicit information on inequality brought about by poor government policies. Questionnaires will be prepared for use during structured interviews respondents being community members and environmental officials

Qualitative method helps in easier understanding of data since it emphasizes on direct information from people’s words and actions. Qualitative method has the characteristic that it should gather information on acquired data, based on quantitative methods. The task of understanding and presenting qualitative research proved to be very demanding as statistics.

Empirical Analysis

Inductive coding will be used to reveal how consistent the research is with the information given. The data will be broken down and re-organized to achieve the intended objective. The grouped data will then be categorized for the purposes of comparison that will help in providing practical reality of the research (Straus and Corbin). For quantitative analysis Chi-square analysis test will be utilized. The critical alpha level that will be used to measure discrepancies is 0.05.

Empirical research design is developed in order to help in exploring the theory discussed in this paper. Individual calculations will be measured based on the interviews conducted and previous data collected statistically analyzed. Available database having track details on the nature of the effect of public policies on agricultural land and environment based on race will be analyzed.

Meta analysis will be conducted to include all the effects of public policies on racial inequality down the previous years. This research seeks to establish an understanding between the research objectives and findings from the interview (Strauss and Corbin).

This research employ the use of Grounded theory which will be used for the purposes of interpreting the data collected. Collecting, interpreting and understanding of data will be done best in grounded theory, where the collection of data, its analysis and theory are closely related bringing some relevance to the research undertaken (Strauss and Corbin).

There is the utilization of peer debriefing which ensures that the required consistency is achieved. For the purposes of coding, the interview scripts are scrutinized to ensure identification of similar or different opinions, the similar ideas are identified substantiated and all the comments highlighted within the transcript margins.

Two different evaluators are used each making his own coding frame for sampling the sub-transcripts (sub-sample used n=2). The different findings will then be compared to ensure accuracy of the coded data. From this a coding frame is produced that is appropriately utilized on the whole data collected. The data will then be thoroughly compared and analysed to tally with the requirements as per grounded theory approach.

Data collection will also be followed by the process whereby the data is grouped into themes which assist in detailed description of the research based on the social and environmental settings. The validity of the research will be based on transparency and viability of message conveyed. Individual narrative interviews are conducted concurrently with the process of transcription and coding of data which is later concentrated and categorized for analysis (Strauss and Corbin).

Works Cited

Collin, Robert & Robin, Morris. “The Role of Communities in Environmental Decisions: Communities Speaking for Themselves,” Journal of Environmental Law and Litigation Volume, 13 (1998): 10-58

Majka, Charles and Majka, Thomas. Organizing US farm workers: A continuous struggle. In. Hungry for profit: The agribusiness threat to farmers, food and the environment, ed. F Mgdoff, J B Foster, and F H Buttel. New York: Monthly Review Press. 2010.

Pefia, Devon. “Environmental justice and sustainable agriculture: Linking ecological and social sides of sustainability”. Resources paper series, 23 (October 2002):34-48

Schelhas, John. Race, Ethnicity, and Natural Resources in the United States: A Review. Natural Resources Journal. 42, (2002): 30-110

Swanston, Stephen. Environmental Justice: mobilizing for the 21^st Century: Environmental justice and environmental quality benefits: The oldest, most pernicious struggle and hope for burdened communities. Carolina: Academic Press, 2002.

Strauss, Corbin. Basics of qualitative research: Grounded theory procedures and Techniques. London, 1990. Print

Timmer. Agriculture and the state: Growth, employment, and poverty In developing countries, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY, 1991

West, Patrick. “Urban region parks and black minorities; subculture, marginality, and interracial relations in park use in Detroit metropolitan area”. Leisure sciences 11, (2009): 11-28

Introduction

Racism is perception that traits and capabilities can be linked to people from a particular race. This can also be used to depict a situation where people from one racial affiliation are seen to be more important than others are.

Prejudice and segregation have for a long time been used as potent weapons promoting apprehension or disgust of other people in times of civil unrest, and even during financial depressions. In America, the issue of racism is a thorny issue for many people. To some people, uttering a racial sentiment against someone should be categorized as free speech that most Americans believe in. on the other hand, some other people point out that uttering such kind of words can bring about serious ramifications.

