Category: Race

The author, Nayan Shah, is a professor of American Studies and Ethnicity at the University of Southern California. He devoted his professional career to the research of the politics of race and gender, wrote two award-winning books, and received grants from the Rockefeller Foundation, van Humboldt Foundation, and Freeman Foundation.

Back in the eighteenth century, the United States of America was only just emerging as a nation. However, it had already developed a preconception concerning newcomers from Eastern cultures. Physical dissimilarity became a marker to denote the difference in core moral values and was a threat to common standards. The book, Contagious Divides: Epidemics and Race in San Francisco’s Chinatown, is a social history that focuses on the transformational processes concerning the exclusion and inclusion of Chinese migrants in the United States. The author highlighted the importance of Chinese-American activists in the evolution of their status. He believed that they were handling paradigms of the race with great proficiency and proved Chinese Americans to be decent and reliable enough to integrate into society.

The book started with the description of the epidemics that broke out at the end of the nineteenth and the beginning of the twentieth centuries in San Francisco. The cases of smallpox, tuberculosis, and other diseases led to the deaths of hundreds of citizens and resulted in the implementation of preventive measures, such as quarantines and vaccinations. Back in 1876, the City Health Official blamed Chinatown and its citizens to be the source of contagion due to their unscrupulousness. He referred to them as the “laboratory of infection” and the “plague-spot.” It might have been European migrants that brought the disease to America, yet the health officials investigated only the ships from Asia. Over the years, people changed their understanding of sickness and began to see the core to health and longevity as the improvement of living conditions, personal hygiene rules, and sanitary norms. The new system was mostly implemented by a higher-class society that contrasted itself to the lower-class one and created “new categories of normal and deviant that were dramatically defined and invigorated by race and class differences.”¹ Another concept that San Francisco authorities were promoting was a concept of “queer domesticity.” Due to the inadequate housing facilities and the low quality of life in Chinatown, they used to criminalize its residents and portray them as a menace to society. Their lifestyle was seen as opposed to proper domesticity and capable of disruption of morals and family life in America. While encouraging the Chinese minority to break unhealthy habits and adapt to the Western culture, the authorities kept on excluding them from their society. Even though it believed Chinatown to be the source of diseases and poor sanitation, the government did not see the solution for an epidemic problem in healing this particular source. Instead of providing the immigrants with decent public health services, they chose to isolate them and not give any hospital care at all. That fact had also triggered the division in Chinese society into Chinese Bachelors and American Chinese Families, whose members lived in comparatively better conditions and therefore fought for their rights for social services. At the same time, the members of the Chinese Bachelor’s Society remained poor and did not have any prospects for equal treatment.

For one, the Chinese leaders and activists were positive that the key to improvement was the elimination of insufficient sanitary arrangements. Already in the nineteenth century, the respectable Chinese merchants had created several resolutions to meet the requirements of the health authorities. Later they argued that as a part of San Francisco, Chinatown should have been entitled to governmental investment in housing and social services. However, even when the Chinese Consul General, along with Chinese Six Companies, raised the amount of money required for building their modern hospital, the medical establishment refused their claim because of fear that a Chinese hospital would accumulate a disease and spread it across the city. It took decades before the activists managed to achieve their purpose in public health reforms and became full-fledged citizens.

The author explained that his investigation followed the work of academics that considered race to be a social and political category that lingers as it provides an apparent difference among individuals and justifies inequality and superiority. His study of San Francisco is closely intertwined with related studies about health in various cities around the globe. As his primary sources, the writer deeply investigated the manuscripts kept in major American colleges and National Archives. He also referenced contemporary newspaper articles and reports and studied maps of Chinatown in San Francisco. As secondary sources, he researched several academic works dealing with a medical history and studies of race, gender, culture, and urban processes. The book is well organized, and the argument is clear. As his scientific contribution, the author offered an idea of the progress of public health within inclusion and exclusion processes.

To bring his argument to a conclusion, the author stated that normalizing strategies often fail to recognize human variety. It is a vital task for the new generation to find a possibility of encompassing different cultures rather than judging all lived experiences from the point of a single and universal standard.² When somebody establishes a particular norm, there is always someone left out. The fear of the unknown is not the reason for the justification of social division by health safety measures. The Chinese expatriate community got through various stages of inclusion processes, including bigotry, criminalization, resistance, and assertion of rights. After great challenges, they were finally recognized as equal members of American society while still being able to preserve their cultural identity.

The racial issue is a very sensitive matter in American history, and I am convinced that the author managed to approach it with a fresh perspective. Not only did he explain how bigotry and intolerance toward non-Western cultures were slowing down the development of progressive society but he also examined how the concept of race transformed politically and culturally throughout the century. As original and influential as I find it, I would prefer this book to be less of a scholarly paper and more of a cultural history book. I believe that adding a certain emotional component would not lower its academic value but would make the story more dynamic and intimate for the reader.

Even though the author got inspiration from other works on racial prejudice, this book is unique in its vision of social inequality through the prism of public health development. The book is worth reading for anyone who has a scientific or general interest in such topics as cultural diversity and inclusion, gender, and the evolution of tolerance in America.

Bibliography

Shah, Nayan. Contagious Divides: Epidemics and Race in San Francisco’s Chinatown. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001.

Footnotes

1. Nayan Shah, Contagious Divides Epidemics and Race in San Francisco’s Chinatown (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001), 4.

2. Nayan Shah, Contagious Divides Epidemics and Race in San Francisco’s Chinatown (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001), 258.

Introduction

According to historian Thomas W. Hanchett, Charlotte spent the early 1980’s studying its pre-world war two neighborhood for the Charlottes- Mecklenburg historic landmarks commission. Hanchett spent months walking the streets of places like Dilworth, Middleville, Washington Heights, and North Charlotte. Regarding charlotte his main concern was to research why most of the charlotte’s cotton mills are built on the edge of the town, the impact of the southern values on the Charlotteans including racial have upon the growth patterns of Charlotte, why most of the wealthy Charlotteans reside in the southeastern quadrant of the city (Hanchett, n.d).

According to Hanchett (n.d), Charlotte, like most of the southern urban centers,”l looked like a scattering of salt pepper.” The rich and poor, black and white lived, store owners and day laborers, says Hanchett frequently lived side by side in the same block. For most of its early history up to 1850 charlotte was a preindustrial city in which the social and economic elite controlled the political life and according to Hanchette, ”the urban landscape echoed that continuity”, (sorting out the new south city 1875-1975). Throughout the century of mid-1870s to the mid-1970s, the Charlotteans continually redefined their notion of a good place to live in. Populism threatened the continuity of the traditional social pyramid and to meet the challenges city fathers began to divide the city up into social and racial orders to ensure that the whites and the blacks would have difficulty overcoming the physical space to ever endanger white elites again. White business leaders came to view the city as a place for commerce and the suburbs of a place for living the good life.

Charlotte’s history makes it evident that across the 20^th century, there was vast racism since the whites and the blacks could not live together making racial segregation thrive amongst them. The racism also was evident in the political leadership whereby the blacks regularly elected African Americans to the Board of Aldermen until 1893. The wealthy whites who were mostly small-scale merchants controlled charlotte’s politics and economy since the arrival of the railroad in October 1852. Despite having political leadership the whites were not contented by living side by side with the blacks and they felt to retreat into affluent residential districts and separate themselves from their poorer neighbors. Most of their daily activities made them interact i.e. the blacks and the whites since their homes, craft shops, stores, and livery stables were all mixed. This shows that their leadership was not effective since they had the mandate to improve the living conditions of the poor considering the fact that they controlled the politics and the economic activities of Charlotte (Hanchett, n.d).

