Category: Public Administration

Bertelli’s position on the debate between Finer and Friedrich about the sources of responsibility for public managers

Finer and Friedrich had contrasting opinions on responsibility. Finer asserted that elected officials should ensure that non-elected public managers are responsible for their actions (Bertelli, 2012, p.147). On the other hand, Friedrich proposed that public managers should view their positions as careers and ensure that they offer credible service without depending on external pressure for motivation. According to Friedrich, bureaucrats are often better at making decisions because they are well-informed (Bertelli, 2012, p.147-148). Bertelli concludes that public managers should maintain personal and professional accountability. He also maintains that elected officials are responsible for ensuring that non-elected officials perform their duties as desired. In essence, Bertelli combines both Finer and Friedrich’s theories in his description of responsibility.

Importance of the “hollow state” and the growth of the public sector

The hollow state is a term used to describe the increasing dependence on third-party institutions, usual non-profits in the delivery of public service (Bertelli, 2012, p.143). The hollow state operates as a proper government with all structures including the military. However, such governments do not serve the interest of citizens. The hollow state is undesirable because it leads to dictatorial rule, marred by corruption. The public sector growing too large (relative to the whole economy) is worrying because it increases the wage bill and leads to unnecessary competition for power. Countries with large public sectors are usually poorly administered and have slow economic growth.

Usefullness of Bertelli’s “fire alarm oversight”

Fire alarm oversight is useful in keeping members of the legislative on their toes. In this kind of oversight, members of the public, the media and other interest groups ensure that elected officials offer desirable services by constantly reporting on elements of their performance that do not meet expectations (Riggs, 2980, p.112). Fire alarm oversight is most useful in countries where power is not well decentralized. For instance, in most third-world countries, politicians are allowed to make some critical decisions without public consultation and it is only through fire-alarm oversight that any misdeeds can be reported (Riggs, 2980, p.113).

Bertelli’s propositions for public managers facing a “make-or-buy” decision for contracting out

Managers facing make-or-buy decisions need to be prepared for the failure of the decisions they make. These decisions can be subject to market failure, voluntary failure, government failure and contract failure (Bertelli, 2012, p.125). Market failure occurs when entrepreneurs are not interested in government offers because such deals are prone to free ridership (Bertelli, 2012, p.125). Voluntary failure occurs when the government depends on non-profit organizations for the success of its projects only for the latter to opt-out because of the costs involved. Government failure occurs when the public is not satisfied with the quality of service offered by the government, while contract failure occurs when the public is not given proper mechanisms for policing service providers (Bertelli, 2012, p.125).

Themes in the field of Comparative Public Administration (CPA)

Among the themes that keep reappearing in different contexts is the role of public managers in enhancing the work of the civil society. Most scholars of public administration believe that public managers serve as an intermediary between elected officials and civil society groups.

New governance is another theme that most authors agree is relevant in public administration. New governance occurs when individuals do not agree with top-down governance structures.

The public choice theory is one that most authors say is universally relevant in public administration (Bertelli, 2012, p.48). This theory asserts that members of the public decide on who will lead them and the kinds of services they need. Niskanen’s theory of bureaucratic behaviour is also one that most scholars agree explains the relationship between bureaucrats and the political class (Bertelli, 2012, p.43-72).

References

Bertelli, M. (2012). The political economy of public sector governance. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Riggs, F. (1980). The ecology and context of public administration: A comparative perspective. Public administration review, 1(1), 107-115.

There is a tendency in our modern age to be concerned about some democratic issues. With the rise of conscious people start thinking about human rights and the way they are observed in different countries. That is why it is very important now to have information about this issue. Traditionally, there is a belief that in countries of the East human rights are not very appreciated. It is conditioned by several factors. Historically, the power of one man was almost absolute there, that is why even nowadays people still consider that things had not changed. Moreover, there is a reason for people to think so. There are several countries, where the power of a ruler is not restricted by any regulatory body and that is why it is difficult to talk about some respect for human rights or even modern structure of the state. Moreover, it is rather interesting to compare how government functions in different countries under the influence of different stereotypes. Taking it into account, it is possible to say that our memo is devoted to investigation and comparison of some aspects of the United Arab Emirates administrative system with some other systems based on some readings. Moreover, a brief outline of some problematic or disputable questions is made. The UAE is one of the most developed countries of the East that is why it is possible to analyze it.

Traditionally, the UAE is a federation of seven emirates. These emirates are governed by an absolute monarch. That is why it is possible to state that some problems with human rights can be observed in the state. Nevertheless, being a federation, the UAE has its federal institutions. The ruler of the country is the President, which is usually the ruler of the biggest emirate. Though, there are also 4 other institutions which are the Federal Supreme Council, the Council of Ministers of the Union, the Federal National Council and the Judiciary of the Union. All these regulatory bodies are rather traditional. “This is central to a rational connection between the means and ends of public policy which can be defined in general terms as efforts to change or maintain the status quo in society” (Bertelli 3). The USA, being also the union of different states, has its federal institutes which govern the state. They are the Congress, the President and so on. That is why the political structure of the UAE seems to be quite traditional and it can guarantee respect for human rights. Moreover, this system tries to supply its citizens with all they need for them to be satisfied with their government and country. These facts show that the UAEs government is a modern and well-structured organization which functions according to accepted in the world norms.