In America, race is seen as a dominant idea and a persevering conception, coined by the society. Race is also seen as having fostered inequity and segregation for many years, as well as determined how we associate with other people. Although the U.S. has taken key and important steps to ensure that all people are treated equally regardless of their race, it is still sad to notice that there are many instances of racist utterances in our country. (Snyder, 2010)

The saddest thing is that these utterances are being carried out from the most unlikely quarter- the media. Over the last one year, I have noted numerous messages carried out by the American media that had explicit messages about race. These were carried out through magazines, sitcoms, advertisements, movies, among others. Although the messages could have been unintentional, they nonetheless contained racial elements in them. (Shah, 2010)

One form of media that has been used to convey racial messages has been sitcoms. For a long time, sitcoms have been used to entertain the whole family regardless of age. Despite sitcoms making us laugh, they have a knack for portraying ideas in a racial manner. The worst thing is that this is done by showing black people to be lesser than their white counterparts. One sitcom that has elements of racism is Lopez Tonight.

The sitcom by George Lopez that premiered on TBS on November 9, 2009 contains nothing but racial insinuations all through. Lopez’s creation that the people who came out for the opening night were like “a rainbow of people” who had a common goal of bringing change into late night TV is catchy but cynical. A rainbow as we know it is supposed to have colors that are both appealing and equal to the viewer. (Casares, 2009)

Immediately after the opening remarks, Lopez follows up by claiming that no matter how long one is married, their spouses will always be ‘black in bed’. As though this is not bad enough, he aggravates the matter further by claiming that the ‘longer one is married, the darker that the room will get’. (Casares, 2009) Although this is supposed to be funny, one does not fail to notice that it has an element of racism to it. Today, it is evident that the marriage institution is not as smooth as it used to be.

Today, couples who have been married for long are experiencing numerous problems in their marriages. When Lopez claims that people who have been married for long get black in bed, it is a simple way of saying that all black people are bad just like an old marriage. Lopez aggravates the matter further when he claims that rooms occupied by married people get darker with age. Referring wearing out as getting darker is an outright racial utterance. (Casares, 2009)

Another part of the media that still contains racism is the advertisement segment. Despite almost everyone trying to appear politically correct, the advertisement segment is still lagging behind.

Today, most companies take advantage of minorities and women in their advertisements. Billboards no longer display goods, but rather contain publicity stunts meant to attract the masses. One such advert is the one by Black & Decker that is seen to degrade women. In the advert, the company promises to offer beauty treatments for the wives whose husbands bought goods totaling to a certain amount.

Although this might sound like a company that is concerned with the welfare of its buyers, the truth of the matter is that the advert contains an element of gender discrimination. By making this offer, the company perpetuates the view that women are supposed to stay at home while men go about working to provide for the woman. After all this was the traditional view by the society and Black & Decker was only trying to reinforce this dogma. This advert not only degrades women but men as well.

This happened at a time when everyone in our country and elsewhere in the country is trying to stay politically correct. This shows that despite the concerted efforts to ensure that all people are treated equally regardless of their gender affiliation, companies are yet to adopt this trend. This can best be demonstrated through adverts as the one carried out by Black & Decker. (AFP, 2008)

Another area of the American media that I have found to be awash with racism is the movie industry. While Hollywood has done so much to keep the whole family entertained, I find some of their contents to be outright racial. A good example of this is a movie called The Jungle Book. While this movie is entertaining, some of its contents have made me to questions my ideals about racism. In the movie, a character known as Mowgli finds a group of monkeys going about their business.

Once the monkeys saw Mowgli, they begin expressing their wish to be human beings. I agree that this part in itself is humorous. However, what I find demeaning is that the group of amusing monkeys is the only characters in the whole movies played by African Americans. To me, this is way beyond being a coincidence but a planned thing. While all the characters speak in nice accents, the monkeys hop from tree to tree not speaking, but chattering just as monkeys do.

Considering that even the other animals in the movie speak in a refined language, the monkeys are depicted to be half-human. This clearly brings out the idea that black Americans are less human compared to other people. To me, this is a clear example of how moviemakers continue preaching racism in the guise of entertainment. (The Milwaukee Drum, 2010)

Another segment of the American media that is awash with racism is radio talk shows. Although some radio talk show hosts utter their racial slurs in a concealed manner, others do so in a manner that leaves listeners with no doubt as to their motives. One such example is Dr. Laura Schlessinger who made obvious racial slurs in one of her radio shows.