Impact of Charlotte on Public policy

Public policy refers to the system of laws, regulatory measures, course of action, and funding priorities concerning a given topic promulgated by the government entity or its representatives. Public policy is supposed to accelerate change within society. This means that the leadership at the federal and local levels should prioritize the partnership of various groups in various sectors of the society to ensure that they foster more public policy engagement in their communities. This is because the process of formulation of policies always involves efforts by competing interest groups to influence the policymakers in their favor, (definition of public policy and the law, n.d).

This is because grass-root advocacy is an essential complement to ensuring that there is cohesion within the society. This also shows that the revolution within Charlotte or any other society is greatly influenced by the implementation of public policy. The policies should be prioritized to ensure that the key issues regarding development are addressed. The federal government has a critical role to play by ensuring partnership at the federal, state, and local levels so as to create a sustained change in community conditions and to improve lives. The government cannot do it alone nor the rest of the social service sector, (the United Way Public Policy Agenda for the10th Congress).

The public policy should ensure that there is a strong cohesion between the various groups despite their economic, social or political divide. The public policy implemented should ensure that everybody within the locality has an opportunity to be employed in the various sectors of the economy. The public resources should also be equally distributed to ensure that there are just a few who are enjoying it. The leaders should push for equity in the sharing of the national cake. The political and economic leaders had the obligation to developing good public policies to ensure that all the residents of charlotte have access to good living conditions. Some of the policies that were of paramount importance include those that would be geared towards ending racial or social class segregation by ensuring that they do not allow Charlotte to have some places that are reserved for the whites and others for the blacks, this would be in terms of the geographical subdivisions of Charlotte.

In the 1890s the city started sorting out itself, first into a quilt-like pattern of business and residential districts that were drawn along racial or income lines and then into entire quadrants extending outward from the city center. As time went by there was a sorting out of the land uses leading to a halt of the development of Charlotte. According to Hanchett, the abandonment of the traditional landforms and the consequent transformation was political. The growth in the size of the economic enterprises was pulled back by the conservative nature of the people i.e. tradition and if not for the series of political upheavals that rocked Charlotte during the 1890s, Hanchett writes that there would not have been experienced any positive change. This is evident from the fact that it was the Populist Party which was made up of the small farmers, factory workers, and African Americans who sought to wrestle for political control from the Democrats and institute fundamental changes in the economic system. They championed issues regarding the government regulation of the railroads, abandonment of the gold standard for currency, and the recognition of the rights of the factory workers. The development of political, racial reforms amongst the American cities has greatly contributed to their development during the twentieth century. In 1900, there was a campaign where the white North Carolinians went to the polls and approved a series of amendments to the state constitution. This was aimed to deny the chance of winning by the majority of blacks making it difficult for the Populists to prevail at the ballot box. The democrats also developed literacy tests for voting while keeping open loopholes for the poor whites to continue voting even if they could not read. Hanchette writes that with the disfranchisement of the black citizens through the literacy tests, the black would not be in a position to effectively muster the votes to challenge the democratic control. This shows that the black Charlotteans were being denied their right to vote and hence the spirit of democracy was being infringed. The whites through these amendments would therefore gain absolute control of the political and economic leadership of Charlotte. The political domination of the wealthy white businessmen in Charlotte became even stronger after 1907 writes Hanchette when even the poor whites could not or did not seek to pass the more stringent literacy requirement for voting that went into effect in North Carolina. This shows a great deal of division along with the economic class.

The commercial civic elite class used their political strength to reshape the physical form of the city into a network of homogenous districts to include immaculate neighborhoods like Myer Park, Eastover and Dilworth. Hanchett explains that “Charlotteans had undergone a conceptual shift in their definition of a desirable urban landscape.this shows that leadership greatly contributed to the development of most of the American states.

Charlotte’s history suggests that there is a strong positive relation between politics, ideology and municipal planning and governance. The parties who greatly influence the formulation of policies have the mandate of ensuring that there is no marginalization and the violation of the rights of the people who depend on them for effective leadership. They should not misuse their mandate to favor themselves as this will eventually destabilize the development of the society thus affecting their lives negatively. There should be respect for the diverse ideologies from the various groups of people regardless of their social or economic class, race or even political inclination. The leadership should involve all the parties in their formulation or amendment of the policies that govern them or the constitution. Thus the political platform should not be used as the bases where absolute controls of the society’s affairs are manipulated so that only the elite class can have their opinions heard. It also shows the strength with which unity amongst the people to whom injustice is being directed can make positive change. This is only through networking amongst themselves and voicing their concerns in the effort to break their conservative nature and appreciate progressive leadership. These coalitions of the people and the civil society groups should always uphold and negotiate their rights collectively. They should fight against the violation of fundamental rights such as voting rights, the right to reside in any part of the country. This is evident from the fact that there were deeds that advocated that certain locations would be extremely residential meaning that workplace and domicile would not exist side by side and that the African Americans could not own or rent homes in Piedmont Park. This shows that the laws that were being developed by those in power were very ineffective and they propagated racial segregation. The cost of housing was also exorbitant which kept the poor whites out from owning homes in Piedmont Park. The municipal leadership has the authority of ensuring that the city residents have access to proper housing and they should control the cost of housing so as to keep out segregation on economic lines. Hanchette notes that the introduction of Federal insured home mortgages especially those provided by the Federal Housing Administration, helped healthy neighborhoods to become stronger and caused the marginal neighborhoods to weaken even more. This shows that municipal planning and governance can effectively result in the development of the cities by keeping ‘dirty’ politics in the leadership.

Influence of the national, regional and local forces on Charlottes politics

Charlotte’s politics is greatly influenced by national, regional and local forces. This is evident from the fact that the national government is responsible for the formulation of regulatory Acts relating to issues such as land usage. In Charlotte, it is evident that there were intentions to divide the land into regions where one district could be exclusively devoted to business, another to manufacturing, another to laborers and another for the blacks. The national government has the power to decide on the administrative structure of a particular region. Since the local government is delegated tasks to conduct by the central government the local government should ensure that they help increase the efficiency of operation. If the forces at the national level are not effective due to ‘bad’ politics, the effect definitely trickles to the local government. Regional politics also have an effect due to the development of international bodies that influence the operations of their member countries. This is in the form of trading blocs or international accords that relate to the utilization of natural economic resources such as the water treaties.

Comparison with the Oakland politics

The Oakland politics are no different. The laws that regulate the national and local governments are very rigid. The democrats cannot pass a bill without at least one of the Republican senators voting for it which has usually lead to the fallout of crucial issues such as those to do with budgeting. This has usually led to inefficiency in the operation of the public service sector such as the education, lying off the state employees and many state offices remain closed. (What the State Budget Means for Oakland, 2009).

References

1. A Review of Thomas W. Hanchett, Sorting Out the New South City. Race, Class, and Urban Development in Charlotte 1875-1975 University of North Carolina Press.
2. Thomas H, Sorting out the New South City: Race, Class and Urban Development in Charlotte, 1875-1975 (University of North Carolina Press, 1998)
3. Definition of Public Policy and the Law Web.
4. What the state budget means for Oakland.

Racial-based discrimination is one of the major topics that have been hotly debated in the United States for decades. For instance, from the year 1865 to 1920, race and social classes were the primary factors influencing America’s democracy. Several human rights and workers were established to solve individuals’ discrimination according to their race. Black individuals suffered in the community as they were not considered to be among the citizens. This happened in their workplaces, leading to several strikes as they tried to fight for their rights. At some point, the government tried to solve the issue by setting each individual’s rights without considering race or gender. Consequently, this report will analyze and discuss how race and social class shaped the United States’ given period.

Populism was a unique political approach employed in governance according to several individuals in the country. Many saw that people were being exploited due to poor working conditions, and farmers did not receive what they deserved. As a result, an uprising started in trans-Mississippi West due to the low prices of agricultural products. The economy was falling into a critical condition as the gap between the rich and the poor increased rapidly. The high class did not suffer, although they started feeling the results of the poor economy. In the late 1870s, the Farmers Alliance was established to fight for the lower social classes’ freedom and success (Foner, 2009). The Alliance was independent of the government, but due to a lack of funds to carry out their operations, the government was involved.

