Category: Race and Gender

Introduction to Critical Race Theory

Critical race theory scrutinizes a paradox; how does racial subordination prevail despite international denunciation through state rules and norms of a moral society? (Harris, 2012, 1). This paper will argue that the main tenets of critical race theory maintain that one’s race, religion, culture, gender/sex and economic standing all intersect together to further oppress individuals (Harris, 2012, 1). Critical race theory is pivotal to the study of law and society as it establishes a framework for understanding, identifying, and advocating for remedies to inequalities within law and society. The paper will first prove this through a discussion on the main components of critical race theory, focusing on the phrase “racism is ordinary”, intersectionality, anti-essentialism, color-blind/formal equality, interest convergence, and material determinism, and, the social construction of race. Second, the paper will depict this argument through an analysis of different debates and criticisms of the critical race theory. Lastly, the paper will discuss the importance of critical race theory to the study of law and society, positing that this theory creates a framework for a better understanding of how the law, societal norms, and institutions influenced by law, disproportionately impact and disadvantage individuals from racialized, segregated communities.

Origins and Evolution of Critical Race Theory

Critical race theory focuses on the transformation and relationship between race, racism, and power (Delgado and Stefancic, 2017, 2). More simply, critical race theory is an analysis of hegemony, and how dominance can be perverse without coercion- it is a theory that encompasses intersectionality, that one’s race, religion, culture, gender/sex, and economic standing, all function together as an intertwined wed to further oppress individuals, specifically those with multiple forms of “disadvantage” as the ones stated above (Harris, 2012, 1). Critical race theory emerged in the mid-1920s composed of lawyers, activists, and legal scholars who had begun to realize that the civil rights era of the 1960s was coming to a halt, and many of the values were being lost (Delgado and Stefancic, 2017, 3-4). The theory is often paralleled with conventional civil rights and ethnic study discourses, as they share many of the same values, but critical race theory diverges by adopting a broader, more inclusive context, which expands to include the often-excluded components such as; economics, history, experience, group and individual interests, even feelings and unconscious experience (Delgado and Stefancic, 2017, 3). Dissimilar to the civil rights and ethnic movements, which focus on incrementalism- adding to a project through small changes, the critical race theory encompasses ideas from equity theory, legal reasoning, Enlightenment rationalism, and impartial principles of constitutional law (Delgado and Stefancic, 2017, 3). Critical race theory began as a theory in the analysis of law but is soon adopted into many other disciplines such as; issues of school discipline, hierarchy, tracking, controversies over curriculum and history, and IQ and achievement testing (Delgado and Stefancic, 2017, 3). The popularity and easy adaptation of this theory is derived from its activist component, which many individuals are drawn to (Delgado and Stefancic, 2017, 3). This is due to the fact that critical race theorists not only try to understand social circumstances but legitimately change them (Delgado and Stefancic, 2017, 3). Aiming to expose the assembling of society around racial lines, but positively dismantle such hierarchies, by building on equity and diverging from focusing on white supremacy (Delgado and Stefancic, 2017, 3).

Core Components and Concepts

The main components of critical race theory surround the phrase “racism is ordinary, not extraordinary” this encompasses the ideas of intersectionality, anti-essentialism, color-blind/formal equality, interest convergence and material determinism, and, the social construction of race. The notion “racism is not ordinary” eludes the idea that racism is normalized and permeates through all components of society. The intersectionality theory posits that racialized individuals, in particular, have intersecting forms of oppression such as; race, culture, religion, and gender/sex, which all operate together to further disadvantage individuals and communities (Hodes, 2017, 71). For example, intersectionality can be used to describe the experience of a black, impoverished, woman as the categories of race, gender and economic standing all operate together to further oppress such individuals, in comparison to a white woman (Grillo, 199, 18). In addition to intersectionality, critical race theory encompasses ideas of anti-essentialism, which is defined as the idea that there is a single woman’s experience, single racialized individual experience, or any other group which can be described without consideration of other aspects the individual may possess (Grillo, 1995, 19). Critical race theorists reject the idea of essentialism due to their belief that every individual’s experience is unique and must be considered as such, or else there is a risk that individuals are unfairly grouped into a stereotype that would dismantle the central belief of this school of thought. In order to dismiss accusations of racial inequalities, many individuals will adopt the concept of color-blind or formal equality. Expressed within the legislation, rules, and norms, this can be described as the equal or same treatment of all individuals, across all platforms, which with consideration of the broader picture can and will only protect against superficial forms of bigotry (Delgado and Stefancic, 2017, 8). Another component of critical race theory is the interest convergence of material determinism. It is the idea that racism advances the interest of white elites, materially, and working-class people, psychically. More simply, interest convergence and material determinism can be understood as white individuals only supporting movements of racial justice if it also advances their own personal interests, or a “convergence” between interests (Delgado and Stefancic, 2017, 9). The final and most crucial part of critical race theory is that race is a social construction, which posits that race and racism are fabricated based on social thought and relations (Delgado and Stefancic, 2017, 7). The social construction thesis diverges from the idea that race is not inherent or static, but instead, races are invented and manipulated through society and societal norms (Delgado and Stefancic, 2017, 7).

Critiques and Debates Surrounding Critical Race Theory

Upon the inception of critical race theory media and scholars reacted relatively lightly to the new theory, but as it grew in popularity and substance individuals felt more empowered to criticize what seems to be an all-inclusive theory (Delgado and Stefancic, 2017, 87). Some of the areas which generate the most resistance are a critique of storytelling, truth and objectivity, and voice (Delgado and Stefancic, 2017, 87). The first critique of the theory surrounds the matter of voice, people challenged that racialized individuals speak from an experienced and distinctive voice about issues regarding race and that popular scholars disregarded submissions to the movement from people of color (Delgado and Stefancic, 2017, 87). This criticism is derived from questions of if racialized scholars have any form of expertise simply from the nature of who they are, as some minorities have little to no interest in the liberation of racialized communities (Delgado and Stefancic, 2017, 88). Scholars were not the only individuals taking issue with this theory, many mainstream newspapers and magazines also began to question the substance of the theory (Delgado and Stefancic, 2017, 89). Many articles began to emerge discussing issues within this theory, one is an article by Daniel Farber and Suzanna Sherry which brought issues to the theory, stating that it was inciting a new form of anti-Semitism and indecent racial essentialism (Delgado and Stefancic, 2017, 89). They maintain that the critical race theory compartmentalized, all blacks for example. Farber and Sherry posited that Asians and Jews are minority groups but are unsuccessfully represented within this theory (Delgado and Stefancic, 2017, 90). Furthermore, storytelling is among the problematic tenets of the theory, critics stating that storytelling within law often distorts public discourse, due to the fact that the stories critical race theorists tell may not even be cohesive with the actual experiences of the groups (Delgado and Stefancic, 2017, 91). The storytelling component of critical race theory is problematic because it lacks analytical stringency, as they can be read in a way to convey a feeling or reaction and are left open to interpretation instead of being concrete facts (Bell, 1995, 907).

Critical Race Theory’s Significance in Law and Society

Law and society is the study of the intertwined relationship between law and society, it is the study of how certain laws, norms, and rules all affect the society in which these factors govern, in discussing the relationship between law and society it is only natural for individuals to subsequently question, how do all these factors manufacture and maintain unequal treatment of minorities within society? Critical race theory establishes a skeleton for understanding, identifying, and advocating for remedies to inequalities within law and society. In addition to this, the main components of critical race theory are directly parallel, if not identical to the aims of the study of law and society. The study of law and society aims to reveal how the law affects individuals within society, and critical race theory strives to reveal how one’s intersecting forms of oppression are maintained and largely fabricated through law and all of the law’s tenets, such as media, education, and other institutions, as these components of society are apparatuses of conferring dominance to the majority (whites) and disadvantaging minority experience.