The radio talk show host while answering a question from one of her listeners who was angered by being referred to as “black” in most conversations claimed that there was nothing wrong with one being referred to the color of their skin. Although this might be true, it rubbishes the efforts that have been made in trying to create a community of equal citizens. In the show, the host claimed that she hired black bodyguards simply because white men do not have the ability to jump as their black counterparts.

While this is supposed to be funny, it is a clear way of saying that the lesser things in life are reserved for the black race. The worst part was that when the host was called upon to explain if it is right to call someone “nigger”, all that she offered was that it depends on the context that the word is said. This coming from the experienced talk show host can only be construed to mean that she was speaking out her mind. (Media Matters for America, 2010)

Conclusion

The issue of racism has been a thorny issue in America for a long time. However, the recent past has seen people become more conscious of their choice of words. This has seen a sharp drop in the level of racial attacks against Black Americans and other people of color.

Although this has been the case, the American media, which is supposed to be on the frontline in preventing racism, has been the one fronting the attacks. This is done in the guise of entertainment through sitcoms, radio talk shows, magazines, movies, songs, among others. Although this might be unintended, it nonetheless ranks as racism and should be treated as such.

References

AFP. (2008). Black & Decker Nailed Over ‘Gender discrimination” in Ad. Web.

Casares, C. (2009). The Lopez Premiere Episode: So How Did We Do, Hmmm? Web.

Media Matters for America. (2010). Dr. Laura Schlessinger’s Racial Rant Latest in History of Incendiary Remarks. Web.

Shah, A. (2010). Global Issues. Racism. Web.

Snyder, D. (2010). 10 Random Racial Slip-ups by Radio Show Hosts. Web.

The Milwaukee Drum. (2010). Racism in the Media Pt. 1. Web.

Introduction

There are several countries that have many racial denominations today. It appears that there are tremendous differences between various cultures and parts of the world regarding the treatment of racial minorities. The following paper is indeed to describe and explain how people with black skin or other uncommon races are perceived and respected by native populations of some territories.

Comparison and Contrast

This paragraph will compare and contrast how races have been constructed in two different cultures. The two nations chosen for the comparison are the United States of America and the Dominican Republic. As almost every person in the world knows, America is the most loyal country in the world, where people do not base their opinions about the social statuses of other citizens by looking at their skin colors anymore. In turn, people from the Dominican Republic classify humans with black skin in many different categories (Moreton-Robinson, 2015). Unfortunately, this classification also influences the way these people may be treated by society. Inhabitants of the developing country are divided into such skin color categories like coffee, chocolate, cinnamon, wheat, indigo, rosy, faded, blond, fair, dark, and ashen. In turn, Americans with any shades of dark skin would be referred to as black (Moreton-Robinson, 2015). Moreover, there are not many racial denominations in the USA as all the cultural minorities are generalized (Chinese and Japanese are Asians, immigrants from Mexico and other countries situated nearby are Hispanics, whereas almost all white people are known as Caucasians).

Similarities and Differences

As it is mentioned above, there are not many similarities between Americans and people from the Dominican Republic regarding their relations to races. It appears that the latter country’s territories are still important for the global economy and export of such products as cocoa, coffee, sugar, and tobacco that are sold on the international market at high prices today. Therefore, many individuals from poor African Commonwealths and some Arab states prefer to come here to earn money. Hence, the number of different “races” has been increasing in the Dominican Republic within the last several centuries (Moreton-Robinson, 2015). The main similarity between this country and the USA is the fact that slavery was a common practice in both of these territories. Spain was once in the rule of its neighboring state, where white people were allowed to buy as many slaves as they wished – it all depended on the sum of money they offered. In turn, Americans had the opportunity to do the same with African immigrants (sometimes, even Indians, the native population of the continent, could be seen serving Europeans).

However, there are many differences between the United States of America and the Dominican Republic regarding local inhabitants’ relations to different races. For instance, Haitians form a special racial group in the European country as they do not speak Spanish (mostly, it is Creole), and follow Catholicism as their main religion (Moreton-Robinson, 2015). Although the skin of this nation is darker than that of other people, this factor is not emphasized in society. Hence, these people feel free here. There are no “special” races in the USA either. All people are equal here, regardless of their religious beliefs, ethnic backgrounds, places of birth, and so on.