There was a wastage of farm products, which propelled the movement to request warehouses to store crops as they awaited selling. This reduced the losses suffered by the lower-class farmers and played a vital role in improving the economy. The 1890s marked a significant evolution of the Alliance to the People’s Party that did not focus on farmers but involved the producing classes (Foner, 2009). Moreover, the Populist movement advocated for modern technology to boost the productivity of small-scale farmers. The Populist platform in 1892 brought a significant reform, with the primary goal being eradicating political corruption.

Another notable period was The Gilded Age, which fought for the removal of the scramble for wealth. The politics oppressed the lower classes as they grabbed wealth, leaving the poor classes struggling. This reform is one of the primary actions that shaped the United States’ political and economic structure. As a result, the economy shifted to an industrial economy with the citizens fighting for their current social order position.

The Gilded Age triggered Congress to investigate employees’ working conditions that were not favorable (Foner, 2009). Hence, the low classes seemed to rely on the government for the improvement of working conditions. Despite this, the government did not lift the bottom classes leading to Social Darwinism. This approach stated that social revolution is natural and does not depend on the government. Hence, the idea was employed by individuals to improve social classes and professions.

Black farmers suffered racial discrimination, and this primarily affected individuals in the South. As can be read in Monton’s (1928) article, “The South is beginning seriously to consider the causes of negro migration, and editors concede that the offer of high wages in the North is not the only cause” (para. 10). Moreover, there was unemployment among the black in the region. Despite this, those in the Upper South region received some advantages due to the area’s economic growth. Although their working conditions were not standard to those of the whites, they could meet some of their social needs. Before the Reconstruction, black farmers owned several land tracks, and their land was reduced after Reconstruction as it was taken away by the whites.

Additionally, the African-Americans worked in the industries as slaves without any wages, with the women not allowed to work. During this period, schools and other network institutions were created in the southern cities to improve the black’s social standards (Foner, 2009). As a result, the African-Americans were able to receive employment and be paid without any difficulties.

Nevertheless, the people of color were not supposed to work as supervisors or other higher employment levels in any industry. Most jobs were found in the northern cities where there were several industries, and these factories did not offer employment to black individuals. In 1880, thousands of people moved to Kansas to fight for equality and freedom with the Kansas Exodus movement. However, in 1877, the black discrimination declined considering political freedom.

Before this period, African-Americans were not allowed to either vote or hold any political office in the region (Foner, 2009). Despite this, the authorities shifted the district boundaries to ensure that black people will not make way to Congress. As the black individual strived for political freedom, the National Association of Colored Women emerged to fight women’s rights and racial uplift. The reason behind this was that the racial ideology that considered blacks as a lower-class citizen.

To conclude, the implications of race affected each individual’s social, political, and economic development in the country. Many activities in the country were influenced by bias in society. For instance, the action between 1865 and 1920 was steered by the racial and class discrimination of the citizens and immigrants. Thus, the various activities in different periods were impacted by issues such as employment, the Gilded Age, and populism. In essence, individuals can learn that diverse aspects involving race determined how people lived and interacted in American society.

References

Foner, E. (2009). Give me liberty. Volume 2, From 1865: An American history. W.W. Norton.

Moton, R. R. (1928) Negro migration causing social revolution in the South. The New York Times. Web.

Background Information on Fundamental Causality

The issue of fundamental causality continues to generate heated discourse among scholars and experts in contemporary society. They seek to determine and quantify how it affects quality and length of human life (Freese & Luftey 1326).

Most studies in this area gear towards demystifying the connection between socio-economic status (SES) and realities that characterize human health. It is important for experts to develop a link between ethnographic realities and sustenance of health in social contexts (Freese & Luftey 1326). Fundamental causality embodies various factors that predispose individuals to ill health and general lack of wellness.

However, there is contention over extent to which such factors contribute to ill health among members of various socio-economic classes in social contexts (The Latino paradox Par 8). Social scholars and observers believe that general considerations are inaccurate and effective because class and racial subscription cannot singlehandedly lead to poor health or high mortality rates. For instance, belonging to low or middle class does not suffice as causative considerations for poor health or death (Freese & Luftey 1326).

Arguably, it is the conditions and realities in such groups that lead to the aforementioned afflictions. On the other hand, poor health and mortality emanates from individualistic thresholds of existence (The Latino Paradox Par 12). Most discourse surrounding fundamental causality focuses on socio-economic status as opposed to other integral realities that characterize existence in highly stratified societies (Freese & Luftey 1327).

Such proximate mechanisms are independently existent with regard to causality (Freese & Luftey 1327). In fact, they trigger anomalies through influence that revolves around perception and perpetual resignation to fate among members of such groups within society. Apathy leads members into believing that their fate directly links to recurrent existential circumstances (Freese & Luftey 1343). Indeed, fundamental causality affects health and mortality in contemporary society.

How Socio-Economic Status Influences Health and Mortality

Socio-economic status (SES) suffices as a major determinant of health and mortality because it regulates access to opportunities in social contexts. For instance, members of upper class have less health complications because they have the wherewithal to seek medical attention (Hummer & Rogers 274).

They undergo regular medical examination to ascertain levels of health and wellness. This makes it easy for them to counter effects of illness at an early stage (The Latino Paradox Par 17). This reality revolves around empowerment and overall ability to understand factors that determine health and mortality in society.

It also anchors on relevant facets of health with regard to preventive and curative procedural undertakings. On the contrary, poor members of society lack the necessary resources that guarantee quality health care. Since they cannot afford regular medical checkups, diseases manifest at chronic stages when it is difficult to counter them (Hummer & Rogers 274). Such realities give credence to research outcomes that project SES as a major predisposing factor with regard to ill health.

Dynamics of SES determine the extent to which individuals understand and appreciate the importance of health and wellness. Through such efforts, people take necessary steps that gear towards facilitating healthy and appropriate lifestyle choices. However, it is important to note that eradication of disease does not curtail perpetual re-emergence of association between socio-economic realities and causality (Hummer & Rogers 277).

In most cases, connection between such realities creeps back to social structures, thus perpetuating a never-ending struggle against its implications on human existence. Focusing on mechanisms of causation negates the overall realities and factors that constitute the core of fundamental causality. Class and racial dynamics have a role in sustenance of health in society. Efforts towards eradication of disease usually benefit those who have capacity to seek medical attention (Hummer & Rogers 278).

This alienates individuals who cannot afford medical attention. Resources enable people to exploit avenues that seek to circumvent ill health and other adverse effects that emanate from recurrent predisposing factors (The Latino Paradox Par 18). There is a correlation between resource availability and patterns of health in society. As earlier mentioned, pursuit of health materializes through resources and knowledge on trends of infection in social contexts (Hummer & Rogers 279).

Ignorance and lack of resources lowers the rate at which people pursue health benefits. Such people are disoriented and unresponsive to issues that affect health and wellness. Current studies exhibit efforts that seek to generate an empirical approach to fundamental causality. (Hummer & Rogers 280) For instance, SES and its resultant disparities replicate over time and ultimately support a cycle of health or perpetual deprivation.

People with high SES often have access to medical procedures such as pap tests and mammographic examination. Such efforts enable early detection with regard to health issues such as cancer. On the other hand, people with low SES rarely afford such expensive and elaborate medical procedures. This predisposes them to effects of chronic diseases (Hummer & Rogers 281).

In order to understand overall implication of fundamental causality, it is important to develop and augment argumentative positions that amplify analytical foray into the relationship between fundamental causality and race. Most factors regarding fundamental causality do not work in isolation and therefore require multidisciplinary approach in order to guarantee accuracy and precision (Hummer & Rogers 281).