To determine the current state of government in the UAE, it is possible to compare this system with another existing one and investigate its peculiarities, basing on some readings. Formally being the highest legislative body of the country, the Federal National Council, does not have much power and it can be called a supervisory body function of which is to discuss laws. With this in mind, it is possible to underline the increasing role of individuality in the UAE. Much depends on his choice. “To make a rational choice, the individual chooses the best alternative she can give her preferences ” (Bertelli 20). That is why, in countries like the UAE much still depends on the decision of one person, who is the President and whose power is still almost absolute. Though, it is also possible to mention the power of the purse while speaking about the UAE. It is “the political control of the bureaucracy or the ability of political branches to constrain the policy choices of the administration” (Bertelli 40). Being a state with centralized power, the UAE has not these problems in this sphere as the administration does not play such a great role in the policy of the country. Other regulatory bodies also influence decision making in the UAE, however in a less degree.

Having a modern and democratic political structure, the UAE has everything to be called the democratic state. However, there are still some problems. First of all, the role of the individual is still very important here. The question of responsibility rises, whether it lies in the characteristics of statutory delegations or the character of the people, performing governance tasks (Bertelli 155). It is a very disputable question. That is why, in other states where different legislative bodies play a greater role, duties and responsibilities are distributed. Things are different in the UAE. Having great power, the President of the UAE has to make decisions which can lead to different results or even prejudice the rights of people. Due to this fact, sometimes this system seems to be not so democratic as some other systems. However, it has also its advantages. it is easier to solve some questions or define a budget. Moreover, some disputable issues could be decided easier than in other states. Having a great number of different governance processes concentrated in his hands, the President can control the government and all other regulatory bodies of the country. That is why the concept of responsibility of individuals for work and organization of functioning of the state can be applied to his figure.

Having described some peculiarities of functioning of the administrative system of the UAE and analyzed it basing on some concrete readings and examples, it is possible to come to some certain conclusions. The UAE is a modern federative state which has its developed political system. There are 5 main regulatory bodies in the country, each of them has its function. The Federal National Council is supposed to be the highest legislative body of the country, Though, due to historical peculiarities and some unique characteristics and traditions of power in the country, it plays only supervisory function, discussing laws and projects. The President of the state is real power in the country as it has almost unlimited power. However, as the main aim of governance is to preserve the interests of people, he tries to supply them with everything they need, guaranteeing good conditions of living. Being an individual endued with great authority and responsibility, he can influence the development of the whole country. If to compare the Federal Supreme Council of the UAE with the Congress of the USA it becomes obvious that the last one is much more powerful organ, though it is still a question whether it is better as the concept and question of bureaucracy rises.

Reference List

Bertelli, A. (2012). The Political Economy of Public Sector Governance. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.

Public administration theories and claims that are important to be discussed in the context of the development of the public sector in the U.A.E. are associated with privatisation or contracting out and with the improvement of monitoring systems for agencies. Thus, it is relevant to discuss the claims that agencies choose to contract out to shift responsibilities or blame, and the focus on improving monitoring technologies can reduce agency bias. Moreover, it is also important to concentrate on the aspects of the normative theories in the U.A.E. context.

Contracting Out

In the public sector, privatisation is often realised as a process of contracting out which means that agencies provide the specific service, but they can shift the responsibility for producing services to other organisations. Agencies choose to contract out not only to guarantee the provision of high-quality and cost-efficient services but also to share the responsibility or avoid certain problems with the process of production (Pritchett & Woolcock, 2002, p. 26). Contracting out leads to effective competition and efficiency, but the role of the government becomes restricted.

In the U.A.E. context, privatisation and contracting out are actively used approaches because they guarantee the significant reductions in costs associated with the services’ provision. As a result, agencies support the development of the market approach and shift responsibilities to small companies and promote the micro-privatisation because of the necessity to provide high-quality, but cost-efficient services. That is why, contracting out is typical for transportation, education, and health care spheres of the U.A.E., where supportive or market-oriented operations are performed by small firms.

In this case, the practice of contracting out can be discussed as an effective strategy that is used in the public sector of the U.A.E. to improve the quality of production. Moreover, it is important to note that the observed privatisation in the sector is more associated with the financial factors than with the idea of shifting blame.