Conclusion and Reflections

This paper has argued that the main tenets of critical race theory maintain that one’s race, religion, culture, gender/sex, and economic standing all intersect to further oppress individuals (Harris, 2012, 1). The paper first proved this argument through a discussion on the main components of the theory; normalization of racism, intersectionality, anti-essentialism, color-blind/formal equality, interest convergence and material determinism, and the social construction of race. Second, the paper proved this argument through an analysis of the main critiques of critical race theory, emphasizing issues with storytelling and voice. Lastly, the paper discusses the importance of critical race theory to the study of law and society, positing that critical race theory establishes a framework for understanding, identifying, and advocating for changes to inequalities established within the law and permeating throughout society.

References

1. Bell, D. A. (1995). Who’s Afraid of Critical Race Theory? University of Illinois Law Review, 893-910. Retrieved from https://sph.umd.edu/sites/default/files/files/Bell_Whos Afraid of CRT_1995UIllLRev893.pdf.
2. Delgado, R., & Stefancic, J. (2017). Critical race theory: An introduction, 2-91. New York: New York University.
3. Grillo, T. (1995). Anti-Essentialism and Intersectionality: Tools to Dismantle the Master’s House. Berkeley Journal of Gender, Law & Justice,10(1), 16-30. Retrieved from https://scholarship.law.berkeley.edu/bglj/vol10/iss1/4/.
4. Harris, A. (2012). Critical Race Theory (Third Edition), International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, 1. California: University of California. https://works.bepress.com/angela_harris/17/
5. Hodes, C. (2017). Intersectionality in the Canadian Courts: In Search of a Decolonial Politics of Possibility, 71. Retrieved from http://journals.msvu.ca/index.php/atlantis/article/view/4765

What is Racial Formation?

Omi and Winant defined racial formation as the process by which social, economic, and political forces determine the content and importance of racial categories, and by which in turn they are shaped by racial meanings.

The theory of Racial formation identifies that race is a social construct that cannot be varied, the main reason for this would be that those who seem to be at the top of the racial hierarchy implement it. This is a theory in which one race sees others as less or an outsider. The race is simply all about inequality even though as a society we have progressed from further racial issues such as slavery, Omi and Winant still believe that is based on inequality and try illustrating that by them saying race is a master category and a frame used for organizing all manner of political thought This idea could be seen through oppression struggles as a POC in the United States.

As a reader, I can take quite a lot from this as I agree with a large matter of their theories however, I still am intrigued as well as left empty by some of it as well. I agree about their views of race being a social construct to a certain extent and that race is a concept in which one can be seen in a greater matter than another due to the color of their skin, therefore allowing one racial group to be an oppressor and the trying to fight back with a form of resistance. This, therefore, results in a conflicting theory of what is seen as the higher elite class and the lower street class. They also spoke about intersectionality which is that everybody has their own experience of some sort of discrimination or oppression and that could be gender, race, social class even disability. The reason why they bring this up was to coincide with a theory of women`s movements sticking with racial movements. However, I found this quite confusing and was not really sure where they were trying to go with the point, and I felt it lacked any real correlation to the main point.

In comparison to each other, I would say both readings almost have a similar thesis however they use different viewpoints and examples or explain that thesis. I believe they both speak about how in contemporary society we are still living in a world of major inequality when as a society we try to promote equality. The difference between them would be those blamed for enhancing these constructs that a race deserves more attention than another or that a race is more powerful than another one. For example, the Grenfell reading illustrates to us not directly but with a soft connotation that there was a lack of resources and the building was undersupplied and even years behind on their ideology and even reports of who is actually in the building. This can only be due to the neglection that a housing complex in such a prestigious borough is underdeveloped as we see in mainstream media all the positives about Chelsea and Kensington however they won’t show you this side, this is something I agree with definitely because I was brought in areas of not so developed and populated with ethnic minorities just like Grenfell and not much was ever supplied to us and this was over 10 years ago and to see something like Grenfell just goes to show the little development made by the government and their interest of places populated by ethnic minorities. In contrast, the other reading tries to direct more at the races than a specific community (government politicians), I agree with this approach as well but that`s a real insight into what life is like in contemporary America, I first hand have seen it because I`ve not only lived in Britain I’ve also lived in the United States, race over there is a major social construct over there and if you don`t subdue to that construct of an elitist also widely known as the traditional white man you`re seen as lower and disregarded by a certain member of the public. Although both readings do give their arguments, I believe the reading on Grenfell is a lot more convincing due to its sentimental factor. It indulges the reader into a more passionate state of mind when reading because no matter what race you are just being based in a highly ethnic minority-based population affected the lives of innocent people.

Introduction to Racial and Gender Stereotypes in Sports

Despite the idea that neither race nor gender can make a person being inferior or dominated by others, many people still fosters traditional stereotypes relating to racism and sexism in order to create cleavages and discrimination in our world today. One of the most common areas where gender and racial stereotypes have been established is sports. Being a professional athlete is a coveted dream for many, but one with numerous barriers to entry that have hindered people based on their economic status, sex, and race. (Doyle & Colin-Thome, 2019) Toxic race and gender stereotypes not control and limit only women’s participation in sports; negative stereotypes also used as a weapon against all athletes. This paper will focus on women, people of color, and the intersection of gender and race in sports; also, encourage to realize that physical differences do not affect ability to experience and play sports of individuals.

Common Racial Stereotypes in Sports and Their Origins

Besides general stereotypes relating to race in sports that we can hear every day such as “Black people are better at basketball,” “Dominicans naturally excel at baseball,” “Asians are excellent dancers,” or “White men can’t jump!” (Desmond and Emirbayer 2010: 44), society also constructed aggressive gender stereotypes in the same field such as “You play like a Woman”. We could see that stereotype as one that was demeaning towards women and undervaluing female athletes’ talent compared to their male counterparts.

Early on, we have learned to associate things that commonly appear together and expect them to inevitably coexist: men and athleticism, for instance, or black males and basketball. Gender roles have been described as society’s shared beliefs that apply to individuals on the basis of their socially identified sex and are thus, related to gender stereotypes. (Eagly, 2009) Even though some of those associations are matched, however, they do not reflect the whole facts.

Gender Stereotypes and Their Impact on Female Athletes

In the western world, while men are expected to be independent, strong, competent, and athletic, women are supposed to be weaker, and was about being at home for cooking and caring for children. The ideas that “girls don’t sweat” and “girls don’t get dirty” began to be challenged in conjunction with being a female and being an athlete. In other words, women are generally thought to be communal, or warm, caring, and interdependent – while men are perceived as inferior in communal qualities (Eagly & Mladinic, 1989). As males are demonstrated as “masculinity” and females are stuck with “feminine” depiction, the complementarity intends to reinforce male superiority and female subordination, also, making them acceptable to put females at disadvantage, restriction, and inequality. (Jost & Kay, 2005; Rudman & Glick, 2001)

As a society, our beliefs have cast all such things, and thus, athletics, competition, and sportsmanship have been supposed appropriate qualities within only the manly domain. Men who play professional sports are called heroes who live and breathe their games, while women who participate in sports still have to do the mission of being mothers or wives first, then being athletes second. Additionally, the toxic race and gender stereotypes forced female athletes must be well prepared for dealing with how they are perceived by the public because, most of the times, their looks producing more press than their skills.

