The Quran is the main book of reference to Allah and his teachings among the Muslims. It is remarkably influential among Muslims and non-Muslims. It is also an impressive piece of literature that utilizes the Arabic language (Allen, 2000). It has several interconnected verses (ayat), which bring out 114 chapters (suras).
The chapters have different lengths and are classified into Meccan and Medinan. These are the places where Mohammed got his visions from Allah. Various sources say that the Quran’s composition dates back to a period between 609 CE and 632 CE (Wansbrough, 1977). This paper is a reflection on some of styles and key ideas that make the Quran unique.
The Concept of I’jaz Al-Qur’an and its Superiority in Terms of Style and Content
Ijaz refers to the inimitability of the Quran. The term signifies that something is inherently impossible. Ijaz highlights the uniqueness of the Quran and one’s inability of imitating it. In order to understand the uniqueness and inimitability of the Quran, one must understand the scripture as a piece of literature. The Quran has gained acceptance among Muslims and non-Muslims because of its content and style (Shorroch, 1988).
There are certain features, which show the uniqueness of the Quran. For example, Fawaatih us suwar (Al huroof al muqatta’a) implying mysterious letters, represents such exceptional features. Many of the surahs of the Quran start with letters that had not been witnessed before in the Arabic literature and language. For instance, the words alif lam meem in Surat al baqara.
Many authors and some Muslims have tried to explain the terms in the Quran in broad terms, all in vain. There are allegations by many Muslims that only Allah knows the meaning of these words. Grammatical shift (iltifaat) also makes up the inimitability of the Quran (Yusuf, 1989).
The Main Stylistic Features of the Qur’an
This refers to the arrangement of texts in a way that brings out the intended meaning of something. Roger (2000) asserts that the Quran’s author utilized a mixture of poetry and prose. Indeed, the two styles are used in a way that connects each surah and verse to another. The main features include; prose which employs rhythm and rhyme, variations in styles, stylistic distinction, alliteration, assonance, metaphors, hyperbole, rhetorical questions, stress and synecdoche.
Saj or prose
This is a style which employs both rhythm and rhyme. The rhythm is not consistent. Saj used in the Quran has an accent-based rhythm, use of rhyme at the end of words and continuous usage of rhetorical phrases and questions. Rhythm is whereby there is a recurrence of words or statements. The author utilized this style in the Meccan suras. In these suras, it is characterized by tendencies of mono rhymes and inexact rhymes as seen in the following phrases;
Inna aAtayna kal kawthar
Fasalli li rabbika wanhar
Inna shani-aka huwal abtar
The other features include alliteration or repeating the first sounds of neighboring words as used in Quran 33:71 and 77:20. Assonance is a case where an author repeats the vowel sounds. It is evident in Quran 88:25-26. Metaphors are direct comparisons of things or situations. For instance, a statement like Ahmed is a lion shows that Ahmed is brave. Good examples in the Quran are in chapter 21:18 and 16:103. Hyperbole, which means exaggerating something, appears in 7:40 and 39:71-72.
Rhetorical questions are questions in which the author does not require an answer. They communicate a point and make the reader think deeply about a phrase. A typical example is in Quran 55:60 and 37:91-92. Stress is a feature whereby something is said repeatedly so as to emphasize a point. It can be seen in Quran 29:62 and 33:92. Synecdoche is the use of a part of something to represent a clear picture of the whole. It is evident in Quran 90:12-13.
The Difference between Meccan and Medinan Verses
The meccan and medinan verses of the Quran’s surahs vary considerably (Yusuf, 1989). Most of the Surahs depict the life of Mohammed in Mecca, and the rest show Mohammed’s life experiences in Medina. The Medinan verses are longer and more precise than the Meccan ones. It is imperative to note that the difference comes out as a result of the different kinds of life that Mohammed lived in these two places.
When he was in Mecca, there was a lot of pagan worship especially in the Kaaba. He got visions while he was there that urged him to tell people about Allah. His main objective was to influence Jews and Christians, and gather followers of Islam from Jews and Christians. Living in Medina, Mohammed showed that the Christians and Jews were quite different from Muslims (Watt, 1956). Many medinan verses speak ill of the Jews.