Monitoring Technology

The governments focus on improving the monitoring technology to reduce agency bias. The problem is in the fact that monitoring is a controversial point, and agencies are inclined to state that the focus on monitoring can both improve the focus on norms and restrict the possibilities for variations and flexibility in agencies, and these factors are the causes of bias in agencies (Werlin, 2003, p. 339). Thus, while improving the approach to monitoring or changing the monitoring technology, it is possible to reduce the level of bias in agencies.

The authorities in the U.A.E. follow directly this approach while implementing the most innovative approaches and technologies to conduct monitoring. In the public sector of Dubai, monitoring and coordination are closely connected. As a result, the improvement of technologies and use of new tools in monitoring leads to reducing the agencies’ opposition to coordination and, consequently, to reducing bias.

The focus on monitoring technologies is important to understand why the public sector in the U.A.E. often utilises the approaches typical for the private sector. Thus, to enhance the competitive development of agencies, it is necessary to use the tools that are typical for the profit organisations. Improved monitoring technologies are an example of such effective tools that contribute to coordination and monitoring in the public sector.

Comments on the Public Administration Normative Theory within the U.A.E Context

The structural-functional theory can be discussed as one of the normative theories associated with the spheres of public administration and governance. According to the structural-functional theory, the main focus is on functions that are performed by certain structures, and the quality of performance and the effectiveness of function distribution determine the efficiency of the whole system’s work. Governmental structures and agencies can perform different functions, including rulemaking and rule application (Werlin, 2003, p. 331).

In the U.A.E., the focus on the principles of the structural-functional theory is observed even though experts can provide different names to theories and approaches that explain the role of functionalism in public administration. For instance, agencies in Abu Dhabi and Dubai are properly structured according to the functions they perform. Thus, public agencies are organised and separated according to a range of functional areas to increase the quality of the work. The functional differentiation can be discussed as an effective approach to minimising uncertainties regarding the decision-making in the public sector.

Although public administration in the U.A.E. has the features of the function-specific approach, it is important to state that the local agencies have enough political responsibilities to follow the local approach to public administration while applying the principles of the centralized control to it. In this context, the area-oriented approach can be discussed as beneficial for the emirates in the U.A.E. because of the possibility to combine the focus on the local approach to organizing agencies and the focus on structuring.

References

Pritchett, L., & Woolcock, M. (2002). Solutions when the solution is the problem: arraying the disarray in development. Center for Global Development, 10(1), 1-37.

Werlin, H. (2003). Poor nations, rich nations: A theory of governance. Public Administration Review, 63(3), 329-342.

The phenomenon of public administration requires a detailed strategy that allows for taking every single factor into account. At this point, numerous theories of public administration (PA) factor in. Riggs (1976) suggested a unique concept of PA ecology, which involves maintaining sustainability between the elements of PA (Riggs, 1976). According to Riggs, the framework in question facilitates sustainability in the field of PA, therefore, making it self-adapting to the cultural changes that the global economy requires (Riggs, 1976).

It can be assumed that the current situation concerning the threat of a culture clash and the assimilation of the UAE people to the European and American cultural standards represents the major hindrance to the improvement of the PA structure. The deleterious effects of bureaucracy, which the UAE PA suffers from, can be eliminated with the advocacy of the framework that is applied to the PA systems in Europe and the United States. As Riggs explains, the necessity to incorporate the worldwide standards to the UAE PA is also essential because of the threat that the latter is facing at present: “This can lead to a kind of a ‘catch-22’ or double bind, in which officials, called upon to take corrective actions against their abuse of power, can do so only at the price of personal sacrifices” (Riggs, 1976, p. 108).

Welch and Wong (1998), in their turn, view the phenomenon of PA from a global context and, therefore, suggest that the emphasis should lie on the necessity to adopt the approaches that could be globally applicable: “public administration scholars live in what is much more of a ‘global village’ conceptually” (Welch & Wong, 1998). The authors also mention the concept of ethnocentricity, claiming that the excessive focus on specifics of culture prevents from establishing the rules that could be universally applicable (Welch & Wong, 1998).

Applying the theory of nonethnocentric framework suggested by Welch and Wong to the UAE setting, one must admit that the traditional bureaucratic principles that the field of PA is navigated with, will most likely become a major obstacle The digression from the European and the American standards that the present-day UAE public sphere can be characterised by is a major problem: “This dimension will, therefore, involve some more intangible factors such as ideology and culture” (Welch & Wong, 1998, p. 47). While conformity with the standard norms is what cements the UAE culture in the global environment, it sets the state decades back in the past.

Another theory that has spawned a potentially beneficial approach to solving PA issues, the approach suggested by Koppel. According to the latter, the PA theories should be taken to the next level, i.e., the level of global administration. Herein the necessity to adopt transnational rules emerges; serving as the foundational principles for carrying out social, economic and financial interactions, these principles will supposedly resolve the problem of culture clash.