Racial and Gender Stereotypes: A Barrier to Athletic Opportunities

A few athlete stereotypes relating to race and gender might sound credible since stereotypes are often seen as necessary as ways of simplifying the overwhelming number of stimuli one constantly receives from the world (Ladegaard, 1998). However, in fact, they are not entirely true. While sports centered around physicality and contact, racial differences do not affect at all about the performances of athletes. Over the decades, we have been familiar with some well-known race and gender stereotypes including “Blacks are good athletes”, “Asians are inferior at sports compared to the rest of the world”, and “All women’s sports are inferior to men’s sports”, etc. Those ideas are not completely wrong since over 60% of the total male athletes of color compete in basketball and football, while only 28% of the total white male athletes compete in the same things. (Race and Sport) Likewise, in a study compared African American youths’ perceptions of encouragement for sports participation, a result came out that relative to White, Hispanic and Asian youth, African American youth are more likely to receive encouragement for sports participation from their family members. (Shakib & Veliz, 2012) As the result showed that African American families tend to push their children towards sports during their childhood, there is not surprising to know that most athletes in the U.S. are blacks, and ironically, because of that, society has believed that all blacks have natural talents at sports. Some even characterized black male athletes as superior because of their high thighs that go up into their back. (Laurence, 2018)

Breaking Down Stereotypes: Achievements of Diverse Athletes

Asians are inferior at sports stereotype also due to their sporting achievements were not acknowledged with the same level of great interest as other races. The only achievement that they could get attention from the world probably only about ice-skating. Since most of Americans only watch basketball, all they know is numerous black male athletes and their successes in basketball. But if they look up Olympics competitions, they can see many athletes from Asia led the medals. Indeed, Asian dominance in athletics is everywhere around the World. During Olympics 2008, athletes from China led the gold medal count, South Korea and Japan were in the top 10. Back to 2012, China athletes also finished second overall, and South Korea was in the top five as well. (Martinez & Block, 2013) In addition, as the Asian stereotype, White have been seen as white-collar professionals. They’re executives or business people who are not tough and tumble athletes. This stereotype is fueled by the greatness of three great white athletes including Samuel Berger, the world’s first Olympic boxing champion, quarterback Benny Friedman, who was inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 2005, and Yuri Foreman, who held the WBA super welterweight title from 2009 to 2010. (Martinez & Block, 2013)

Moreover, many people believe the idea that women’s sports are inferior to men’s sports probably because they assumed that males and athletically gift are more associated. But that’s not entirely true. While there are many sports built for men, there are also sports made for women. For instance, we have Neal, Lia – a gold medalist in the breaststroke, Nagasu, Mirai – the first American woman to land a triple axel, and Shibutani, Maia – a two-time U.S. national champion, and the 2018 Olympic bronze medalist. (Doyle & Colin-Thome, 2019) These women’s successes have proven the world that the negative athletic stereotypes relating to female and sports are not correct, moreover, it’s possible not just for Asian American women, but for women as a whole to break down the barriers.

Based on those worldwide achievements, we can tell again that physical or biological differences cannot enhance or diminish the ability to compete of athletes. Black genetic do not help black athletes dominating sports, Asians’ modest height cannot prevent them from being outstanding and successful in competitions, and Whites’ bones are not that weak to cannot make a high jump. Also, gender discrimination in sports not affects women, but also men. Male athletes who play “feminine” sports like ice-skating and dancing are often bullied since society expected them to be big, strong, and muscular to play “manly domain” sports.

Solutions to Combat Stereotypes in Sports

In order to create more advance athletic opportunities for women, there are a couple of solutions. We can use media representation. As media consumers, we have the right to demand it providing equal appearance of athletes on news. The media needs to let women athletes as well as athletes of color participating and their successes in all sports news. More importantly, since a fact came out that black girls receiving fewer opportunities to participate in sports, also, missing out positive consequences of involvement in organized sports, therefore, every sport organizations must give a racial consideration in Title IX’s mandate, establishing equality of access including plans and programs that encourages the participation of young girls of color in sports. (Pickett, Dawkins, & Braddock, 2012)

There are concerns have developed from negative athlete stereotypes, as well as from the “natural talent” myths. Based on a research, negative stereotypes relating to race and gender can make differences in the way athletes prepare for and perform in sports. When it comes to the negative stereotypes, athletes will have a fear that can take away their strength. There are also evidence proves that while facing a negative stereotype and focusing on avoiding failure, athletes can experience feeling weaker and loosing working memory capacity. (Stone, J., Chalabaev, A., & Harrison, C. K., 2012). Also, how the ‘natural talent’ myth can be used as a weapon against black athletes? According to Andrew Laurence, “Slurs and racism are routinely hurled at minority athletes, and the media often help fan the flames of abuse.” Besides, there is a research says African-American athletes are more likely to be portrayed negatively in the media than white athletes (DeCapua, 2015) and receive “significantly more negative coverage” in the form of hard news stories about domestic and sexual violence (Laurence, 2018).

Conclusion: The Need for Equality and Inclusivity in Sports

In conclusion, the stereotypes about race and gender in sports are never true. Some are even aggressive while contain so much discrimination. Everyone is different and regardless of their gender or race, if they want to achieve their goals, they can do it by basically keeping practicing and devoting effort for it. Sports world used to give priority to the masculine domain, and there have been a legacy of group-favoritism bias against the female athletes. However, as many supports and civil rights out there available for women, traditional stereotypes for females have slowly been changing and eliminated. While there are still traditional athletic stereotypes prevent women and people of color from being professional athletes, my suggestion for them is just break free of those stereotypes because nobody can rob their right of the experience playing sports based on their physical differences.

“Social Constructs are real. That’s what makes them so powerful” (Trombley 2013). Society accepts and determines these social constructs. Social constructs can be non-identical based on the community and the events neighboring the time period in which they live. In my essay, I will be defining what is a social construct. I will discuss my chosen example of a social construct and what it entails. I will also define and discuss what is classification. Toward the end, I will discuss Mary Douglas’s concept of classification and acceptance.

According to Gergen (1992), A social construct is the idea or perception of something based on the collective views developed and maintained within a community or social group; a social phenomenon or convention originating within and cultivated by society or a particular social group, as opposed to existing inherently or naturally.

There are many examples of social constructs. There is a social construct of race, gender, sexuality, and nation. In my essay, I will be focusing on the social construct of race. Race is a social construct and a historical artifact, when conceptualized, is not a scientifically reliable measure of human genetic variation (Ifekwunigwe,422-434). Johann Friedrich Blumenbach (1752-1840), who is well-known in physical anthropology, declined exterior characteristics such as skin color to focus on skull shape to create various types which were: Caucasian, Mongolian, Malayan, Ethiopian, and American (Douglas,2008). Immediately after Blumenbach issued his schema, skin color was linked to each of the racial types: white, yellow, brown, black, and red. Franz Boas (1858-1942) was the first anthropologist to challenge the essentialist approach. (Douglas,2008)

Race is a social construct, an identity that has been allocated based on regulations created by society. While partially based on physical similarities within groups, race does not have an inherent or biological meaning (Reich,2018). According to David Reich (2018), ‘while race may be a social construct, differences in genetic ancestry that happen to correlate to many of today’s racial constructs are real.’ These genetic dissimilarities in geological ancestral populations are not consistent with zoological definitions of race, and there are no ‘sharp, categorical distinctions. When people define and disclose about a particular idea of race, they make an actual reality through which social categorization is accomplished (Reich,2018). In this awareness, the race is known to be a social construct. These constructs develop within various legitimate, profitable, and democratic contexts, and may be the effect, rather than the causation, of major social situations (Reich,2018). While race is understood to be a social construct by many, most scholars agree that race has real material effects on the lives of people through institutionalized practices of preference and discrimination (Reich,2018). For example, I’m black, my parents are black, and my friends are all black people. We have the same texture of hair and speak the same language. We also have the same skin color.