How Race Influences Health and Mortality in the United States

In recent past, there has been monumental interest with regard to factors that affect health and mortality across the United States. Sociologists believe that racial dynamics have a role to play in recurrent propagation of ill health and high mortality in American society (Hummer & Rogers 281).

The sociological approach to fundamental causality is accurate because it considers societal realities that influence human existence in society. This bolsters credibility and accuracy with regard to generation of authoritative data in this area of interest (Hummer & Rogers 283).

Ethnographic studies reveal trends of generational realities that point towards influence emanating from racial and socio-economic factors. The complex nature of health and mortality makes it difficult for experts to ascertain extent and orientation with regard to such racial considerations (Hummer & Rogers 283). In most social contexts, resources facilitate pursuit of knowledge and treatment as opposed to cases where such resources are hard to come by.

The American context is not different as it harbours people who ascribe to diverse socio-economic and racial parametrical thresholds. Patterns of economic ability vary depending on realities that characterize existence within various racial groups in the United States (Jones 38).

In some instances, certain health complications manifest in isolated groups within racial contexts. This indicates a systemic structural framework that supports propagation of health complications among individuals of specific racial orientations (Jones 38). Similar ethnographic studies reveal information that supports earlier assertions with regard to fundamental causality.

Disparities in socio-economic status affect implementation and augmentation of efforts that seek to ameliorate health and wellness in society. Prevalent racial dynamics also affect adherence to medical regimens and intervention strategies that work towards alleviation of negative health outcomes (Jones 39).

Sociological investigations continue to establish and ascertain how diverse racial entities cope with health and mortality amid peculiar challenges that they encounter in specific social settings. Socio-economic status does not singlehandedly contribute to fluctuations in health and mortality (Link & Phelan 83).

However, it suffices as a major contributor because it facilitates circumstances that characterize human existence within specific groups in social contexts. As earlier mentioned, economic realities are products of racial dynamics and considerations. People in low socio-economic status experience occupational constraints that ultimately affect their ability to observe healthy lifestyle patterns (Link & Phelan 83).

This includes poor dietary habits that jeopardize health and wellness. In fact, nutrition plays a pivotal role in propagation and sustenance of health and wellness in society. In absence of appropriate dietary regimens, it is difficult for people to realize and actualize health (Link & Phelan 83). Low socio-economic status precipitates lack of substantial efforts towards creation of social support frameworks.

This makes it difficult for authorities to access people who require medical attention and surveillance. On the other hand, some racial groups constitute immigrants who may not hold legal documentation to justify their residence in the United States (Link & Phelan 83). This hampers access to medical assistance in case of health complications. Most of these illegal immigrants live in perpetual fear of apprehension owing to effects of such eventualities (Link & Phelan 83).

Management of health and mortality requires concerted efforts by all stakeholders because it is a complex and elaborate undertaking (Williams & Jackson 328). For instance, relevant authorities should expedite efforts towards realization of futuristic structural frameworks that support recurrent desire for health and wellness in society.

Inability to institute such measures could ultimately undermine propagation and sustenance of health in the United States (Williams & Jackson 328). Racial parameters influence development of theoretical frameworks that validate earlier studies on fundamental causality and racial realities that manifest through human action and reaction to social cues in society (Williams & Jackson 328).

Conclusion

The above sentiments are a clear pointer to the issue of fundamental causality and race. They divulge and assert basic truths that characterize health and mortality in the United States. Overly, there is evidence of correlation between racial paradigms and degree of health and mortality in American society (Williams & Jackson 328).

In fact, race is a key determinant with regard to trends in health and mortality. Racial considerations not only affect health and mortality but also the general attitudes and perceptions that characterize overall human existence in social contexts (Williams & Jackson 328). Ethnographic studies reveal trends of generational realities that point towards influence emanating from racial and socio-economic factors.

The complex nature of health and mortality makes it difficult for experts to ascertain extent and orientation with regard to such racial considerations. Fundamental causality and race are critical considerations in sociological discourse that manifests through engagements among scholars and experts. Such discourse creates impetus for action and reaction to circumstantial parameters that that anchor health and mortality in society (Williams & Jackson 328).

Works Cited

Freese, Jeremy. & Lutfey, Karen. Toward Some Fundamentals of Fundamental Causality: Socio-Economic Status and Health in the Routine Clinic Visit for Diabetes. American Journal of Sociology. 110. 5 (2005): 1326-72. Print.

Hummer, Robert. & Rogers, Richard. Religious Involvement and U S Adult Mortality. Demography. 36. 2 (1999): 273-285. Print.

Jones, James. The Tuskegee Legacy Aids and the Black Community. The Hastings Center Report. 22. 6 (1992): 38-40. Print.

Link, Bruce. & Phelan, Jo. Social Conditions as Fundamental Causes of Disease. Journal of Health and Social Behaviour. 111. 35 (1995): 80-94. Print.

“The Latino Paradox.” Editorial. Los Angeles Times. ed. 30^th Dec 2010. Print.

Williams, David. & Jackson, Pamela. Social Sources of Racial Disparities in Health. Health Affairs. 24. 2 (2005): 325-334. Print.

The category selected and the reason for selection

Of the four categories, the item I have selected is health insurance coverage. This category is of great interest to me because it provides a platform for extensive analysis. The analysis of this class is straightforward. It gives a base for extensive research and provides the possibility to come up with conclusions that are very objective and accurate (Bacon, 2012).

Ranking of the state of Maryland

The state ranks 12th position out of the 53 states.

Comment on ranking

This ranking does not surprise me as even with the disparity between the highest racially covered and the lowest there is still a large portion of the population that has been covered (Housman & Odum, 2015).

Evidence of racial disparity

The conducted analysis displays that there is indeed evidence of disparity amongst the races. The evidence is in the form of average percentages of persons over the age of 18 but under the age of 64. The non-Hispanic whites lead with an average of 89.8% followed by the non-Hispanic black at 85.5% who have health insurance. We also have the Asian/Pacific Islanders who are third at 84.3%. A substantial margin separates the fourth group from the top three, and an even larger one separates the last group who are the American Indian/Alaska native at 62.2% and lastly the Hispanic group at 49.8% respectively (Gawande, 2014).

Reason for disparity

The non-Hispanic whites have the highest percentage of persons with insurance cover over all the other races. It is common for there to be a statistical advantage, but in comparison to the Hispanics and the native American Indians, the gap is simply too wide (Gawande, 2014). It raises the question of why the margins could not be as close as those of the non-Hispanic African Americans and the Asians. The greater margin is the primary indicator of the disparity; it shows that there is a need for extensive action into ensuring proper health coverage for all people.

Ranking of the state of Texas

Texas ranks at 53rd position out of all the states.

Comment on ranking

This ranking does not surprise me because of the deep-seated racial factors that hinder the appropriate sharing of the available resources in terms of health insurance efficiencies and adequacy (Janssen, 2014). It would not be balanced until the resolution of such issues will be found, especially those connected with immigration and national cohesion.

Evidence for disparity

There is overwhelming evidence of disparity based on the percentage of persons as there is a very wide gap between those who are covered by insurance and those who are not (Ward & Shelton, 2015). Here, the non-Hispanic white people lead again at 81.6%, followed by the Asian community at 76.2% and then the non-Hispanic black at 67.2%. At the bottom, we have the Native Americans at 49.6% and the Hispanics at 41.4% (Gawande, 2014).

Reason for disparity

The statistics provided and summarized above give a clear testimony to the disparities in the state of Texas. These margins are just too far apart. The population of the non-Hispanic white group is almost twice larger than the Hispanics. This shows that a huge effort needs to be placed to ensure equality amongst the entire nation.