The current alterations in the PA of the UAE can be viewed from the tenets of the theory of quasi-government hybrid organisations (Koppel, 2010, p. S49). Once leveraging power between state authorities and entrepreneurs, one will be capable of overcoming the aforementioned cultural issues and compromise for the sake of improving relationships between public administration and private companies. The problem of maintaining the level of bureaucracy in the UAE public administration sector at the same unthreatening level can be explained by the lack of personal responsibility, as Koppel (2010) explains; in other words, the theory of administration allowing researchers to view the concept from the state perspective coexists with the rational choice theory. Indeed, the current levels of bureaucracy can be explained by the fact that people are afraid of the consequences of changing the system. At the same time, the ideology choice theory can be viewed as applicable to the UAE situation, as it displays the connection between the culture of the UAE people and the decisions that the UAE officials make when managing the PA environment (Koppel, 2010, p. S47).

In other words, the current UAE PA needs a major boost that will allow for the rejuvenation of the entire system. The PA strategy in the UAE needs to be steered towards universal standards; as a result, the PA issues that the state officials have been encountering so far is likely to vanish. The UAE officials, however, should also need to integrate the elements of the UAE culture into the specified PA so that the citizens should not assimilate to the norms and traditions of the European society, thus, retaining their integrity.

While seemingly impossible, the specified task only requires enough sagacity for determining the elements that are not going to be in sharp conflict with the European and American values. For instance, the gender issue in the UAE private and public entrepreneurship needs to be addressed so that further international communication should not face any hindrances caused by discrepancies in the public administration approaches. Moreover, it is essential to convince the UAE officials that the alteration of the system will not trigger the consequences that will affect them negatively.

Reference List

Koppel, J. G. S. (2010). Administration without borders. Public Administration Review, 70, S46–S55.

Riggs, F. W. (1976). Ecology and context of public administration: A comparative perspective. Public Administration Review, 36(6), 631–636.

Welch, E. & Wong, W. (1998). Public administration in a global context: Bridging the gaps of theory and practice between western and non-western nations. Public Administration Review, 58(1), 40–49.

Introduction

The efficiency of an agency’s public personnel administration is essential for acquiring a high-level workforce. It can be considered a vital area of attention, as the effects of human resource management are likely to influence the established system as well as depend on its practices (Boon, et al., 2019). This essay will examine the United States (US) Department of Justice’s (DOJ) public personnel administration. The explanations of its human resource management (HRM) organizational design will be provided along with the system’s goals, practices, strengths, and weaknesses. In addition, with respect to the areas of recruiting and training a qualified workforce, recommendations for their improvement will be outlined.

Organizational Design

US DOJ public personnel administration has a particular design that shall be considered in detail to assess its relation to the entire structure and its strengths and weaknesses. The HRM is functioning under the Assistant Attorney General for Administration’s direction and, on the lower level, under Deputy Assistant Attorney General Human Resources Administration’s direction, along with five other departments.

These units are equal employment opportunity staff, security and emergency planning staff, library staff, consolidated executive office, and temperamental executive secretariat. HRM consists of a director and three deputy directors responsible for the following areas: recruitment and services benefit, human resources planning and employment equity, and Human Resources (HR) information and record management (“Justice Management Division,” n.d.). Therefore, there is a functional organizational structure intended to assist in fulfilling the Agency’s functions with the highest possible efficiency.

The role of the (HR) Staff, among other departments, is to support the mission of administering justice through developing and implementing policy and programs, providing guidance, and leading efforts to attract, develop, and retain high-performing employees (“Justice Management Division,” n.d.). The strength of the HRM derives from its well-established organizational design, within which there are specific responsibilities the department has and concrete goals it achieves (Gleeson, 2019). However, it can conceive such issues as lack of coordination between separate departments and weakening of common bonds (Gleeson, 2019). Therefore, HRM possesses a functional organizational structure that has an essential proc, with respect to the efficiency, and certain cons, related to the clarity of communication and interactions between units of the Agency.

Personnel Recruitment and Hiring Practices

There is a variety of goals, policies, and practices regarding the recruitment and hiring of a qualified workforce, HR system shall comply. One of the major components is labor/Employee relations, provisions of which are intended to ensure the compliance of business relationships between an employee and employer with the policy, with respect to applicable laws and regulations. This component sets procedures for disciplinary actions, employees’ coverage, and responsibilities of sides regarding the compliance with the established standards (“Justice Management Division,” n.d.). It is necessary to protect the rights of all the participants involved.

The other component is the set of rules based on the antitrust laws. It is intended to maintain the competitive employment marketplace, prevent violation of the mentioned provisions, and ensure that HR professionals are in the best position to comply with the hiring practices of a particular company (Department of Justice, 2016). This component involves the prohibition on agreements among employers not to recruit certain employees or not to compete in terms of compensation and recommendation with respect to avoiding sharing sensitive information with competitors. In addition, it sets advice on the rules of professional conduct while hiring a workforce.