The non-anthropological definition of classification is that “activity in which objects, concepts and relations are assigned to categories; ‘classifying’ refers to the cognitive and cultural mechanisms by which this is “achieved; and ‘classifications’ are the linguistic, mental, and other cultural representations which result”. An example of classifying is assigning plants or animals into a kingdom and species (Durkheim,1901).” Race can also be an example of classification. This is because race is in a form of category. There is the category of white people and black people. Social categories are created by those in power and tend to provide a good space for those who look and act like those in power which means that social classification work against those who do not have power (Durkheim,1901). An example is when black people were forced to do hard work with little to no payment for their hard labor.

Mary Douglas (1966), discusses how society classifies and accepts things. For example, magic. Society accepts white magic rather than dark magic (Mary Douglas,1966). White magic is often used for the good and benefit of the community and black magic is not. Society says black magic is used for selfish or greedy reasons. Society does not accept black magic (Mary Douglas,1966). My classification in society does not allow me to have big dreams. The reason being is that I come from a very disadvantaged background where having dreams of being successful does not matter.

Social constructs are made by society for society. Society decides what they accept and do not accept. The race is an example of my statement. Society decided that race will be a social construct. The race is classified. It is a form of category because there are various types of races that exist in our society. This goes hand in hand with what Mary Douglas, 1966 claims in her article. Society overall classifies and accepts what they choose to classify and accept.

Reference list:

1. Gergen, K.J., 1992. The social constructionist movement in modern psychology.
2. Ifekwunigwe, J.O., Wagner, J.K., Yu, J.H., Harrell, T.M., Bamshad, M.J. and Royal, C.D., 2017. A qualitative analysis of how anthropologists interpret the race construct. American Anthropologist, 119(3), pp.422-434.
3. Reich, D., 2018. How genetics is changing our understanding of ‘race’. New York Times, 23.
4. Durkheim, E. and Mauss, M., 1901. Primitive classification, London.
5. Douglas, M., 1966. Purity and Danger: An Analysis of Concepts of Pollution and Tats.

Anthropology Learning and Education

Education is the process of instilling knowledge and wisdom into the mind of the learner. This usually happens based on a set curriculum, within a given time in the learner’s life. Education in the past was majorly through an informal system, where learning was based on role modelling and issuing of basic instructions to be followed by the learner. In most cases, the male gender learnt from the male adults while the female gender learnt from their female adults. However, with the emergence and advancement in technology, the learning process has become modernized, changing the whole education system. Currently, for an individual to qualify as a guide to any learner, they have to undergo a training process, where they are taught the details of education. The other adjustment is the gender of a teacher, where any gender could teach any gender, as long as they are properly trained. These major changes brought about a lot of competition, and as a result, so many people pass through the education system (Bussemakers, van Oosterhout, Kraaykamp, and Spierings, 2017, p.32). This has resulted in a lot of challenges within the system, such as discrimination, to sideline a specific category or to deny them the best forms of education. Some of the affected categories, especially in the United States, have been a member of a different race, as well as a given gender. Therefore, race and gender are some of the factors that determine those who receive education and the quality of education they receive.

Positive Impacts of Race and Gender to Education Attainment

Stiff and Healthy Competition within the Education System

The background of education has always been in favour of the male gender. According to the society, males are more superior and intelligent, hence deserve better education services. On the other hand, the white race has been the leading race in terms of preferential treatment in the United States, declaring other races inferior. As a result, the Asians and the African Americans have been treated with a lot of disregards. The situation becomes worse, suppose one is a female from a different race. These societal stereotypes have been used as an encouragement strategy and a motivational aspect to the female gender and the different races (Khattab and Modood, 2018, p.242). Therefore, these two groups have put double effort in their work while in the education system, because of the lack of preference and discrimination within the system. Looking at the education system currently, the female gender and the different race students are better performers, granting them better chances of survival. This kind of competition has resulted in an improvement within the education system due to the created competition.

Like every other challenge, these discriminations by the education system are contagious and has been translated into different sections of the world. Most nations globally, still consider the males more superior when it comes to every important aspect of the society, education attainment being one of them. They have, therefore placed higher expectations on the boys as compared to the girls (Bussemakers et al., 2017, p.28). As a result, the girls have been motivated to work extra hard in order to receive equal recognition within the society. This has created a better system, especially for the female gender, enabling them to achieve better results as compared to their male counterparts, and qualify for better positions within the career field. Similarly, the misplaced races living within other countries have been discriminated against, on several occasions, challenging them to perform even better than the original inhabitants. Based on research, most of the education centres with students from a different race as those of the local students have the different race students occupying the top positions in class. They end up performing better and becoming more successful as compared to the local students (Khattab et al., 2018, p.245). Gender and racial differences have, therefore acted as a challenge to the performance of foreign students, as well as female students.

Improvement of the Education Standards

History records that discrimination against the female gender, in terms of their potentials and capabilities during their term in the education system has resulted in better performances from their side. This kind of diversity has acted as a challenge to the male students as well. As expected by the society, the male students have better potential and better chances of success as compared to the females. Therefore, by female students stepping up, challenged the males into working harder to maintain the norms and expectations within the society. This has, in turn, resulted in remarkable performances of both genders within the education system. These better performances have been attributed to the fact that both male and female students have motivating factors (Kleven and Landais, 2017, p.207). As a result, the standards of education have had to be raised to match the incredible performances of all students. These standards include teaching more technical ideas at lower levels since the students have proven themselves more capable. Consequently, the grading system has been edited such that the best grades are only awarded to very high performances. Gender discrimination has, therefore acted as a motivating factor within the education system, resulting in better standards of education.

Racial differences, on the other hand, have also placed the foreign students at the top of the performance chat. In the United States, African American students perform better in most of the schools, as compared to the white students. This has posed a greater threat to the white students since the African American students qualify for better positions and better chances in life. As a result, the white students have had to step up since it is expected by the society that they perform better (Khattabet al., 2018, p.244). Historically, the whites have the most intelligent in terms of education, innovations and the general principles of life. These historical records have challenged their performances, enabling them to step up and match societal expectations. Interestingly, their improvement has also led to better performances from the African American students. Therefore, a competition cycle was created that improved the performances of all the students, resulted in an improvement in the general standards of education. This reaction was attributed to the fact that all students had the ability to register better performances. Therefore, raising the standards would result in even better performances from the students. The race has resulted in healthy competition, leading to higher standards of education.