General Concept of “Race”

The general concept of “races” can be understood and interpreted as a cultural phenomenon developed by people living in a certain area. As various nationalities are treated differently across the globe, it means that there are no set standards of how people should treat immigrants from other continents. Unfortunately, there are many stereotypes in social groups of developing countries regarding the division of people with different skin colors into several groups. This classification is not beneficial for economic growth anymore (Moreton-Robinson, 2015). Many individuals think that Europeans are dominating over other nationalities as their progress in the spheres of labor, technologies, and intellectual achievements were several significant centuries ago. Today, the entire world is different from what it was in the medieval. People do not need slaves anymore. Therefore, the division into races is nothing more than a stereotype formed by people’s ancestors (Moreton-Robinson, 2015). The perception of races and division in them varies across the globe. Sometimes, it is hard to differentiate people of separate races because of their appearances or certain similarities in their behaviors.

Conclusion

It appears that racism is not common in the modern world. Therefore, contemporary people do not have a need to differentiate individuals by race. I have never experienced any difficulties or congestions because of my skin color. Moreover, my family and friends do not pay attention to this factor in their everyday lives. Hence, the division of social groups into races is useless today as all citizens are treated equally. Indeed, there are some ethical considerations that must be remembered and followed not to abuse representatives of various nations. Nevertheless, these norms of behavior are influenced by the history of the United States of America as freedoms and rights of colored individuals were limited before.

Reference

Moreton-Robinson, A. (2015). The white possessive: Property, power, and indigenous sovereignty. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.

Introduction

Traditions and values differ across cultures. In exploring the issue of rites of passage, outsider and insider viewpoints give a broader picture of the values and customs unique to a particular race. Racial minorities, including African Americans, learn historical information and values that are consistent with their culture.

Understanding rites of passage from an insider’s (emic) viewpoint would indicate that cultural differences could be ascribed to the customs or choices specific to each group. Therefore, from an emic perspective, unlike racism, a cultural practice is not a matter of choice, but a belief that people identify with. This paper explores the African American and Japanese cultures from etic and emic perspectives, respectively, and provides a self-reflective stance on the issue of race.

An Etic Perspective

An ‘etic’ standpoint gives an outsider’s stance on an aspect of a culture. For African Americans, their ancestral history and practices form an important aspect of their race. Race, as a construct, groups people based on their visual characteristics that reflect a common ancestry (Crapo, 2013). It is different from racism, which is the subordination of particular racial groups based on certain beliefs.

Emphasis on knowing one’s ancestral practices and values is central to the African American identity. From an ‘etic’ standpoint, cultural heritage can be seen as a universal way of identity formation across cultures. The identity motive ascribed to African Americans could as well be associated with any other minority cultural group. The youth learn their ancestral roots and heritage, which define their identity as an ethnic group.

Miner (1956) examines the unique ritual activity of the Nacirema culture that entails ceremonies and household shrines dedicated to cleansing the human body of disease. The Nacirema people believe that the human body is prone to disease and in need of constant cleansing. An anthropologist may not understand the significance of the ritual or the value the Nacirema place on household shrines.

From an anthropological perspective, the practice may be likened to standard medical care or ritualistic ablutions that are common across cultures. In this view, this ritual is a hallmark of the Nacirema’s cultural identity, history, and economic/ecological situations. Similarly, for African Americans, their spirituality, sense of communalism, and practices is a source of a distinctive identity for the race. Race is founded on the socially constructed characteristics, such as communalism and spirituality, which define group identity.

Identity development is one way a cultural group can distinguish itself from others. Overall, people have a tendency to identify themselves with the attributes that distinguish them from others. African Americans’ distinctive spirituality and communalism are hallmarks of their identity as a race.

Across cultures, individuals identify with certain characteristics or practices that define their cultural identity. A distinctive death/after life rites of passage, an intricate death ritual performed by the Japanese elderly, play a role in the formation of their cultural identity (Tsuji, 2011). Thus, while practices may be different across cultures, they all play a role in shaping cultural identities.

While the underlying ideals in identity formation may be similar across cultures, African Americans’ cultural heritage and communalism is a distinctive characteristic. In addition, an anthropologist may consider the art and music that this group predominantly identifies with as being distinctive characteristics. This group draws on a rich heritage, values, and beliefs that are markedly different from those of other American ethnic minorities.