The third major component is focused on determining the level of pay. Its goal is to provide an employee with competitive compensation that reflects their individual professional characteristics and in relation to the General Schedule pay system. It assists in ensuring the equity of the level of pay between similar positions in different companies, for instance. Therefore, the HR system has a set of policies and regulations, the goal of which is to ensure the compliance of business relationships with laws and protect the labor rights of employees.

Employee Skills Training

It is possible to outline a sequence of DOJ HRM policies and approaches with respect to training provided for new and existing employees. (“Justice Management Division,” n.d.). This Agency’s workforce development is based on the Office of Personnel Management Training Policy Handbook and Continued Service Agreements (CSA). In the mentioned guidance, there are requirements regarding the length of training and repayment of training costs, which can be considered inappropriately firm by some employees and prevent them from participating, which is the weakness. There are two types of training offered: the Professional Development Series (PDS) which implies detailed instructions from experts and is suitable for specialists (Policy, Data, Oversight: Employee Relations, n.d.). The other types of developmental activities are Employee and Labor relations Roundtable discussions that cover topics of interest to human resource professionals.

Despite the rigidity of the requirements, completing the mentioned training enables the specialists to obtain vital, for fulfilling their direct responsibilities, and experience, and can be considered the basis for the future promotion. In general, the existing approach to training the personnel has a major strength, which is the improvement of the proficiency level of the workforce, for free, in the event the requirements for the programs are appropriate for a particular individual.

Recruiting and Training Recommendations

It can be noticed that the system of recruitment of new, highly qualified specialists and their training established at the US DOJ operates effectively. However, there are two points that might be considered to improve the mentioned processes. The recruitment is based on standard procedures and policies, which have not been adapted to contemporary realities for a long period. It arises a necessity to incorporate such a tool as social media to enrich the process with such significant practice as E-recruiting that is highly effective in collaboration with widespread approaches (Rahman, et al., 2020). Especially attractive this opportunity is in the contemporary realities, when external factors, such as pandemics, can restrict the means of hiring. Simultaneously, young specialists tend to spend a considerable amount of time on social networks, and they can be interested in working for DOJ after being influenced by appropriate advertisements.

The second vital improvement that might be helpful for increasing the number of employees willing to pass training, it’s making the requirements and consequences of not finishing the training for any reason less firm. Specialists, especially younger ones, might not be capable of managing the burden of the activity’s terms and conditions, while additional benefits besides the mentioned above ones might encourage the employees to spend their time gaining extra knowledge.

Conclusion

US DOJ possesses an effective functional organizational structure that assists in fulfilling the responsibilities with the highest possible efficiency, at the cost of the simplicity of communication between departments. Personnel Recruitment and Hiring Practices are based on well-established policies that enable the protection of the interests and rights of all the sides involved. Training sessions offered are valuable for the specialized experience gaining and increasing the chance for the potential promotion. However, the Agency’s processes of recruiting can be benefited by implementing the methods of E-recruiting. Simultaneously, training can be improved by relieving the current requirements and conditions for ones who did not finish them.

References

Boon, C., Hartog, D. N., & Lepak, D. P. (2019). A Systematic Review of Human Resource Management Systems and Their Measurement. Journal of Management, 45(6), pp. 2498-2537. Web.

Department of Justice (2016). Antitrust Guidance for Human Resource Professionals. Web.

Gleeson, D. (2019). Benefits & Disadvantages of a Functional Organizational Structure. Chron. Web.

Justice Management Division. (n.d.). Web.

Policy, Data, Oversight: Employee Relations. (n.d.). Web.

Rahman, M., Aydin, E., Haffar, M., & Nwagbara, U. (2020). The Role of Social Media in E-Recruitment Process: Empirical Evidence from Developing Countries in Social Network Theory. Journal of Enterprise Information Management. Web.

Introduction

Efficiently managing staff agencies’ financial and structural structure is a crucial concern in public administration. In the past decades, researchers have focused their attention on the strategies for increasing staff agencies’ productivity while simultaneously decreasing the needed costs (Shafritz et al., 2016). Two academic works by Gore (1993) and Shafritz et al. (2016) have researched this issue, presenting available evidence and outlining government organizations’ most prominent budgeting and restructuration methods. This paper comparatively summarizes two publications mentioned above, discussing their potential applications, benefits, weaknesses, and impact on the field of public administration.

Main Contrasts between NPR and Introduction to Public Administration

The National Performance Review (NPR) report, written by Gore (1993), presents an overview of a study conducted to evaluate the cost-efficiency of the United States government agencies. NPR is a comprehensive examination of 6-month research that assessed cabinet departments and ten agencies operating in the US. With the introduction of the Clinton Administration’s proposal to improve government services and make them more efficient, it was necessary to analyze the productivity of national agencies and suggest trajectories for their enhancement (Gore, 1993). Therefore, NPR ascertained the restructuration of federal agencies, exploring the limitations of currently implemented tactics and presenting twelve recommendations to be incorporated into the governmental organizations’ activities.