Preferential Treatments to Discriminated Students

The female gender has been discriminated against, in several instances. They have been considered the less superior gender with insignificant opinions and ideas. This forms of discrimination began during the pre-technological times, and have translated to the current times. Therefore, individuals and organizations have stepped up on several instances, to defend the rights of the female gender. This has resulted in a lot of attention towards the discrimination against this gender (Kleven et al., 2017, p.200). Consequently, the issue of gender discrimination, being an issue of global concern, has been used as a campaign tool by politicians seeking to run for office, or those seeking to retain their various positions in their respective departments. As a result, preferential treatments have been issued to the female students in all aspects, including their journey towards the attainment of education. In the bid to foster equality, learning institutions have been set-up specifically for the girl child. In some countries, there are numerous girls’ schools at pre-college levels as compared to boys’ schools. Consequently, various spots within the high-end learning institutions have been spared for the sake of the girl child. Which is why during college application, the best-performed girls stand better chances of entry into the best colleges. Gender discrimination has, therefore resulted in better opportunities for the girl child.

The race has translated to a matter of global concern. Racism is one of the factors that play in almost every aspect of life. Some of the aspects include employment, medical caregiving and adoption processes. People make preference to certain races, compared to the others. Generally, the white race has been the most superior race worldwide. This has been a challenge since better education opportunities are offered by the white people. Therefore, different races strive to fly to the white countries, seeking better education opportunities. However, the foreign races have been discriminated against, within these white countries. Currently, there are various ongoing campaigns against racism, since most people have missed better opportunities in life due to their races. These campaigns have advocated for racism, and a lot of attention has been diverted towards seeking solutions towards racism. As a result, in the education system, racial segregation has been a priority. In the bid to ensure racial equality, foreign races are offered equal or even better opportunities as the white students. Positions are secured in good schools, for the sake of the Asians and the African American students in the United States. Consequently, special schools have been built specifically to accommodate the international students who miss better opportunities. Racial campaigns have, therefore contributed to a better education system for the foreign students, especially in the United States.

Negative Impacts of Race and Gender to Education Attainment

Categorization of Students

Gender differences have resulted in preferential treatment towards the male gender, leaving out the females to fend for themselves. The discrimination has become so rampant that schools have been separated into those meant for the males, and those of the females. The separation has been attributed to the fact that female students take a lot of time to grasp information, therefore slowing down the male students. Moreover, the female schools have been allocated some of the less qualified teachers because according to the society, female education is a mere formality (Di Florio et al., 2017, p.798). Consequently, the learning facilities in these female schools have been less operational and less sophisticated as compared to those of their male counter paths. Gender discrimination has, therefore, resulted in the categorization of students based on gender, affecting their final attainment of education.

Different races have also been discriminated against while pursuing education in foreign countries. They have been considered a burden to the system and a non-deserving lot. The society has discriminated against them to the extent that they rejoice upon the downfall of these foreign students. For this reason, the students of different races have had isolated learning institutions constructed on their account. However, these institutions, especially in the United States, receive some of the worst services if they get lucky since in most cases, they are totally neglected (Kleven et al., 2017, p.188). Additionally, the foreign students have been given last positions to cover up racism situations within the country. Racial differences have, therefore resulted in foreign students being isolated from the local students, in order to neglect them and leave them out in terms of educational progress. As a result, foreign students have had it challenging to attain education.

Poor Performance by the Discriminated Students

Gender discrimination in the education system has resulted in general poor performance by the female gender. This has been attributed to the fact that less is expected of the female gender, and therefore less input is given into their performance. This discrimination has also resulted in low self-esteem for the female gender, denying them the confidence to perform better in the education curriculum. Consequently, the female gender has been isolated as the less superior gender, as compared to their male counter paths. This isolation and the stereotypes create no opportunities for challenges. As a result, the girl child has been placed in a comfort zone (Museus et al., 2017, p.188), resulting in poor performances hence fewer chances of attaining better education as compared to the male students.

Race, on the other hand, has caused emotional trauma and esteem issues to students of different races studying in a foreign country. As a result, these students spend so much of their time dealing with emotional issues and issues of isolation that they neglect their academics. Therefore, the race has resulted in poor performance of these foreign students. Consequently, less attention is paid to their areas of weakness or academic hitches. Therefore, they end up struggling at individual levels to keep up with the rest of the students. On rare occasions, tuition sessions are offered to them but at very high cots, making it difficult to afford the sessions. Based on research, as much as some of the foreign students register some of the best performances, they are also represented in the poor performing category.

Loss of Cultural Identity

Occasionally, when most of the foreign students’ study in a different country with students of a different race, they are forced to abandon their cultural practices and adopt the new cultures within the country (Kleven et al., 2017, p.180). This has been challenging because the culture is something inborn and takes time to deviate from, in the bid to embrace new cultural practices. Additionally, most countries do not set aside a curriculum for the cultural practices of foreign students. In the long run, most of the foreign students struggle through the entire education system due to lack of adaptation to the new system. As a result, these students end up spending so much effort in trying to achieve the best forms of education.

School Leadership Discrimination

Leadership within a school set-up begins from the general head of management which is the principal in most cases, down to the deputies, heads of departments, teachers and the student leadership. Most of the teachers employed to handle technical subjects are usually the male teachers. Female teachers are in most cased allocated some of the most insignificant disciplines (Di Florio et al., 2017, p.788). Consequently, top school positions are rarely allocated to the female teachers. On the other hand, foreign teachers are usually disregarded within the staff. This kind of discrimination denies the teachers an opportunity to explore different fields, and to test their leadership abilities. As a result, they set the same kind of example to the students, who grow up knowing the societal norms. As a result, their general capability in terms of educational attainment is affected.

The education system has been geared by historical occurrences, right from the era before advancement in technology. Some of the aspects that have impacted the attainment process of education include racial differences and gender differences. These factors have created open and healthy competition within the education system, leading to an improvement in the standards of education. Consequently, better facilities have been installed in different learning institutions due to the campaign against racial differences and gender differences. However, these factors have also affected the attainment of education negatively by creating isolation programs for students of different races and gender. As a result, the discriminated students have registered poor performances due to a lack of self-esteem and academic attention. Race and gender have also affected the leadership within school set-ups, as well as the cultural practices of the foreign students. Generally, race and gender are some of the factors that led to the deterioration of education, but with time, the negative impacts were embraced and transformed.

References

1. Bussemakers, C., van Oosterhout, K., Kraaykamp, G. and Spierings, N., 2017. Women’s Worldwide Education–employment Connection: A Multilevel Analysis of the Moderating Impact of Economic, Political, and Cultural Contexts. World Development, 99, pp.28-41.
2. Di Florio, A., Putnam, K., Altemus, M., Apter, G., Bergink, V., Bilszta, J., Brock, R., Buist, A., Deligiannidis, K.M., Devouche, E. and Epperson, C.N., 2017. The impact of education, country, race and ethnicity on the self-report of postpartum depression using the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale. Psychological medicine, 47(5), pp.787-799.
3. Khattab, N. and Modood, T., 2018. Accounting for British Muslim’s educational attainment: gender differences and the impact of expectations. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 39(2), pp.242-259.
4. Kleven, H. and Landais, C., 2017. Gender inequality and economic development: fertility, education and norms. Economica, 84(334), pp.180-209.
5. Museus, S.D., Yi, V. and Saelua, N., 2017. The impact of culturally engaging campus environments on a sense of belonging. The Review of Higher Education, 40(2), pp.187-215.

I Introduction

Global history indicates that humans continue to repeat the same patterns including repeated examples of Colonialism. Colonialism is defined by a foreign power gaining dominance over a country through state power. A prime example of this is Britain’s control of Nigeria during the period between 1900 and 1960. A key objective of colonialism on the part of the dominating country is the exploration of the chosen land, as evident during the occupation of Africa. The catalyst for the beginning of Colonialisms spread can be traced to the Industrial Revolution, and thus the desire for further resources. The effect colonialism has on the people of the colonised country is great, regarding both race and gender. The occurrences in Africa during this time established the dehumanisation of the indigenous citizens, particularly the woman. The relationship between both parties established during this time still shows weight in modern social interactions for both race and gender. This essay will explore with careful reference to both race and gender, the project of colonisation has had on the African society.