Similarity and difference between the two states

The disparity is the same in the general sense as the non-Hispanic white community leads in both cases while the Hispanic community is the most disadvantaged. This contrast is however not reflected in the middle of the rankings as the non-Hispanic lack community statistics are different in both states. This can be attributed to the various types of challenges in the two different states.

Comparison

In the state of Texas, the disparity among the races increases drastically, and all of them are affected (Williams, 2012). Therefore, one can conclude that although things are not well in Maryland they are certainly worse in Texas.

Two states rankings

The two states rank at the 12th and 53rd positions respectively, and forty-one states separate them. This certainly highlights the differences between Maryland and Texas.

References

Bacon, E. (2012). Haemophilus Influenza Type B Morbidity, Mortality and Incidence in Maryland. Annapolis: Research Division.

Gawande, A. (2014). Being Mortal. London: Profile Books.

Housman, J., & Odum, M. (2015). Alters and Schiff Essential Concepts for Healthy Living. Burlington: Jones and Bartlett Publishers.

Janssen, S. (2014). The World Almanac and Book of Facts. London: Wiley Publishers.

Ward, S., & Shelton H. (2015). Maternal-Child Nursing Care With the Women’s Health Companion. Philadelphia: Davis Company.

Williams, E. (2012). Hood’s Texas Brigade in the Civil War. Jefferson: McFarland and Company Publishers.

Health disparities are defined as the dissimilarity between groups of people in terms of disproportion in health status, the spread of various diseases, and access to services. In many cases, these differences critically affect morbidity and mortality rates among such groups of people.

The statistical data on public health is collected by the US government institutions regularly. The report of the United States Department of Health and Human Services (2010) clarified the followings :

In 2007, African Americans comprised 13% of the U.S. population but accounted for nearly half of persons living with HIV/AIDS. HIV/AIDS rates (cases per 100,000) were 77 among black/African Americans, 35 among Native Hawaiians/Other Pacific Islanders, 28 among Hispanics, 13 among American Indians/Alaska Natives, 9.2 among whites, and 7.7 among Asian Americans. (p. 1).

According to CDC Health Disparities and Inequalities Report (2011), “Infants born to black women are 1.5 to 3 times more likely to die than infants born to women of other races/ethnicities” (p. 1). However, what causes of health disparities are the most important is a highly disputable question.

The potential causes of health disparities

On the one hand, the potential reasons for this may involve individual socioeconomic characteristics such as education, income, medical insurance status. Satcher (2000) suggested that “millions of people are at increased health risk because they no longer have access to functioning health care systems” (p. 2864). Another aspect of the health inequities is that while some categories of people are uninformed about healthy lifestyle or ration, others do not believe doctors at all living their traditional lifestyle.

On the other hand, human health is heavily influenced by genetic factors. There is no doubt that whites are at much greater risk because of their predisposition to skin cancer and breast cancer. At the same time, African Americans have a significantly increased risk of preeclampsia, cancer of the vulva, and some respiratory diseases.

The next fact is that national cuisines and habits which epitomize cultural traditions and national mentality also lead to some diseases. For example, drinking much coffee which is very popular among Mexicans or Hispanic Americans leads to a high rate of myocardial infarct and hypertension.

The possible strategies for eliminating health disparities

The US government should fund effective programs for low-income families, refugees, the disabled, etc. Satcher (2000) argued that “many of our community-based prevention, care, and treatment programs are highly effective and help millions of people live healthier lives” (p. 2864).

Another obvious way is to form a multisector proposal which means that we have to work together with partners from the private sector to organize hospitals, schools, inexpensive housing in the poorest regions and it will substantially improve the living standard of people in these areas.

The next possible solution is advocacy which should be largely used in remote regions because many people are unwilling to embrace new technologies such as the Internet or mobile phones. In addition, the national media should broadcast the latest scientific discoveries about cancer, diabetes, drug addiction and advertise healthy lifestyles producing special programs or documentaries because prevention costs much less than cure.

To summarize, there is not a single decision on this problem but the coordination and use of all strategies will have powerful outcomes, and eventually, it will give a good chance to eliminate health disparities that divide American society.

References

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2011) CDC Health Disparities and Inequalities Report – the United States, 2011. Vol. 60, 1. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Satcher, D. (2000). Eliminating global health disparities. The Journal of the American Medical Association, 284(22), 2864.

United States Department of Health and Human Services. (2010). Health disparities. Web.

Matters concerning race and ethnicity often present significant challenges even in the medical field while taking a patient’s history. Various socio-political, cultural, and geographic forces shape race and ethnicity, making them dynamic. Indicating a patient’s correct racial background may help understand specific predispositions to disease among different races, inequalities and disparities in health (aiding in timely diagnosis), and even particular adverse drug reactions. Thus, the nurse in the case study must find appropriate means of ascertaining a patient’s race when in doubt but not fill in the wrong details, which may result in erroneous treatment outcomes.

Requesting for race information may not affect healthcare workers much because they understand the value of such data in medical history taking. Jevon et al. (2020) note, however, that there are specific terms that may irk even care professionals, such as the use of derogative terms that refer to a race (p. 17). Therefore, it is essential to find acceptable words for any given race. Nevertheless, family members and the patient may be unaware of the role of race in history taking. The newly graduated nurse should first explain to the patient (if conscious and aware of the surroundings) or the family the importance of recording the data.

The registered nurse should introduce themselves and create a good rapport with the patient (or family) first to establish their trust. After that, the nurse proceeds to note that s/he noticed the race section was blank and explains the value of such data to the uninformed patient and their relatives. Explanations are crucial in creating mutual understanding between the care professional and the patient (Jevon et al., 2020, p. 15).

Moreover, the nurse practitioner may wrongly assume that a patient is of African descent, leading to ill feelings in some instances. Hence, after explaining to the patient or the relatives the value of noting down the data, the nurse should allow room for the patient/ family members to pick the right word to describe their race. Thus, the family/ patient uses the word most appropriate for them without any offense, and the care provider obtains the necessary information. Open-ended questions and some close-ended questions may prove helpful in gleaning data on the racial profile of a patient without being offensive. Creating a rapport, establishing trust, and allowing the patient/ family to lead the process are valuable approaches.

Reference

Jevon, P., Odogwu, S., Pepper, J., & Coleman, J. J. (2020). In History taking and communication skills (pp. 14-18). Wiley Blackwell.

Enterobius vermicularis (Pinworm)

Pinworms belong to the phylum nematoda, order oxyuroidea and family oxyuridae (Gutiérrez, 2000).

The following are the general characteristics of pinworms (Markell, John, krotoski, 1999):

• The pinworm is a nematode.
• Affects all classes of people.
• Has high prevalence rates in children.
• Most common intestinal parasite.
• Infection is usually asymptomatic.

Morphology

The following are the morphological characteristics of pinworms (Michelle, kalvana, 2005).

• Adult worms are typically small.
• Female worms are larger than males.
• Females measure 8 to 13MM in length and 0.5MM in thickness.
• Males measure 2 to 5MM in length and 0.2 MM in thickness.
• Females have a pointed posterior.
• Males have a rounded posterior.

Presentation

Pinworm infection is generally asymptomatic but the most common symptom is perianal itching (Michelle, kalyana, 2005).

Eggs

Adult pinworms live in the lumen of the caecum and migrate to the anus at night to lay eggs (Gutiérrez, 2000).

Pinworm eggs have the following characteristics (Caldwell, 1982):

• Pinworm eggs are transluscent and have a sticky surface.
• Eggs measure 20-30Micrometres.
• The shell is thick and flattened on one side.

Transmission

Transmission is from human to human and can take the following forms(Cook, 1994):

• Eggs are deposited in the perianal area from where they are transported to the mouth through finger nails, night clothing and linen.
• Cats can also carry the eggs in their fur.
• Dust carrying the eggs can be inhaled and later swallowed.
• The eggs in the gastro intestinal tract hatch into larvae.