On the other hand, Shafritz et al. chose a different approach to their research, giving an educational review, not for scholars but for students. One of the main points was examining the Obama administration’s impact on the discipline, mainly financial and economic administration and budgeting strategy. Such a choice was made to motivate students to apply the text’s ideas and concepts to current US government practice, as there are evident similarities in its core factors (Shafritz et al., 2016). An examination of the 2008 financial crisis and its implications for financial market regulation, cutback management, and social equality is another topic discussed in the book. Based on the authors’ analysis, the modern economy has several negative trends, manifested in people’s distrust of the banking system in terms of personal deposits and the continued growth of inflation due to decisions made by the government. In contrast to NPR, the main focus of this research is on social issues and a general retrospective on the long-lasting consequences of the crisis at the beginning of the 21st century.

From this perspective, although both studies focus on state government management and its efficiency, their approach to resolving the problem is enormously different. Shafritz et al. aimed to present comprehensive information for the future specialists to have a broad understanding of how social fluctuations and methodology of different political parties affect the economic state of the US (2016). Consequently, the proposed set of solutions in the book consists of different approaches and involves financial practices and socio-economic analysis (Shafritz et al., 2016). In contrast, the national performance review report explores the empirical data and evidence obtained through direct observation and knowledge gathering, suggesting viable pathways for the government to become cost-effective (Gore, 1993). After that, the national performance review report outlines twelve recommendations on how the United States government should perform its duties, while the book introduces methods for implementing the societal approach in government operations.

Considering the discussed evidence, the possible applications of these works also differ tremendously. Thus, Gore’s publication could help decentralize personnel policy, improve market dynamics, and enhance US citizens’ work-life (Gore, 1993). In comparison, Shafritz et al. are beneficial for creating a generation of socially responsible experts capable of interacting with citizens and not entirely relying on the financial reports (2016). As a result, both analyzed writings are essential for acquiring a profound understanding of how to operate financial and social regulations in the country.

Potential Benefits and Weaknesses

The described works have several significant advantages and disadvantages for improving public administration in the United States. Considering that the National performance review report ascertained the data retrieved from national government agencies, its evaluation is exceptionally comprehensive, and the proposed recommendations can be efficiently implemented when restructuring state agencies (Shafritz et al., 2016). Moreover, as the report prescribes how the government should conduct its operations, its solutions are versatile and could be quickly adopted by any public administration entity. Nevertheless, such limitations as outdated knowledge and non-specific approaches should also be noted. Given that the evaluation was conducted in 1993, and the government structure has been reshaped drastically over the past decades, NPR is more beneficial for understanding the public administration’s development than reforming state agencies (Shafritz et al., 2016). Additionally, separate government branches might require distinct methods for restructuration, meaning that the outlined general strategies will not be effective for them.

The work by Shafritz et al. appears to be highly beneficial for gaining an insight into the changes which occurred after the 2008 crisis and the Obama administration’s involvement in the future development of economics. The strong points of this work are how the same events and tendencies are analyzed from different perspectives. Such direction is helpful for students as they may not consider either social or political methodologies (Shafritz et al., 2016). However, the lack of sections with a financial approach to the statistics and empirical data is an evident disadvantage. The reason for such a statement is that the reader is required to incorporate additional papers such as NPR to gain additional insight into the processes present in modern economics. Furthermore, the focus on Obama’s administration suggests that the authors might be biased, as social and political discussions subsequently tend to reflect subjective opinions rather than evident truths.

In overall, both of the discussed publications could be applied while devising the strategies for current government operations. However, as each work focuses on a specific area, the utilization of these articles would also differ significantly. Gore’s (1993) NPR may be an excellent addition to the research on practices used by government entities in the 1990s. At the same time, Shafritz et al. book could be implemented to highlight the importance of the social and political factors and their connection with major world events (2016). Nevertheless, as each of these works implements partial and outdated data, such applications should be conducted with caution and the integration of more contemporary evidence.

The Publications’ Importance for the Field of Public Administration

The two discussed works are incredibly advantageous for the public administration field, as they offer a comprehensive assessment of the knowledge necessary for efficient government reorganization. While the national performance review report highlights the general strategies to be implemented to improve federal agencies’ cost-efficiency and provide high-quality consumer services, the review article outlines the necessity of the post-bureaucratic vision. Consistent with the public administration practices, Gore highlights four areas of improvement for federal agencies. Although cutting red tape, putting customers first, empowering employees, and cutting back to basics methods have been highlighted by previous research, the report clearly describes how these guidelines could be followed by the US government (Gore, 1993). From this perspective, Gore’s report greatly impacted the field of public administration, establishing approaches to be utilized by numerous US government organizations.