All these differences can be seen in Surah 29:46 of Meccan passages, 5:73 and 9:30 of Medina. Another significant difference is that only the Medinan verses show the remarkable name given to Jesus, namely, Messiah. The meccan verses do not contain such a name.
Conclusion
In essence, the Quran is an indispensable reference book among the Muslims, similar to the Bible among Christians. It has gained acceptance all over the globe due to its uniqueness. It addresses the messages given to people by Mohammed with a lot of reference to Allah. Because of its acceptance, some Christians continue to use it in the disciplines of comparative religion, as well as theology. Thus, the influence of the Quran and its unique style cannot be underrated.
References
Allen, R. (2000). An Introduction to Arabic Literature. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Shorroch, A. (1988). Islam Revealed: A Christian Arab’s View of Islam. Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson Publishers.
Wansbrough, J. (1977). Quranic Studies. New York: Oxford University Press,
Watt, M. (1956). Muhammad at Medina. New York: Oxford University Press.
Yusuf, A. (1989). The Holy Qur’an (Revised Edition). Brentwood: Amana Corporation.
Yusuf, A. (1989). The Meaning of the Holy Qur’an. (10th ed.) Beltsville, MD: Amana Publications.
Various movements within Islam may differ in their interpretations of the Quran. In this case, much attention should be paid to the way in which they distinguish formal and semantic elements that can be used to understand the ethical messages incorporated in this book. This paper is aimed at examining the approach taken by the representatives of Ismailism. It should be mentioned that it is a very important branch of Shia Islam.
Overall, their interpretation is based on such a notion as i’jaz or inimitability of the Quaran in terms of its meaning as well as style. As a rule, they focus primarily on the content and implied meaning of this text, rather than its formal elements; in their view, meaning can appeal to every individual regardless of his/her ethnicity, language, or cultural background. Therefore, Ismaili scholars attach importance to the esoteric interpretation which is supposed to uncover the hidden messages that can be included in the Quran. Under such circumstances, the critical role is played by imams who have the authority to examine and uncover the semantic aspects of the text. This is the main thesis that should be examined more closely.
Two approaches to the interpretations of the Quran
It should be noted that Islamic scholars distinguish two important aspects of the Quran. At first, they mention such a notion as zahr or outer elements of the text, but they also distinguish batn or inner meaning of the same textual passage (Ayoub, 2013, p. 36).
Thus, some of them may prefer the exoteric interpretation which focuses on the outer elements of the text; nevertheless, other scholars may adopt esoteric approach that is supposed to uncover the main message which may not be clearly articulated. Very often, such messages are not apparent (Ayoub, 2013). Each of these methods has certain advantages and disadvantages. For instance, exoteric approach can be useful for explaining how word choices, syntax, or structure influence the meaning of the text. However, this approach can be too narrow because a person may be able to apply the text of the Quran only to specific situations. In turn, esoteric method can be useful for finding allegorical meaning. However, this method can be too subjective. The knowledge of these distinctions is important for showing of how Ismailis can interpret the messages articulated by the Prophet Muhammad.
The origins of Ismaili approach to interpretation
The debates about the interpretation of the Quran arose because it was necessary to show that this text was the divine revelation. In order to highlight this idea, some Muslims prefer to focus on such an aspect as style which includes such elements as eloquence, diction, rhyme, and so forth. Nevertheless, the representatives of Ismailism do not fully accept this approach because in this case, only the speakers of the Arabic language can appreciate the beauty of this text (Poonawala, 1988, p. 382). In turn, the translation of the Quran into any foreign language may deprive the text of its beauty. This issue became particularly important at the time, when Islam was embraced by people who could represent different ethnic and religious groups. At the same time, they lay stress on the idea that the Prophet was sent to the entire human kind (Poonawala, 1988, p. 381).
Thus, Islam cannot be regarded as some local phenomenon which can be relevant only to a certain ethnic or cultural group. One should pay more attention to the depth of revelations which are often counter-intuitive. In other words, they cannot be deduced by any human being without external assistance. These ideas are advocated by various Ismaili commentators of the Quran. Overall, these arguments imply that it is more important to focus on the meaning imbedded in the Quran. This line of reasoning implies that it is important to consider the esoteric interpretation which can throw light on the main messages that readers should consider. In order to justify this method, they often refer to the hadiths which emphasize the need for searching deeper meanings of the Quran. Thus, one should discuss this approach in greater detail.