Diagnosis

Diagnosis is done by the scotch tape or cellophane test(Cook, 1994):

• The test should be done first thing in the morning.
• Tape is placed directly on perianal area.
• Eggs are then placed directly on a slide and viewed on a microscope.

Treatment

There are two common treatment regimens (Michelle, kalvana, 2005):

• Option 1:
  • Mebendazole 100MG by mouth on day 1.
  • Dose should be repeated after 14 days to take care of reinfection.
• Option 2:
  • Albendazole single dose 400MG/Adult; 100MG/Children under two years.
  • The dose May be repeated after two weeks if necessary.

Alternative treatment for children is phenothiazine(Miller, Allen, 1942):

• It should be administered in chocolate tablets.
• 1 gram daily for 6-8 days.
• Careful monitoring should however be done because phenothiazine May cause a drop in hemoglobin levels.

Prevention

Personal hygiene is the Key to prevention of pinworm infection (Caldwell, 1982):

• Keep the fingernails short.
• Wash the hands properly after visiting the toilet.
• Keeping the bedroom floor clean.
• Change beddings regularly; Preferrably on a daily basis.
• Always keep food covered.
• Children should wear gloves while sleeping.

Complications

If untreated pinworms could lead to the following complications (Burkhat, burkhat, 2005):

• Appendicitis.
• Intestinal obstruction.
• Sialodenitis.
• Intestinal perforation.
• Enterocolitis.
• Hepatic infection.
• Urinary tract infections.
• Salpingitis.
• Epididymitis.

Facts

After copulation the male pinworm dies while the female procedes to lay egges in the region around the anus (Caldwell 1982).

The prevalence of the pinworm is between 20-40 million in the u.S:

• This is about 1 in every 10 americans (Burkhat, burkhat, 2005).

The pinworm was first discovered in Egypt (Michelle, kalvana, 2005 ).

References

Cook, G.C. 1994. Enterobius vermicularis infection. Hospital for Tropical Diseases, London, 35, 1159–1162.

Burkhart , C.N., Burkhart, C.G. 2004. Assessment of frequency, transmission, and genitourinary complications of enterobiasis (pinworms). International journal of dermatology, 44, 837–840.

Caldwell, J. P. 1982. Pinworms (Enterobius Vermicularis). Can Fam Physician, 28: 306–309.

Markell, E., John, D., Krotoski., W. 1999. Markell and Voge’s Medical Parasitology (8th ed.). Saunders.

Michelle, P., Kalyana, I. 2005. Unusual Endoscopic and Microscopic View of Enterobius vermicularis: A Case Report With a Review of the Literature. Southern Medical Journal, 98, 9, 926-928.

Miller, J.M., Allen, D. 1942. Studies on pinworm Infections: Tests with Phenothiazine in the treatment of pinworm infections. Can Med Assoc J, 46,2,11-115.

Gutiérrez, Y. 2000. Diagnostic pathology of parasitic infections with clinical correlations (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press.

Introduction

White privilege is the importance attached to the being white. It is about the concrete benefits of access to resources and social rewards and the power to shape the norms and values of society that whites receive, unconsciously or consciously, by virtue of their skin color in a racist society (Adams, Bell & Griffin 97).

Considering how the media operates, it turns out that being white still commands more respect and authority unlike being non-white. According to Jensen (2), being white is not just white politically. Rather, it is equivalent to power. For a very long time, this is a practice that has led to non-whites being excluded from the media and their voices remain unheard.

This paper examines the subject of being white and non-white and goes on to look at how the media is contributing to either aggravate the situation or weaken the culture of considering whites as being superior to the non-whites.

Are Non-white Voices Increasingly Being Heard?

The United States of America at the beginning of the twenty first-century, four decades after the Civil Rights Act, was predominantly a white supremacy society. It was a society whose founding was based on an ideology of the inherent superiority of the white Europeans over non-white (Jensen 4). This ideology was wrongly used to justify the crimes against indigenous people and Africans who created the nation.

It was a society in which white people occupied most of the top positions in powerful institutions, with similar privileges available in limited ways to non-white community. The voices of the non-whites were rarely heard by those in power.

However, as a result of a change in the status quo, it became clear that the voices of the non-whites could now be heard. A good example is the election of President Barrack Obama.

At first, it appeared unimaginable but finally it became a reality. Although a section of the American citizens were and still are convinced that the United States was headed towards the wrong directions, this did not stop the proponents of this new ideology to make their agenda pass.

In all these, the media certainly took centered stage. This is a clear indication that the voices of non-whites were increasing being heard.

Through the support of the media, President Obama managed to sell his ideas to supporters and non supports alike and it is obvious that he eventually was able to change people’s opinions, especially those who were opposed to a non-white presidency and could not imagine him becoming the president of the United States of America.

What Happens in Society When Voices Go Unheard?

There are serious consequences of voices going unheard in a society. First and foremost, this creates a fertile ground for oppression. When people suffer in silence and they do not come out in the open to discuss the injustices they are suffering, the oppressors are able to get away with their injustices.

Secondly, the state of a nation can never improve considering that policy makers will end up making decisions that are meant to affect everyone but without considering the views of all people. Another dangerous concern is that if continually ignored, those who are never heard may eventually rebel against the authorities and this may impact the nation negatively.

Too many times, strikes and all sorts of demonstrations have been orchestrated by citizens who are always ignored by those who are in important positions within the society. It is also true that when voices are not heard, the society loses in terms of ideas. Because they are not heard, the ideas of many do not get to see the light of day.

People may have brilliant ideas but since no one is willing to listen to them, they end up perishing with those very ideas that would have been of benefit to the entire nation. It is therefore important for those in authority to do all they can to an atmosphere where everyone is free to contribute in whatever way towards the common good of all.

In view of this, it is beneficial both for the nation and for those who are considered less important and therefore not heard, to be proactive and seek ways of ensuring that every single citizen is heard and that his or her opinions respected.

People must be willing to confront their fears and acknowledge the impact caused by this on their practice and perceptions (Lund & Colin 9).

Avenues Non-Whites have followed to be heard in the U.S.?

A number of strategies have been used by non-whites to ensure that they are heard in different forums. In the early days of the American history, non-whites would resort to demonstrations to get the attention of those in authority. An important person to remember here is Martin Luther King. Martin was an American clergyman and a powerful leader in the well known for the role he played in advocating for the rights of others.

Without resorting to violence he was brought together scores of people to make their voices heard. Another a venue that was used for a long time to make non-whites heard was religion.

Clergymen as well as human rights activists would use the opportunity they had to speak to their congregants to make known their intentions not only to them but also those in authority. This has worked very well especially because most of the time, followers tend to believe what their religious leaders preach to them and as a result they are easily convinced.

With the advent of the Internet, however, things have changed. It is now possible for one to reach a wide audience within just a short while and at the comfort of their offices or homes. Unlike yester years, many channels exist today that that make it possible for people to air their views.

For President Obama to ascend to power and become the president of the United States, the media and especially the Internet, had to play a big role.

The television is also another popular media type that reaches a wide audience. Although not very popular, especially among the younger generation, newspapers provide a useful avenue to communicate with the public. The Internet is the most preferred and easily accessible avenue that is available to all.

However, not all that glitters is gold. It is also important to realize that despite the obvious advancements that have been realized, thanks to the media, there are also negative impacts that the media has continued to portray.

In some instances, the media has been used wrongly by individuals to advance their own selfish interests. Considering that they are in business, those in the media industry will sometimes do just about anything to survive. Unfortunately, this may include perpetrating animosity within the society.