Alternatively, Shafritz et al. explain why public opinions and societal mood must be acknowledged by the state government and what future directions the public administration research should follow to gain more information. By highlighting the critique of different administrations, the authors introduce the significance of the analytical vision, suggesting that this approach is more beneficial for improving the field of public administration entities (Shafritz et al., 2016). In this regard, the discussed book influenced the approaches implemented by public administration organizations, developing a more promising vision to be utilized instead of purely numeric analysis.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the report by Gore addresses the issues encountered by the US public administration system and mitigation possibilities, while the book by Shafritz et al. has a social view and educational manner of propositions. Considering that governmental and bureaucratic endeavors are necessary for strengthening society, these works provide a solid academic basis for devising and conducting strategies to improve national agencies’ efficiency. In the modern age, governmental and staff organizations have become significant large-scale entities that perform various functions and require consistent financial support, labor supply, and restructuration to enhance their productivity. The publications discussed in this paper are precious for public administration research and application, as they have positively impacted the development of this academic area. Moreover, their analysis and discussion are essential ways to develop the analytical abilities that are critical features for public administration researchers and future representatives.

References

Gore, A. (1993). From red tape to results: Creating a government that works better & costs less. Report of the National Performance Review. Diane Publishing.

Shafritz, J., Russell, E. W., Borick, C., & Hyde, A. (2016). Introducing public administration (9th ed.). Routledge.

Political ideas are a set of ideologies, principles, or guidelines developed by those in authority and employed at various levels of an organization. Conversely, public administration is the method through which those in authority exercise power over their subjects and resources by applying various policies. Nonetheless, public administration is sophisticated because it involves coordinating a series of activities at different levels of governance for efficiency and effectiveness (Lees-Marshment, 2020). This paper will demonstrate how political ideas like liberalism, conservatism, and moderation influence the method of governance the U.S. government exercises on its citizens and its national resources.

Over the years, different countries have adopted diverse ideas depending on their aspirations and development plans, influencing the implemented administration method. For instance, the United States of America has had different political ideologies, resulting in different political ideas (Lees-Marshment, 2020). A perfect example of how political ideas influence public administration is the 9/11 attack. At the time of the attack, the U.S was a conservative country, and this played a critical role in the establishment of countermeasures against terrorism. The government increased military funding and opened up more opportunities for people that wished to enlist in the army (Lees-Marshment, 2020). Through the conservatism political idea, the U.S government has been able to consolidate its resources and workforce towards combating terrorism in different parts of the world.

Another political idea that has meaningfully influenced public administration in the U.S is liberalism. The ideology originates from the progressive movement reforms implemented by President Franklin D. Roosevelt. The ideology s characterized by pluralism, freedom to express oneself, equality, individual rights, and economic freedom. The United States of America is democratic; all people have rights and responsibilities recognized and protected by the government (Giovanola & Sala, 2021). In this form of administration, the government has little influence on the action of its citizens. The government and its citizens uphold the rule of law; therefore, everybody is equally accountable to the country’s laws as outlined in the constitution. Liberalism has influenced public administration because the government has to be just and democratic in how it exercises authority over its citizens.

The United States government has also been known to uphold and practice moderate political ideas on international issues. In this form of political idea, the government is more impartial and less active, offering support but not getting involved physically. For instance, in the case of Taiwan and Ukraine, the U.S has not involved itself entirely, but in some ways, it offers support (Giovanola & Sala, 2021). This is mainly because even though it has remained impartial to the conflicts, it is concerned with the outcomes of both situations. The moderate idea has influenced the way the U.S government administers its subjects and resources through proper allocation of resources to ensure that the country is safe and the resources are adequate to prevent shortages.

Different government regimes have adopted varying political ideas depending on the prevailing conditions. Furthermore, the ideas implemented depend on a government’s plan of action and how it wants to steer the country’s development. The type of political idea embraced by a given regime plays a significant role in determining the method of public administration the said government will employ to enhance efficiency and guarantee a country’s economic growth and development.

References

Giovanola, B., & Sala, R. (2021). The reasons for the unreasonable: Is political liberalism still an option? Philosophy & Social Criticism, 01914537211040568.

Lees-Marshment, J. (2020). Political management: The dance of government and politics. Routledge.

Criticism is often a harbinger of a change in the mainstream model in science. Many sociologists, political scientists, economists, and historians have actively criticized the central concept of public administration, which is “the rational model of administration,” for several years (Denhardt & Catlaw, 2014, p. 170). Three well-formulated ideas highlight the shortcomings of the rational model. The first one is that “the rational model is based on a limited and confining view of human reason” (Denhardt & Catlaw, 2014, p. 170). The point of this critical perspective is that because the current accepted organizational theory was developed in an economy- and market-centered society, instrumental and technical rationalities take precedence over democratic morality (Denhardt & Catlaw, 2014). Consequently, it leads to the limitation of the scientific and societal views on the role and character of the individual in society to their industrial function and the connivance of their rights and freedoms in decision-making regarding management. In a sense, these inferences are similar to Marx’s claims about capitalism.