Inherent cultural values and beliefs shape the cultural rituals practiced by each culture or race. In this view, an outsider can only have a vague idea regarding the cultural meanings attached to a ritual. Referring to the Nacirema’s retention of “old magical materials in the charm-box”, Miner (1956) writes, “We can only assume that they protect the worshiper” (p. 1).

Thus, when some aspects of a culture or ritual are shrouded in mystery, he or she can only assume about their significance. Similarly, an anthropologist can attribute African Americans’ emphasis on their history as a way of defining their identity in a multicultural environment. The identity lies in their ethnic background.

The rites of passage bear significant cultural meanings to a culture. They involve intricate rituals that are sacred to the natives. The Japanese elderly individuals perform “birthday and mortuary rituals” to prepare them for a smooth transition into the afterlife (Tsuji, 2011, p. 28).

The significance of these rituals is that they provide the natives an opportunity to reflect and celebrate the lives of the elderly. Similarly, from an anthropological standpoint, for African Americans’ emphasis on communalism is significant in their lives as a means to identity formation. It allows them to reflect and appreciate their heritage, beliefs, and values.

An Emic Perspective

An emic viewpoint reflects the perspective and the sentiments of the natives of a culture. An insider viewpoint reflects the perspectives of the Japanese regarding the afterlife rituals, which form an important part of their culture.

From an emic perspective, the dead hold an important place in the Japanese daily experiences of the family members. It is customary for the Japanese to offer “sweets, snacks, and fruit” to the ancestors before consumption (Tsuji, 2011, p. 29). From an emic viewpoint, this ancestral worship keeps the Japanese close to their ancestors.

The Japanese afterlife rituals and mortuary traditions can be interpreted based on local beliefs and traditions. The belief in a “rite of passage to afterlife” dictates the well-defined rituals performed to a dying relative before and after death (Tsuji, 2011, p. 29). In their own view, family members have an obligation to care for their departed relatives through ancestral rites of passage, unique cremation practices, and periodic rituals to commemorate their dead.

The periodic rituals for the ancestors connect the living to the ancestral world. The rituals, which are performed at a family grave or alter, give the elderly the assurance that they will be cared for by their relatives upon death. It also creates a sense that they will be remembered for a long time after their death. Besides the ancestral rites, the elderly family members tell the youth stories about their ancestors. In their view, the stories help the younger generation to connect with long-dead ancestors.

From an emic standpoint, the ancestral rites and stories of the ancestors helps preserve the family history from one generation to another. Memories of distant ancestors remain fresh in the minds of the descendants because of the periodic rituals performed at the family alter.

In addition, the records of departed family members are written in a book that is “kept at the family temple” (Tsuji, 2011, p. 29). Maintaining the records of ancestors helps the younger generations to learn about their origin and genealogical history, which is essential in identity formation.

The natives value the remembrances of the ancestors as a way of dealing with the difficult times associated with the death of a family member. On the other hand, the tenderness and affection associated with ancestral rituals help the elderly cope with the emotional and physical distress of aging.

The periodic memorials allow the family members to relive the memories of their departed relative. Thus, from an emic perspective, observing the customs of mourning a departed loved one is important in coping with the grief and sorrow of losing a close relative. According to Tsuji (2011), the memorials also help the family members to “structure their lives” following the death of a loved one (p. 31). They mitigate the distress of the grieving period.

To the Japanese, death marks a transition from the living world to the afterlife. In this view, the descendants take care of ancestors preserved in a family grave. Offering gifts in the form of sweets and snacks ensures close contact with the ancestors. In addition, ancestral rites are transferred from one generation to another to preserve the traditions that are unique to the Japanese culture. The ancestral rites that are unique to the Japanese reflect common ancestry or race.

Conclusion

It is evident that besides visual characteristics, cultural practices define the identity of racial groupings. An etic perspective reveals that African Americans sense of communalism gives them a sense of cultural identity. On the other hand, the Japanese ancestral rites indicate the value of ancestors in individual daily life and experiences.