Esoteric interpretations
Overall, Ismailism implies that one should focus on the esoteric interpretation of a text. As it has been said before, esoteric interpretation focuses on the implied meanings. It is not limited only to the literal interpretation of the Quran (Ansari, 2004, p. 381). In this case, a person assumes that certain ideas may not be explicitly stated. It should be noted that exoteric interpretation of the Quran is called tafsir. The key issue is that there are not many tafsir works in the Ismaili literature; this is one of the details that attract the attention of researchers who study this particular branch of Islam (Poonawala, 1988, p. 385).
Certainly, one should not assume that Ismailis completely overlook the importance of formal elements. This element is also important for i’jaz or inimitability of the Quran. However, they pay more attention to the meaning which may not be derived only from textual elements. In their opinion, this approach can be vital for understanding the complexity of this text. Again, this approach is based on the assumption that scholars should examine the semantic elements of the Quran. One should also bear in mind that the questions related to interpretations of the Quran are not related only to religious aspects. These issues can have profound implications for the legislative principles that may govern everyday life of people. Therefore, one should not suppose that this issue is important only from a theological viewpoint because this assumption fails to consider the important social role of Islam. This is one of the aspects that should not be overlooked by people who study the history of the Quran.
The role of imams as interpreters
This approach implies that it is necessary to single out those people who are qualified enough to interpret the Quran and identify the implicit messages imbedded in the text. In this case, much attention should be paid to the role of imams who have the authority to interpret the Quran and its hidden meanings (Nasr, 2013, p. 36). Moreover, these people are believed to have “divinely granted knowledge” (Ansari, 2004, p. 381).
Ismaili scholars argue that imams are more qualified to identify the allegorical meaning of the text (Ansari, 2004, p. 381). This is why their opinion should be considered. One should bear in mind that the role of imams is different in Sunni Islam since they are not regarded as the direct followers of the Prophet Muhammad. This is one of the differences that should be taken into account. This issue is important for understanding the differences between Shias and Sunnis. Furthermore, the role of imams is often debated by the supporters of different Islamic movements. The main problem is that exclusive role of imams can be compared to elitism which can be very exclusionary.
This is one of the drawbacks that should not be overlooked. This is why esoteric interpretations can often be questioned and debated by many people including those ones who accept the Quran as the divine revelation. However, this method certainly remains very influential; moreover, it is not necessarily adopted only by imams. In many cases, this role can be assumed by people who are not regarded as religious authorities. This is one of the aspects that can be distinguished.
Conclusion
This discussion shows that there are various approaches to the interpretation of the Quran. The advocates of Ismailism pay more attention to the content of the book, especially the hidden meaning of this text. This approach can be helpful for highlighting the exceptional nature of the Quran. On the whole, it is possible to agree with the assumption, according to which it is important to place emphasis on the content of the Quran, especially the messages that do not take its origins in the textual elements of this book. Admittedly, the study of formal elements should not be dismissed, but this method requires the knowledge of the Arabic language. In turn, the esoteric interpretations can be too subjective, and many people may not readily accept them. This is one of the limitations that one should take into account. On the whole, this discussion is important for showing that the meaning of the Quran can still be open to various interpretations that can often be allegorical. These are the main details that can be distinguished.
Reference List
Ansari, H. (2004). The Infidel Within: Muslims in Britain Since 1800. New York, NY: Hurst & Co. Publishers. Web.
Ayoub, M. (2013).Qur’an and Its Interpreters. New York, NY: Islamic Book Trust. Web.
Nasr, S. (2013). Islamic Spirituality: Foundations. New York, NY: Routledge. Web.
Poonawala, I. (1988). Ismaili Treatise on the Ijaz Al-Quran. Journal of the American Oriental Society, 108(3), 379-385. Web.
Islam is a commonly practiced religion. One of the characteristics of this religion that make it distinct from other religions is the belief in the existence of only one God, with Mohammed as His prophet (WELS Outreach, 2). Secondly, staunch Muslims are known to pray five times a day without fail. Another distinct characteristic of Islam is their faithful fasting during the Holy month of Ramadan, which falls on the 9th month of the Islamic calendar. Another common practice by Muslims is their annual donation of money to aid the poor in society. Finally, Muslims are encouraged to participate in a pilgrimage to Hajj once in a lifetime (Religion facts, 3).