The essay will first begin by discussing gender as a whole and present the impacts on both identities, before assessing the identities of women in Africa and how the project of colonisation has shaped their how their identities continue to manifest in the modern society. Within the conclusion, this essay will make a minor recommendation to the reader as to how these situations can be improved. This will allow the reader to base their opinion on their understanding and the teachings of the essay, as opposed to forcing an opinion upon them.

This essay is written through the perspective of a middle-eastern, female, raised in western society and student studying at the University of Technology Sydney, with an understanding of the bias contained within texts discussing colonisation. As such this essay incorporates several texts to ensure all arguments are explored.

II Gender And Colonisation

Though colonialism in Africa didn’t technically begin until the 1900s, Europeans were arriving on African shore in search of commodities such as gold and ivory along with taking the people as slaves, during the early 1400s. The segmenting of territories between the European nations during a conference in Berlin during the years 1884–1885 was the ‘beginning’ of colonialism in Africa. Conflict predictably increased during this time, with the Europeans attempting to take political control of the African peoples, often succeeding too. The African people resisted the intrusion from the beginning, fighting for their independence throughout the colonialization. Many of the nations gained independence during the 1950s and 1960s. Woman lost economic independence and power during the colonial period, especially when considering their exclusion from the global market. Men benefited from this, because of the use of woman labour, without payment for their work. Due to the induction of cash crops, the agricultural work across Africa altered the control of the African people over their land. Men often worked to produce crops for sale, including commodities such as tea and cotton, while the woman was likely to grow the family food. It was also common at this time for men to work in gold, diamond, and copper mines. Woman did attempt to move to a more urban area to find paid work. Various texts attempt to provide an analysis of the legal system during colonialism. The texts present the idea that African women were at a general disadvantage, in marriage, work and economic laws, as the system was geared towards men, as many older legal systems are.

III Women And Colonisation

The 1980s saw a rise in women’s rights movements throughout Africa, causing change in the political and socio-economic landscape for women. The introduction of a democratic political regime pullback of the state-enforced policies and change in the economic climate, women’s rights began to transform. During this time international aid and the industries pulled away from government associations and the women’s movements gained momentum with the help of the UN International Decade for Women promoting women’s rights around the world. A myriad of groups to embolden women in professional, financial and general women’s issues were established. These groups strived to change laws regarding land, reproduction, and other legislations unjust for women as well as pushing for better living conditions in general. Women’s movements are not a recent occurrence; the push for not only women’s rights but the rights of all African people have been present in both pre-colonial and colonial periods.

The texts overall present an idea which supports the notion that local, national and global economics do not remain unbiased to gender. While providing some opportunities for women, there are a multitude of obstacles put in place for women, in particular, African women. These texts seek to analyse the struggles of African women in the social, economic and political national and global landscapes; exploring how they affect the how the women’s movement is conducted, and the movement has enacted change. The 1970s-90s saw numerous women’s rights movements, including one in Pollsmoor Prison, protesting the treatment of women in the prison under apartheid; identifying racial, class, and gender discrimination. There was an increase in the number of political prisoners fighting for women’s rights, starting from the 1980s. Thus, igniting other female prisoners to fight for their civil and political rights. Women’s movements in Africa are often included in the fight for more than their rights alone. The Senegalese women against ‘illegal’ boat migration allows for the protest against marital rights and obligations of the husband. Rural and urban protest groups who border on being ‘anti-capitalistic’ groups, stating that material assistance is political explore other issues as well. Morocco and Burundi women’s land movements explore issues of social justice and gender discrimination using the human rights rhetoric. Contrastingly, Amanda Gouws presents another opinion against gender-based violence (GBV), by criticising Jacobs Zuma’s legitimacy and the politics of the African National Congress (ANC). On the same token, issues that concern primarily political issues also investigate problems with the distribution of resources and other concerns.

Societal constructed gender attributes produce particular identities, either assisting to ignite or dampen the mobilisation of women’s’ groups. Motherhood forms the image of caregiver, thus allowing for movements such as the oil insurgency in Nigeria as it provided a foundation for their involvement. In a case such as this, there are two possible outcomes; either it promotes established gender roles or brings the collective together assisting a victory. Gender discrimination is resilient, as are most forms of discrimination. In Nigeria, the women who did involve themselves in warfare were seen as breaking gender norms and masculine. They became further marginalised from society. In response to the debate founded from motherhood, the African National Congress Women’s League (ANCWL) have refrained from pledging support on the campaign challenging the GBV. This proves that gender norms can either aid or hinder, depending on the circumstance.

The difference between genders around the world, but particularly in these communities can be seen through their activist experiences, their motivations to act as well as how they act. The women of Nigeria explained that their motivation to enter into the warfare was to create a safe environment and future for their families, and their children’s children, showing the dynamic of these families. Even though they did join in the fights, they always had a male superior. The women’s motivation is in contrast to the men’s, as the men’s motivations often were about personal freedom, establishing a more political set of motivations. The men in these situations did express that women’s involvement was linked to their role as caregivers and nurturers.

IV Colonisation And Race

In colonised land, the resources, including labour and material commodities, as well as the markets are primarily controlled by the colonial power. It is also common for the colonial power to impose aspects of their culture onto the people of the colonised land. This can include religion, socio culture and language, as they believe that their culture is superior to that of the indigenous people. They use this belief of superiority to overtake the culture on the colonised territory, at times completely extinguishing the culture. Not unlike its parent branch imperialism, colonialism is fundamentally the sovereignty of one culture over another. Such a situation often comes with the oppression of the indigenous people. Colonialism has a multifaceted effect on all aspects of the indigenous people, meaning that race becomes a discerning factor of the territory. Race is a descriptor giving a group of people and identifier which separates them from other groups of people.

The European scramble for control of African territories was motivated by economic growth, discovery its ethnocentric nature. The economic growth for the European countries came from commodities such as trade facilitation, exploitation of the native community and low-cost source removal. The desire to explore the world, in particular, the ‘Dark Continent’ as Africa was referred to. The last being their ethnocentric nature, the belief that they were superior to all other cultures, which lead to the colonisation of many nations, including but not limited to Africa. An outcome of this was the desire to assimilate the African community into the culture of the Europeans, Colonialism can claim its foundation in the European desire for expansion. In 1884–1885 the European powers held a conference to divide African territories between themselves, thus claiming the resources for each country and legitimising those claims. This was done without any regard for the indigenous people of Africa or their culture. It was an attempt to avoid warfare amongst the Europeans powers following the Great War or World War I. The end of World War II caused the beginning of decolonization, with many of the colonised territories fight back against the colonial powers for independence.

African States attained their liberation in the 1950s and 1960s, hopefully looking to a better future. The cultural disruptions caused by colonialism meant that this future was not so easily achieved. Due to the changes in the economic, social and political landscape of Africa made by the European countries, causing the abandonment of many fundamental cultural aspects of the African people, returning to pre-colonial life was not possible. Colonialism brought Western civilisation infiltration and culture, while also relegating African culture, pushing it to the background. The policies put in place by the colonial power stopped African people from performing cultural activities and events. There were many cases where the colonial power forced assimilation on to the people, diluting their traditions and causing the retardation of many aspects of African culture. Not all traditions were lost, but many have remained are not as they used to be.