From a self-reflexive stance, the writer has learned that cultural stereotypes can arise when one does not understand the beliefs and practices of another culture. The stereotypes can lead to racism based on visual characteristics such as skin color. Etic and emic perspectives reveal the ideals and values underlying a particular cultural practice and thus, help remove racial prejudice.

References

Crapo, R. H. (2013). Cultural Anthropology.

Miner, H. (1956). Body Ritual among the Nacirema. American Anthropologist, 58(3), 1-2.

Tsuji, Y. (2011). Rites of Passage to Death and Afterlife in Japan. Generations, 35(3), 28-33.

The Most Appealing Ideas Expressed by the Author

The book “Everyday Antiracism: Getting Real About Race in School” by Mica Pollock was written for the purpose of presenting a very thorough and detailed discussion of the issues of race and the problems of racism in schools. Reading this book, I found it clever and appealing that the author started her writing by dedicating several chapters to the exploration of the concept of race and some of the related notions and terms. To be more precise, at the very beginning of the book, the author characterized race as an impractical and old-fashioned concept in relation to people’s biology and the ways their brains function.

The author made her readers understand that racism, as a social phenomenon, was initiated based specifically on false beliefs about the alleged intellectual differences between people with different skin colors. Such beliefs were popularized as the only correct perceptions that eventually grew to dictate social attitudes in multicultural societies. In reality, due to the development of science and research, it became possible to find out that there are no differences in people’s brains that could be attributed to their racial backgrounds.

Apart from this scientific approach taken to the explanation of the dynamics of races, I found it interesting how the author emphasized that the primary differences between people of various racial backgrounds are related to their socioeconomic status. As a result, since the differences between races present in the contemporary society are tangible and quite significant, the author states that simple awareness and nice attitude towards vulnerable groups are not enough and some practical changes have to take place in schools in order to address the problems.

In addition, I found it appealing that the author mentioned that the concept of race is flawed as a set of categories describing people based on their background. Specifically, many ethnicities that exist in the contemporary world and have numerous representatives cannot be associated with just one particular race. Also, there are people who come from biracial families and cannot be associated with a single race as well. As a result, living in the modern globalizing world, one must always remember that diversity is a complex issue that requires complicated approaches and solutions in order to avoid unequal treatments and discrimination.

The Implications of the Ideas in the Book for Me as an Educator

The issues explored by Pollock in her book are directly connected to the profession of an educator and have many implications for teachers and school administrators. In particular, in multinational countries such as the United States, the problem of racism that is present not only on social and individual but also on the institutional level is one of the biggest current concerns. As a result, educators who work in public and private sector educational facilities are to become involved in the creation of solutions to the problem of racism by means of addressing all of its manifestations.

Many educators work in multicultural classrooms where, if responded improperly, the problem of racism can aggravate and cause multiple issues. In addition, as institutions, schools are regulated and administrated based on a set of policies that, in turn, are formed by educational leaders. In many aspects, such policies are shaped in accordance with individual attitudes and perceptions of policymakers.

As a result, if the latter hold racist biases and misconceptions, the entire law applied within a school could become driven by unfair, unethical, and discriminatory ideas. This tendency is what comprises institutional racism. As a result, one of the major implications of thoughts expressed in the book is the need for educators and educational leaders and policymakers to reevaluate their attitudes towards diverse people and groups and, especially, reflect on all the prejudices and stereotypes that are powered mainly by such conceptions are race, background, ethnicity, and social status.

Ideas That I Challenge

In one of the chapters in her book, Pollock provides instructions and discussions of what kind of effort is required in order for an educator to be able to construct what the author calls “a colorblind classroom”. I would like to challenge the idea of establishing colorblindness in regard to racial background. First of all, it is important to notice that colorblindness is not what the author promotes in the rest of her book. Specifically, Pollock writes that conversations about race and racial issues need to continue, even concerning the most controversial or sensitive aspects. This means that color is important and has to be seen in order for the members of any diverse society to start acknowledging racial differences.

The idea of colorblindness is based on ignoring any particular color or dissociating from it and what it represents for the individuals of color. Respect for different cultures, communities, and backgrounds cannot happen in a colorblind environment. Moreover, in a society where racial problems are still some of the topical issues, it would be simply wrong to start treating them by ignoring the color because, for many people of color, it still stands for vulnerabilities. Colorblindness is a concept that can be applied only when all the social differences between racial groups are fully eliminated.