Islam has its roots in Prophet Mohammed. Mohammed was born in Mecca, Saudi Arabia. He was raised by his uncle, Abu Talib as his parents died when he was young. He would retreat to a cave in the Mecca deserts for days and nights of prayer in seclusion. It is after one of these prayer sessions at the age of forty that he reported having received his first revelation from God (Religion facts, 2). Islam is centered on the belief that Mohammed the last prophet of God (WELS Outreach, 1). He gained followers gradually beginning with those from his hometown in Mecca. Mohammed took it upon himself to spread the message of Islam around the world peacefully.
Since the inception of Islamic religion in Mecca in the year 610 AD, the Quran has been a guide to those practicing the religion. The term Quran means ‘the recitation’ and is believed to be the verbatim word of God. According to the Muslims, the Quran is God’s word as was given to Mohammed through Angel Gabriel for over 23 years. The Quran explains the Islam religion to those practicing it, while at the same time offering guidance on certain moral issues. This makes it useful in the interpretation of the Sharia law. Besides, this holy book provides details on some historical events, and in turn gives interpretations for these happenings, as well as the lessons to be derived (Religion facts, 3). The Quran presents Islam as a linear and exclusive religion.
Muslims conduct prayers and Quran study sessions in Mosques. An example of such is the Mosque Masjid Al-Tawheed in San Francisco. This mosque is located on the 1227 Sutter Street San Francisco, CA. There is a mass transit near the mosque, which has a capacity of about five hundred to six hundred Muslims (Alnaseej, 1). The prayer rooms for men and women are separate, with the women having a back entrance to access their sisters’ section. The leadership of the mosque is purely marked by men, as women are not allowed to hold positions of leadership (Alnaseej, 1). The board of directors for the mosque is unelected.
Islam has faced a high rate of globalization. The high birth rates among Islamic groups serve to make it the fastest-growing religion in the world today. In Mosques, the presence of non-Arabic speakers has warranted for the translation of the Quran, sometimes through the use of headphones. This attracts more people to the mosques. Also, there is a forum in the mosques to discuss important topics in the world, like political and economic issues, before and after prayer. As part of these discussions, Muslims around the world are called upon to express their opinions on various issues.
Works Cited
Alnaseej, Wasat. Masjid Al-Tawheed. Islamic Finder. 2013. Web.
Similarities and Differences between Rahman, Mattson, and Class Note’s Approach to Theological Themes Touching on God, Man, and Eschatology
In his book ‘Major Themes of the Quran’, Rahman seeks to explain the teachings provided in the Quran. He achieves this by discussing three major theological themes. The subjects are God, man, and eschatology. Rahman begins by arguing for the existence of God. He describes it as a metaphysical phenomenon (Rahman, 7). He argues that God’s existence can be explained by facts and happenings that remind man of the presence of a supernatural being.
Secondly, he depicts God as the Master who ought to be served. He associates Him with morality. According to Rahman, God is glorious and mighty. He is also merciful to humankind. Rahman describes man as God’s creation. He is quick to note that man is a special creation of God in that he is fashioned after him. According to Rahman, a man should serve God. He further states that man has ‘free will’ and has a tendency to rebel against God.
With regards to eschatology, he is of the opinion that every man will be answerable to God for his deeds (Rahman, 43). Man’s judgment will be based on ethics. Rahman is also of the opinion that eschatology seeks to give a man a sense of responsibility. He is of the view that individuals will be judged for their deeds, misdeeds, and what they failed to do.
Mattson begins by describing God as a universal phenomenon. Like Rahman, she acknowledges that this God is the creator. In her book, the Supreme Being is also depicted as being close to His people. She also describes Him as a metaphysical being (Mattson, 4). She quotes verses from the Quran and uses such phrases as ‘His hands’ and ‘His face’. Mattson describes man as a special creation. She is of the opinion that God is close to man. Like Rahman, she describes human beings as servants of God. Mattson’s work also touches on life after death. She is quick to note that every man will be answerable before God for their deeds and misdeeds.