V Conclusion

This essay examined how race and gender have been implicated in the identities and the society of Africa in the project of colonialism. It revealed that not only have race and gender been implicated, but colonisation has had an influence on the overall African culture. It revealed how colonialism as the medium of implications on both gender and race influenced the indigenous African culture and changed it to be what we see today. Several texts presented the opinion that European powers worked overall to distort indigenous African culture a future that disallowed it from later experiencing culture continuity, success, and growth. This view provides an understanding of why some Africans may be of the opinion that western culture is more superior than their own. Individuals instead view their own culture are inferior and primitive in comparison to cultures within the modern world. In terms of gender and race, it can be argued that conflicts over time may now see Africans confused about their institutional norms, morals, and practices. This was shown specifically regarding African women, who have been implicated through the project of colonisation as it continues to shape how their identities continue to manifest in modern society. Furthermore, the solutions to this situation are endless and up to one’s understanding of the situation, though good governance, harmonisation and sustainable development are recommendations that I believe can assist the modern African society.

Gomez, S. L., & McFarlane, M. D. (2017). “It’s (not) handled”: Race, gender, and refraction in scandal. Feminist Media Studies, 17(3), 362-376. doi:10.1080/14680777.2016.1218352

This article was written by Stephanie L. Gomez, an Associate Instructor in the Department of Communication at the University of Utah, and Megan D. McFarlane, an Assistant Professor of Communication at Marymount University. The subject that the article addresses is how race, gender and the refraction of such is presented on ABC’s Scandal. Gomez and McFarlane argue that the use of refraction on the character of Olivia Pope tends to depoliticize race and gender despite Pope simultaneously embodies and critiques specific tropes of her race and gender.

In order to support their argument, Gomez and McFarlane conducted a case study using the first three seasons of Scandal as its source of data. Gomez and McFarlane also define the theories of post-race and post-feminism as they key points in larger post-identity politics. Gomez and McFarlane note that while on the surface post-feminism largely focuses on the individual choices of women, it assumes that it is an even playing field. In terms of post-race, Gomez and McFarlane state that colour-blindness and ignoring racial identity are two factors that form the basis of it. They also point out that post-feminism and post-race both downplay internal and external oppression and discrimination. Using Olivia Pope as their model, Gomez and McFarlane note that there are two options of refraction with Scandal: a reproduction of post-race and post-feminism, and an immediate critique of them. Within the first three seasons, the show often tried to avoid the problematic ideologies of racism, anti-feminism, and post-feminism. Within the show, Olivia Pope embodied three key tropes of media representation of Black women in television: the slave mistress, the help, and the Jezebel despite having a large amount of power and having that power being in an environment primarily dominated by White men. Olivia represents the slave mistress trope through her relationship with President Fitz, a White man. There is an unequal power dynamic between the two characters with Fitz’s White, masculine privilege also playing into complicating the relationship. Olivia has no power within the relationship as Fitz decides when and how he wants to see her, usually at the most impromptu times. Olivia even refers to being a slave mistress in a scene with Fitz, making reference to slave master Thomas Jefferson and slave Sally Hemings. As the help, Olivia demonstrates and complicates the trope as she is a prominent Washington, DC ’fixer’ with most of her clients being composed of wealthy, White people. Like how Black domestic workers worked behind the scenes to fix their masters issues. Through refraction, Olivia complicates the trope as she runs her own successful business, giving her the capital and agency that goes with owning a business. Finally, as the Jezebel, the relationship between Fitz and Olivia is purely sexual. They even continue to have sex after dissolving their relationship. When Fitz’s wife Mellie is discussing the affair, she positions Olivia as the Jezebel who deliberately slept with Fitz to destroy his marriage. Despite being deemed a Jezebel a few times during the first three seasons, Olivia maintains a sense of agency through her constant rejection of the trope.

Gomez and McFarlane conclude the article by stating that by Scandal using refraction, it was able to showcase Olivia as the slave mistress, the help and the Jezebel. Gomez and McFarlane also ponder if these portrayals would be made present if the Olivia Pope character wasn’t working in the White House. Finally, it is stated that post-race and post-feminist representations must be included in some capacity to allow refraction to be successful.

Zhang, E. (2016). Memoirs of a gay! Sha: Race and gender performance on RuPaul’s Drag Race. Studies in Costume & Performance, (1), 59. https://doi-org.proxy.library.brocku.ca/10.1386/scp.1.1.59_1

This article was written by Eric Zhang, who is a graduate of New York University’s MA Visual Culture: Costume Studies programme. Zhang’s research primarily looks at the visual representations of Asian American women and queer men. In this article, Zhang focuses on the subjects on race, gender and sexual identity by providing an analysis of several contestants of RuPaul’s Drag Race, using moments from different episodes to provide supporting examples.

Zhang’s primary argument in the article was that several former Asian- American contestants on the reality show RuPaul’s Drag Race use their drag personas mixed with costumes and performance techniques to provide an ambivalent rhetoric of race and gender both onstage and on television. Zhang also quotes an article by Butler who states that Drag Queens engage with and use the art form of drag as a way of embracing and exaggerating racial and gender stereotypes and challenging earlier formed ideologies of gender as a performance.To support his argument, Zhang first provides a brief history of drag as an art form. In terms of Asian-American gay men, Zhang references an article by Chong-Suk Han noting that gay Asian American men’s experiences usually involves gendered and racialized meanings, and that in western society, Asian gay men have been pigeon-held by the notion that they are more feminine. Zhang thus argues that Asian men use drag as a form of stigma management. Zhang continues to support this claim by focusing on four former Asian-American Drag Queens contestants: Jujubee, Manila Luzon, Raja, and Gia Gunn.

When discussing Jujubee (of Lao descent), Zhang discusses how she used her language more than her visuals in her performance to represent her Asian identity. Using examples from the show, Zhang states that by Jujubee uses her native language to place emphasis of her connection to immigrant background as well as to her overall ethnic identity. Zhang then proceeds to discuss Manila Luzon (of Filipino descent). Zhang notes that Luzon’s use of Oriental-influenced costuming and over-exaggerated accents provide an uneasy and ambivalent relationship to questions of racial and ethnic identity. Zhang focuses his discussion of Raja on her persona outside of the show. Like Luzon, Raja (of Indonesian descent) incorporates South Asian styles into her usually androgynous costuming while her performance styles, blend several different southern and east-Asian styles into her performances, to provide a blurring of gender and racial identities. Zhang mentions how Gia Gunn’s provided commentary on stereotypes of race and gender, as she differentiated her background in the Japanese art form of kabuki and her Japanese background from her definition of drag as female presenting, and how she disapproved of one of her competitors doing male-presenting drag, thus providing commentary on how she uses stigma management to maintain her acceptance in the gay community.

Zhang concludes the article by stating while these queens present different ways of race and gender, they are also mediated somewhat through the producers of Drag Race and the medium of reality television in general. Zhang in closing argues that the queens embody racist stereotypes and their personal identities through costuming and performances to identify or disidentify with their own personal life experiences.

Introduction to Race and Gender as Social Constructs

Throughout the centuries, human beings have been divided by their skin color, background or race in terms of their intelligence, abilities and treatment in society. Despite beliefs that genes are scientifically confirmed as the cause of human differences, there is no doubt that race and gender are social constructs that determine the “ordering” of society.(Wise, T., 2011, pp. 1). The aim of this paper is to explain how race is socially constructed and interconnected to the idea of privilege that exists in contemporary society and how gender is “ done” by the people’s demands for body image, rather than genes. The paper will also shed some light on how the notion of “doing” race and gender limit their understanding in the modern world by narrowing focus and look closer at the aspect of intersectionality that allows a broader judgment of these two concepts.