Conclusion

Through the discussions presented in this paper, it is quite clear that the form of racism that once dominated the United States of America is slowly becoming a thing of the past and the media has contributed greatly to this historic transformation. The different forms of available media have realized that racism does not add value to the development of humanity and have resorted to treating all people alike.

This may also be attributed to the fact that the world has become very competitive and with the onset of globalization, people have to think globally. Whatever is done anywhere may have far reaching effects that may be felt by a person living and operating in a far away location.

The coming of the Internet has definitely created an open society where every single individual has an opportunity to know what is happening anywhere and with the amount of information made available, people are able to learn extensively and understand the important art of coexistence.

As this trend continues, there is a possibility that the media will help people to overcome the prejudice that has for so long affected peaceful existence. Beyond any reasonable doubt, the media has continued to be an important channel of fighting prejudice in people. Many people have been challenged to think differently and this is a great leap in the right direction.

Although some negative traits have been linked to the media, the benefits far outweigh the disadvantages. As such, the media will continue to be the one critical too that will help to foster a healthy society.

Works Cited

Adams, Maurianne, Bell Lee and & Griffin Pat. Teaching for Diversity and Social Justice: A Sourcebook, New York: Routledge, 1997. Print.

Jensen, Robert. The Heart of Whiteness: Confronting Race, Racism and White Privilege, San Francisco: City Lights Books. 2005. Print.

Lund, Carole and Colin, Scipio. White Privilege and Racism: Perceptions and Actions: New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. 2010. Print.

Educational expansion led to reforms that have changed educational attainment for many students irrespective of their gender, race, ethnicity, or class. With the major aim being to attain quality education for all kids of the world, global educational expansion has led to an improved rate of enrollment in primary and post-primary schools. Most of the developing countries, which are mostly in Southern Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa, have a pronounced number of school-aged children who are not enrolled in any school girls being among the most affected. Despite an increased number of school enrollment both in primary and secondary schools, the level of education attained by these pupils is of low quality measured by the educational practices and systems portrayed in the third world countries.

Most researches show that educational expansion in itself does not reduce the advantage of educational attainment between the rich and the poor. Studies show that the rich continue to maintain their class by gaining more education as compared to the poor. Walters shows that an increase in the educational system can have an effect on educational opportunities. This calls for a total overhaul of the rules governing educational opportunities (Hannum & Buchman, 2003). This means that there is a need for school reforms to improve educational opportunities.

Reforms aimed at the modification of educational opportunity allocation also don’t help in the reduction of the advantages enjoyed by the elites in education attainment. Efforts can be made to promote participation in education by all people through the removal of tuition fees. Though this is meant to make educational opportunities equal, the result is usually not that. The elite still possesses an advantage over the low-class people. This level of educational expansion does not result inequality because that the wealthy section of the society is still in a position to get for themselves a bigger part of educational credentials that are more valuable than their poor counterparts. In addition, most researches are aimed at the level of schooling achieved and not the quality of education received during this period of studying. Children of the elite have an advantage where they can ensure that their children are exposed to high-quality education. This gives them an advantage above a child of a less advantaged person within the same level of schooling (Hannum, 2002).

Reforms in the educational sector can encourage more enrollment of women into schools. This cannot really impact the equality between girls and boys enrollment. This is as a result of the reforms encouraging both the female and male students, making them enroll more and more. The result is a persistent gap between the male students and female students. A good example was in Nepal, where the rates of entrance and completion by the boys rose at the time when the rate for girls rose. This maintained a steady gap that did not narrow (Xie & Hannum, 2001).

Cultural norms surrounding women can also lead to the widening of the gap between male and female students. Though the educational sector may do its best in encouraging the girl child through education expansion, the rate of enrolment and completion might still remain low. These norms include the woman’s role and participation in paid employment. In addition, the participation of women in the labor force can also alter their rates of enrolment. There can be a reduced disparity in gender in education, but the reflection of it in employment is missing. A good example of this was shown in a research where the female number of participation in the labor force was so low as compared to the education level achieved by the women in the 70’s. The underlying factor was the adequate availability of learned men that employers favored as compared to the equally educated women. The same discrepancies in terms of the level of education and the participation in the labor force were also evident in other countries like Taiwan, Israel, and South Africa (Mickelson et al., 2001).

Education can be closely linked to occupation. Better education can lead to a better profession which in return can improve one’s social wellbeing. The educational expansion has thus improved the attainment of education for minorities in a big way. This has given them a chance to improve on their professional positions. The only problem is that the improvement of education does not give the less advantaged the chance to catch up with their counterparts who were initially advantaged. With a lot of effort, the level of disparities could reduce at lower levels like the primary enrolment or primary-secondary transition, but that is as far as it could come. For example, in Israel, the discrepancies had reduced drastically in the years between the forties and ’70s in the transition between primary and secondary education. Unfortunately, all forms of education after the secondary level showed no sign of improvement (Hannum, 2002).

Educational expansion can also exhibit disparities in terms of occupations. Occupational distribution exhibited a decrease in racial inequality, but the white color jobs showed a maintained difference in Brazil. Race-based occupational differences were also present in China and South Africa as a result of the differences in educational attainment (Mickelson et al, 2001).

It is therefore important to note that as much as the governments have tried to ensure equality in terms of education attainment, there are some factors that still hinder the achievement of the set goals. This leads to a persistent disparity between the socially advantaged class and the disadvantaged lot. This eventually translates to their occupational advantage. It is an advantage to possess credentials that offer an advantage over others. When the socially advantaged class provides their credentials, the less advantaged class thus remains disadvantaged in terms of getting a similar post. This leads to a great disparity in terms of employment. As the cycle continues, the less disadvantaged remain at their social class with the advantaged maintaining their class.

Flynn and the issue of IQ, race and class

The issue of IQ discrepancies between race and class has been one of the most controversial issues in the field of research. It has also led to many heated debates on the foundations of the researches made. Among the people who have commended on the experiments that tried to point out that there exists a difference in the IQs white people and black people was James Flynn. In the book Meritocracy and Economic Inequalities, Flynn tries to point out the weaknesses in the experiments that were used to come up with these findings (Flynn, 2000).

To begin with, Flynn comments on Jensen theory. In this theory, Jensen tries to show the relationship between IQ and intelligence. He tries to bring out the fact that scores in IQ tests could be used to give one’s intelligence. This theory, according to Flynn, is shrugged off after numerous researches in the recent times which have pointed out that each new generation has been gaining on the IQ scale as compared to the presiding generation. A comparison between the generations’ IQ shows that Netherlands, Israel and Belgium have the highest gains of averagely twenty points. Flynn goes on to explain that Denmark, Sweden, and Norway have had an average of ten points increase from one generation to the other. Other researches with weaker data still prove that there has been an increase in IQ score between generations. The youngest of all generations; that is the young kids, show that children in Japan have a twenty point IQ as compared to America’s nine points (Flynn, 2000).

I strongly believe that Flynn’s arguments are very founded, especially on the issue of a difference between IQ scores and intelligence. In his argument, Flynn uses Netherlands as an example. In one of the researches, this country gains 21 points on Raven’s scale within a single generation which is around thirty years. Based on the same point, Flynn tries to bring out his argument in terms of two generations which is the 1982 generation which has an average IQ of 79 points. The next two generations could measure up 121 points which is a great improvement in terms of IQ. The question here is in terms of the intelligence of the people of the Netherlands. By moving down the generations, the IQ could thus go lower and lower. Flynn asks whether there has been a time in history when the normal people of the Netherlands have been reported to be near mental retardation or a point when they have been extraordinarily intelligent. the truth is, inventions and other signs of intelligence have instead dropped with the later generation exhibiting no new invention or any other form of evidence that can prove an increase in intelligence to relate to the increase in the IQ score (Flynn, 2000).