According to the lecture notes, there is one God known as Tawhid. However, compared to the two texts, the notes portray Him as being closer to humankind. According to the lectures, God gave an oral speech to Muhammad. The speech later came to be known as the Quran.
The lecture notes also touch on the theme of man. They describe him as a noble creature. Like in the other texts, the lecture materials note that God requires man to obey His laws as stipulated in the Quran. However, the notes do not talk about life after death (Lecture 12/01/14). They state that man will be afflicted with a lot of pain during his time for failure to heed to the laws of God.
A Comparative Analysis of the Principles and Ideas of Exegesis as Described by Ayoub, Mattson, and in Class Notes
Exegesis refers to the interpretation of the Quran. Different writers have varying ideas with regard to this concept. Ayoub is of the opinion that only God knows the true meaning of the Quran. The messages in this book were passed from God to Muhammad through angel Gabriel. Ayoub is concerned that the translators changed the meaning of the Quran in their attempt to paraphrase it (Ayoub, 23). He is of the opinion that it is not possible to reproduce the Quran. The book can only be understood in Arabic, which was the original language of the holy text before translations.
Mattson agrees with Ayoub that the scriptures in the Quran were revealed to Muhammad through angel Gabriel. Mattson is of the opinion that the Quran is not structured in chronological order. The ‘Suras’ are arranged according to their length (Mattson, 187). She is of the opinion that the true interpretation of the book can only be done by God. She is seen to imply this by stating that the reason why the Quran cannot be ordered is that no one is aware of the actual timing of the revelations highlighted in the various ‘Suras’.
The lecture notes also explain exegesis. They agree with the views of Ayoub and Mattson that the interpretation of the Quran is not entirely accurate (Lecture 11/19/14). The interpreters of the book changed the contexts of some of the wordings to improve the meanings. Many changes were also done during the interpretation of the Quran in an attempt to make the sentences grammatically correct. In addition, the lecture notes state that the Quran has borrowed heavily from the Bible (Lecture 11/17/14).
Comparison of the Different Trends and Types of Exegesis that have been Developed Historically
The term Tafsir refers to interpretations of the Quran. Like any other process, this concept is dynamic (Ayoub, 23). The interpretation of the holy book has changed over the years. The development has resulted from a change in generations of prophets. It is important to note that the history of Tafsir dates back to the early Abbasid Period [c. 150 AH] (Lecture 11/19/14). At the time, the translators depended solely on oral reports to pass the message of God. The prophets and the companions passed the scriptures to their audience in no particular order. The verses were not written down. At the time, the prophets relied on their memory to record and store information concerning the Quran.
Since its inception, numerous changes have been witnessed in the field of ‘Tafsir’. The first step towards the evolution of this concept was the shift from the traditional oral system of sharing information to books (Lecture 11/19/14). A number of factors contributed to this change. The factors include the development of writing skills and paper technology. At this stage, different authors came up with various verses to make up a hadith collection.
Between the end of the 2nd century and early 3rd century, writing skills had already developed. The Tafsir was composed of different books based on traditions. The period between the end of the 3rd century and early 4th century saw the Quran organized into different verses. The compilation was based on different traditions (Lecture 11/19/14). Over the years, the Tafsir book has been regularly updated to reflect changes in society.
The Ethical-Social Message of the Quran as Presented by Rahman, Mattson, and in Lecture Notes
There is no doubt that the Quran seeks to improve the relationship between man and other members of society. Rahman is of the opinion that the main aim of the holy book is to establish a social order that is viable and ethical (Rahman, 79). He is of the view that an individual plays a major role to make sure that this relationship is fruitful. Society only helps man to satisfy his sociological needs. Rahman further argues that there is no such thing as a ‘societiless’ man. He goes further to insist that whenever there are two or more individuals, God becomes part of the relationship. He (God) watches and witnesses the deeds of these persons. As such, man has a moral obligation to treat others ethically since the Almighty is watching his every move.
Mattson is of the opinion that the Quran advocates for the peaceful coexistence of mankind. God intends for man to co-exist peacefully. Her views differ from those held by Rahman, who concentrates only on the relationships between Muslims (Mattson, 18). Mattson is of the view that the Quran does not discriminate against those individuals who do not subscribe to the Islamic faith. She holds that the book is not rigid. It promotes relations even among individuals from different religious faiths. She is of the view that God is against social evils, such as terrorism, a vice that she deeply despises.