Race as a Socially Constructed Concept

According to Lesson 1 material, race is defined as a “ natural division of humankind based mainly on distinct shared physical characteristics”(Joshi, N., 2019, pp. 2). Despite the physical differences, human species are and have always been a part of one human race, which over the length of time have been divided by them into many (Joshi, N., 2019, pp. 2). From distinguishable physical traits, race has become the tool used by people to label a person’s position in the society and continues to do so (Wise, T., 2011, pp. 1). To better understand how race is socially constructed, take a look at the outcome of the Boston Marathon in 2001 (Mayr, E., 2002). It was predicted that Kenyan competitors who entered the race and are perceived as one of the fastest long distance runners in the world, would end up winning the race as number one, two and three (Mayr, E., 2002). However, to everybody’s great surprise, the marathon was won by the Korean and Ecuadorian citizens- both from populations that had never been credited with running (Mayr, E., 2002). Race, in this case, is defined by others on the basis of the certain group’s values, not individual’s own unique abilities, where it is expected of certain races to have traits that differentiate them from the others. It is created by people’s demands and expectations, that determine specific races having different treatment and certain privileges in the society or lack of them.(Mayr, E., 2002).

The Social Construction of Gender

In addition to race, the social construct of gender is highly visible in contemporary. According to Chelsey, gender is an ongoing and evolving aspect of social interaction, that people construct by engaging in activities. Moreover, it displays behaviours that are accepted by others as either feminine or masculine (2011, pp. 643). In western societies, gendered views of women and men are distinguished by the feminine and masculine physical and behavioural differences. The idea that men are physically men, and women are physically women, is rooted in biology. This is associated with many social consequences and reactions (2011, pp. 644). The most prevalent example is that women and men ought to take on the traditional family model roles. The man is the main breadwinner and the woman assumes the responsibility of a housewife and sacrifice of motherhood.(2011, pp. 644). Gender roles are handed down from one generation to another and if the “ norms” are not followed, it can disrupt social interactions and create pressure that reinforces gendered behaviour. Engaging in behaviour seen as non-normative for their sex, such as women being the main family provider instead of men, can create such stressors. (2011, pp. 644). It is not biological traits but human interactions that are responsible for “doing” gender. A woman is associated with feminine physical and psychological traits and the type of job/tasks she ought to undertake, just as much as a man.

Privilege: The Invisible Advantage

“Doing” race and gender by adhering to socially defined norms and behaviours that are deemed appropriate and accepted by a certain group of people or representatives of particular sex, clearly contributes to the social system that supports gender and race inequality. (Joshi, N., 2019, pp. 2). This approach gives rise to another issue associated with race and gender called privilege. Privilege is “ a special right, advantage or immunity granted or available to a particular person or group of people” (Joshi, N., 2019, pp. 1). The existence of the privilege is often invisible to the people who have it (Joshi, N., 2019, pp. 1). There are many social interactions, where differences between dominant and subordinate members of society are apparent. One of the controversial examples of the privilege is the social marginalization of a disadvantaged man of colour through work, such as prostitution (Oselin & Barber, 2019). According to Oselin & Barber, poverty and neglect pushes many of them into the sex industry, where in most cases they work for middle class, white wealthy men, in order to financially support themselves ( 2019). This affirmation gives rise to a debate about more prevalent issue which is white privilege (Oselin & Barber, 2019). In many cases, economically and socially disadvantaged men engage in humiliating jobs. They do so to carve out a sense of self-worth and to measure up with the white class, socially and financially privileged masculinity (Oselin & Barber, 2019). It is evident that economic and social differences are creating the division between people, where those less fortunate find themselves in the ambush of measuring up. Privilege in this case is visible not only through the economic status of the individuals, but racial and social backgrounds. Unquestionably, this case presents the existence of privileged white middle class men which poses over those, who are at a disadvantage.

Limitations of ‘Doing’ Race and Gender

On the other hand, race and gender are socially constructed by individuals, thus unambiguously assign what behaviours and appearances are deemed appropriate and accepted by the majority of society (Joshi, N., 2019, pp. 2). “Doing” gender and race in this case, limits the way they are understood by society. It does not provide any means to address social structures that are the hidden reasons behind it and investigate deeper why people do things that are contrary to their race or gender expectations (Joshi, N., 2019, pp. 2). To better understand how “doing” race and gender limits people’s knowledge about them, let us re-evaluate a research study conducted by Miller & Lopez in 2015 on imprisoned white women- all present and former methamphetamine users (2015, pp. 693). Results have shown that these women engaged in using drugs for variety of reasons, but mostly to thrive and survive as women and mothers (2015, pp. 703). By using methamphetamine they were able to “perform” gender roles, whilst appearing as gender accordant and culturally accepted by others (2015, pp.703). In this case, drug use that is the “white middle class social anxiety” (2015, pp. 704) became the means of dealing with life circumstances of the white working class women. This example highlights that “doing” race and gender limits people’s way of understanding them. Social structures, background and opportunities that draw them into certain places and situations, are not taken into account. Thus, the experiences for the imprisoned drug users who come from different social classes and reasons why they engage in certain behaviours, may be different (Joshi, N., 2019, pp. 2). The framework of social construction on gender, limits the way that people cope with social inequality and power differences, which are often the main determinants of positions and opportunities in the society (Joshi, N., 2019, pp. 2).

Intersectionality: A Broader Understanding of Race and Gender

The researchers noticed that “doing” gender is simultaneously “doing” race, class and even place, which limits the way they are understood in the contemporary society, as they are perceived as immutable values (Joshi, N., 2019, pp. 2). It is crucial that the concept of intersectionality, one that is not captured, when analyzing people’s behaviour is taken into account when “doing” gender (Joshi, N., 2019, pp. 2). Taking racial, social and cultural backgrounds into consideration, along with the notion of social inequality, cultural and social expectations, would help provide a more adequate analysis of identifying women as mother and a role model but also why these perceptions dominated the preconceptions (Joshi, N., 2019, pp. 2). Instead of labeling women drug users, people should understand the circumstances behind every individual that lead them into certain places and behaviours. This way “doing” race and gender would have the chance to be “done” more thoughtfully.

As shown above, without a doubt race and gender are not fully scientifically proven products of biology and genes but are the result of social construct. Social demands and preconceptions about how people should look like gives a clear picture of how body image defines gender and determines gender-appropriate behaviours. “Doing” is not limited to gender but also race that is visible through the notion of privilege. Race has become the tool that labels a person’s position in society. Therefore, this is defined by group’s values, traits and social class, not individual’s own unique abilities. Privilege thus exists. Economic and social differences are evident between those socially advantaged, and the people from lower classes or culturally categorized groups. It is often unnoticed for those who have it and contributes to social inequality. “Doing” race and gender limit the way people understand them. When being analyzed, they avoid to consider racial, social and cultural backgrounds of gender representatives. This results in non-gendered behaviour, automatically labeling those who act differently. In order to broaden people’s understanding of race and gender, a more inclusive approach and concept of intersectionality needs to be taken into all aspects of race and gender analysis. Only then will people’s social class or background be taken into account when trying to understand their unusual behaviour. When people’s understanding broadens, their perception of race and gender can change as well.