I completely agree with Flynn on this issue because if the points of the IQ score showed the intelligence of a person, then it the generations when inventions of most of these modern technologies like motor vehicles, televisions, radio, electricity, and even other theories could not really have happened during those ages. If they happened to be invented then, what could have been invented by now could things close to miracles. This is because subtracting a substantial amount of points from modern generations to those generations during the invention could show that the IQ scores by then could have been really low. If IQ score reflects intelligence, then they could have been really poor intellectually.

To standardize his Raven’s Progressive Matrices, Raven matched a group of British soldiers in 1942 who were aged between twenty five and sixty five with workers of the same age limit in a private institution and other in government institutions in 1992. It is from these two groups of people that Raven grafted his findings, and from the same graph, he was able to get the scores for generations that lived in 1877 up to those that lived in the 1970s. Flynn points out the first drawback to Raven’s insinuations. He points out that contrary to Raven’s belief, the performance does not remain constant throughout the human life from his youth to his old age. Performance can be altered by age and also by environmental factors (Flynn, 2000).

This argument though not proved scientifically, cannot be sidelined. I believe that an old man’s performance is not a reflection of what he could have done as a youth. This does not only come in terms of mellowed energy, but also the prevailing environmental factors which could highly affect the old man. These factors, probably, did not exist in the times when he was a young man. It is therefore inappropriate to believe that that an old person’s performance is a clear reflection of what he could have done as a youth.

I also believe that it is easier to analyze a relationship between a given group of people in different times than it is to make an analysis of two different cultures. Ravens mistakes as exposed by Flynn in his study of the relationship between IQ and intelligence can actually give me reason to doubt his ability to analyze the relationship between two different cultures. The culture of a black man and the culture of a white man.

Flynn also tries to point out the weakness of trying to measure mental retardation using the IQ points. In America, the standard at which one was termed mentally retarded was any measure of 70 and below. This position has been opposed by the American Association on Mental Disability who preferred the use of impairment in terms of adaptive behavior and intellectual functioning. Unfortunately, the use of IQ points has remained in use. Sad to say, the 70 point score has always been the mark since 1945 up to as current as publications of Wechsler in 1992. The mark was chosen so as to maintain a population of 2.27% at the bottom of the biologically normal human population (Flynn, 2000).

I also tend to have a bone to chew with this form of selection because it is the same group of researchers who have proven that the IQ points of each generation has been improving by a given margin. It is therefore pitiful if the IQ of people is improving but the mark to define mentally retarded is still remaining at 70. This means that fewer and fewer people will be left in that category, thus reducing the expected percentage of the bottom population of the normal humans to be termed as mentally retarded. This was evident when in 1972 only 0.54% of the bottom population of normal children were ranked 70 points and below. This use of IQ points to define mental retardation has been problematic because a good number of the culprits below the 70 mark easily escape the bracket letting the expected 2.27% drop lower than the expected (Flynn, 2000).

I believe that Flynn’s prescription to the psychologists to use their own mechanisms to identify mentally retarded people is more welcome than the use of IQ scores which can easily result in normal kids being bundled into the bandwagon of mental retardation. This can easily deny a kid his rights because of the mistaken identity. This being referred also to cases of learning inability can lead to a child being pushed into other classes that are full of retarded people when themselves they are perfectly normal. In the long run, the kid might end being mentally affected when he sees himself as fit but segregated from other normal kids in class and clustered among the mentally retarded.

Flynn has something against Jensen’s theory. This is founded on the issue of gaining IQ points from generation to generation. Flynn finds it amazing on how a generation can outclass its predecessor by more than 15 points, and yet the difference fail to reflect on the psychometric g. according to Flynn, this makes the theory wanting. He asserts that several factors could contribute to the gaining of IQ points among the generations. Among these, Flynn mentions the complexity of the tests and also an improved skill in test-taking. This would come in terms of improvement in education quality. By putting more emphasis on relevant subject matters and through a deliberate teaching on how to take IQ tests can actually lead to improvement in IQ points gaining. This can be done by teachers and parents of the children in question. A good example is the WISC test. With a good effort on arithmetic, the students can easily perform well on this test (Flynn, 2000).

Other researchers like Richard Lynn tried to justify the issue of IQ gains through the use of nutrition hypothesis. In his argument, Lynn uses height gains to justify IQ gains. According to Flynn, there is lack of evidence whether there is any relationship between height and IQ. Secondly, studies have shown that the use of vitamin-mineral supplements had effects on the IQ of individuals. Underuse could result in little significance, moderate use could have a great effect on IQ and over use could result to little effect. It is therefore, no logical that all nations have been maintaining a steady and correct amount of vitamin-minerals to be able to maintain a steady improvement in the IQ gains. Different phenomena like wars could result to different nutrition as compared to the after war period. Flynn gives an example of the Netherlands population born during the famine stricken war period and those born during the healthy after war periods. The difference in nutrition is not reflected in the IQ gains. Finally, Flynn down plays the nutrition issue by posing an open question, should good nutrition result to general wellbeing of the brain, which is thus visible from all aspects of life, or does good nutrition only affect the parts of the brain that deal with testing? According to Flynn, the improved brain in terms of improved nutrition should not only impact on the IQ gains but should be seen even in terms of increased intelligence (Flynn, 2000).

Flynn then uses the IQ points in relation to achievements. The IQ gap between white Americans and Chinese Americans was 21 points. They were ten points ahead of their Japanese American counterparts. Checking on the occupational ladder, the Chinese Americans occupied high ranks that were equal to the white Americans. The same applied to the Japanese Americans who held almost equal positions. Therefore the 120 twenty average for the white American and the 99 average for the Chinese American did not reflect on their occupations (Flynn, 2000).

On race, Flynn refutes the notion that IQ level can be passed genetically from one generation to the other. According to Flynn, during the Second World War, several American soldiers, both white and black, fathered kids with German women. The children born by these two groups of soldiers had their IQ measured, and the result was that they had identical mean IQs. This therefore means that the issue of genes has no role to play in the IQ scoring (Flynn, 2000).

There are several other experiments that were done by researchers to justify the fact that whites had a generally higher IQ as compared to all other races. These were what Flynn tried to refute. His views that are completely against the researches are clearly brought out through his substantiated arguments. He has taken time to study all the experiments analyzing them one by one and coming out with the faults which, to me, are very substantial.

Although the move to counter the standing notion might have been purely emotional, I believe that Flynn has argued his points completely scientifically. None of his arguments is based on speculations as portrayed by other researchers who use speculations to guess the IQ level of generations that existed a century ago.

My argument is that Flynn’s arguments are justified and that those who hold onto the notion that whites have a higher IQ based on the findings of the researches mentioned in Flynn’s book should go back to the drawing board and come up with answers to drawbacks of the carried experiments. This is not to say that they are completely wrong, but, as scholars, what we base on is experimentation that has a base. One that can be defended comfortably without leaving gaps, as shown by the experiments above. It is therefore important to note that Flynn’s arguments are more concrete as compared to the held tenets based on the defective experiments. It is therefore important that the initiators of those experiments go back to the drawing board and re adjust their stand.

References

Arrow,K et al. (2000) Meritocracy and economic inequality New York: Princeton University Press, Chapter 3, By J. Flynn.

Hannum, E., and Buchman, C., The consequences of Global Education Expansion. American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Web.

Mickelson, Roslyn, Mokubung Nkomo, and Stephen Smith. 2001.

“Education, Ethnicity, Gender and Social Transformation in Israel and South Africa.” Comparative Education Review 45: 1–28.

Hannum, Emily. 2002. “Ethnic Differences in Basic Education in Reform-Era Rural China.” Demography 39 (1): 95–117.

Hannum, Emily, and Yu Xie. 1998. “Ethnic Stratification in Northwest China: Occupational Differences between Han Chinese and National Minorities in Xinjiang, 1982–1990.” Demography 35: 323–333.