The lecture notes present the Quran as the holy word of God, which emphasizes ethical deeds. The book also emphasizes social responsibility and justice (Lecture 11/3/14). The notes promote a view that is similar to that held by Rahman by arguing that the Quran only guides relations between members of the Islamic faith. Unlike Mattson, the lectures indicate that the holy text seeks to unite Muslims towards a common religious and ethical cause. However, the notes contradict Rahman’s view that the individual plays a major role in a relationship (Lecture 9/22/14). According to the lecture notes, the prophet is charged with the responsibility of promoting ethical solidarity between members of the society.
The Role of the Quran in Muslim Life as Presented in Mattson and the Film ‘Koran by Heart’
In her book ‘The Story of the Quran’, Mattson describes the Quran as the Holy Scriptures for Muslims. She further notes that the book gives a detailed account of the history surrounding the origins of Islam (Mattson, 148). By reading the book, Mattson is of the opinion that one will gain an understanding of how the various facets of Islam came to be. She describes the Quran as her lens and guide in life (Mattson, 196).
The book enables a Muslim to understand the will of God. It helps man improve his relationship with God by heeding to the rules outlined in the verses. According to Mattson, the Islamic culture is outlined in detail in the Quran. As a result, the book acts as a guideline in relation to the manner in which man should behave. She considers the Quran as a must-read for people from all religions (Mattson, 253). She is of the view that by interacting with this text, other people will be in a position to understand and appreciate Muslims.
The film ‘Koran by Heart’ also recognizes the Quran as Islam’s holy book. The book contains the word of God. It should be read by all believers regardless of their age. The Quran guides the Muslim faithful. It also showcases the Islamic culture. As such, the holy book plays a major role in the development of young Muslims in society. It gives guidelines on how a Muslim should act in life. According to the film, it is important for the Muslim faithful to read and memorize the Quran to keep the word of God close to their heart (The Koran by Heart).
The holy book is also viewed as a unifying factor given that children from different parts of the world converge at Cairo for an annual contest that involves reciting its various verses. However, the film contradicts the opinions held by Mattson with regards to who should read the Quran. The producers of the movie promote the idea that the book is only meant to guide the Islam religion.
A Comparative Analysis of the Interpretations of Verses Dealing with Women in Ayoub’s Book
Throughout the Quran, women are considered to be the weaker gender. Their rights are suppressed. On the contrary, men are allowed to enjoy the acts that are considered evil when committed by women. Ayoub is of the opinion that a Muslim woman who renounces the Islam faith can be punished through death (Ayoub, 226). The same treatment is meted out on divorced women. They should be made to repent their sins. Failure to comply can lead to immediate death.
Mattson is of the opinion that the Islam faith should be safeguarded at all costs from interferences promoted by the western world (Mattson, 216). She advocates for the empowerment and respect of women in society. However, she is of the opinion that Islamic laws should be safeguarded since they protect the morals of the Muslims. As such, she does not object to the fact that the Quran views women as the weaker sex.
It is clear that Islam treats women as the weaker gender compared to men (Ayoub, 229). The inequality is mostly visible at the family level where men are allowed to engage in polygamy while women are prohibited from having sexual contact outside the marriage. Failure to heed this law is regarded as adultery (Ayoub, 229). Divorced women are subjected to humiliation. They are expected to repent or face immediate execution.
Works Cited
Ayoub, Mahmoud. The Quran and its Interpreters, Albany, NY: SUNY Press, 1984. Print.
History of Composition of Tafsir. Lecture Notes.
History of Early Tafsir. Lecture Notes.
Isra’liyyat in Tafsir. Lecture Notes.
Mattson, Ingrid. The Story of the Quran, Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing, 2008. Print
Muhkam and Mutashabih: Definitive and In-Definitive verses in Quran. Lecture Notes.
Rahman, Fazlur. Major Themes of the Quran, Moorhead, MN: Bibliotheca Islamic, 1994. Print.
The Koran by Heart. Ex. Prod. Greg Barker, John Battsek, and David Grabias. New York: Motion Pictures. 2011. DVD.
The Quran and Religious and Social Transformation from Tribal Solidarity to Ethical Community (Ummah). Lecture Notes.