The second stance of critique is related to the mechanisms of positive science within the structure of the rational model. Denhardt and Catlaw (2014) describe it as an “incomplete understanding of knowledge acquisition” (p. 170). Due to its set of principles, the methodology of positive science does not allow one to encompass the full diversity of behaviors of human beings and the entire range of their variation. Moreover, this model within organizational theory creates paradoxes related to the conflict between the objective and subjective sides of human experience in the research process. The last major issue of the rational model is the “inadequate link between theory and practice” (Denhardt & Catlaw, 2014, p 174). Because of the positive science approach and the theorists’ lack of responsibility, any direct linkage between the theoretical and practical fields exists only in the provision of economic efficiency of administration. As one can see, the main downsides of the rational model are that it is limiting, efficacy-oriented and blind to the subjective aspect of things.

About the New Civic Service

There are two sources from the academic fields of political science, philosophy, and management from which the new public service draws its inspiration. These are democratic political theory and humanistic methods of organizational design and management of private and public institutions (Denhardt & Catlaw, 2014). According to experts, the democratic political theory is “an established subfield of political theory that is primarily concerned with examining the definition and meaning of the concept of democracy” and various aspects of governing in such a socio-political system (Laurence, 2019, para. 1). The dominance of these concepts in the ideological field of the new state service is most likely due to the significant contribution of Western scientific communities to the theory of public administration.

Citizenship, viewed alternatively and more broadly by a citizen, helps a society restore democratic citizenship and build a new public service by motivating community members to become sharing systemic actors. By developing knowledge about political institutions, systems, and social ties and improving their democratic morals, people strengthen their personal and collective self-rule and self-governance (Denhardt and Catlaw, 2014). The community’s contribution lies in the formation and participation of civil societies (Denhardt and Catlaw, 2014). These are such societal associations as families, sports groups, and clubs (Denhardt and Catlaw, 2014). They provide a unique setting in which the person can achieve personal interests through engagement and communication with other community members.

References

Denhardt, R. B., & Catlaw, T. J. (2014). Theories of public organization (7^th ed.). Cengage Learning.

Laurence, M. (2019). Democratic theory. Oxford Bibliographies. Web.

Introduction

The standard deviation is the measure of dispersion that indicates the closeness of the data cluster to the mean. Although the standard deviation is used along with the average deviation, the range, and the interquartile deviation, it may be regarded as the most common measure applied in almost any field of study. According to Meier et al. (2015), the standard deviation is “the average deviation or distance of each observation from the mean” calculated as the average squared deviation’s square root (p. 110). In other words, it demonstrates how data varies from the statistical average and supports or rejects its credibility. Thus, a low deviation indicates the data’s strong reliability, while a high deviation refers to a considerable variance between the mean and the data cluster.

Discussion

The standard deviation is highly important for public administration as, without it, it is impossible to define the level of the data’s credibility or compare data sets efficiently. For instance, if to state that in Normal, Oklahoma, the household income of a family of three is $7,000 per month, one may say that all families living there belong to the middle class and the economic situation in this area may be regarded as stable. However, it is necessary to look at the standard deviation to perceive a real situation. Thus, if the standard deviation for monthly household income in Normal, Oklahoma, is $4,000, it means that the variance in household incomes is substantial, and not only middle-class families live in this territory. In turn, when the standard deviation is $1,000, the initial statement related to families’ financial well-being is more valid. Thus, without the standard deviation, public administrators cannot receive an actual picture concerning related matters and make appropriate decisions.

A z score also called a standard normal score, is traditionally used by public administrators to address multiple questions concerning the normal distribution. In general, it is defined as “the number of standard deviations a score of interest lies from the mean of the normal distribution” (Meier et al., 2015, p. 128). Thus, a standard normal score of +1, +2, or +3 indicates that an individual value lies one, two, or three standard deviations above the statistical average, or the mean (Meier et al., 2015). The transformation of the data into z scores provides multiple essential benefits. First of all, it helps understand the place of an individual value in the distribution. Moreover, the use of z scores allows us to compare data that was received from various normally distributed samples to standardize it. Within the normal distribution, z-scores are essential for the calculation of percentiles and probabilities (Meier et al., 2015). Finally, z scores help identify and avoid too small or large observations with multiple values that may negatively impact statistically reliable results.

In public administration, a z score is essential for decision-making as it allows one to receive more information through the calculation of the probability using the standard deviation and the mean. For instance, using the standard normal score and the normal distribution table, the police department in Normal, Oklahoma, may calculate the percentage of applicants within any period of scores. In other words, the z score may show what to expect from the results of the exam (Meier et al., 2015). Based on this knowledge, the department may define the cutoff point or a raw score for acceptance. At the same time, the probability in one sphere may be used in other spheres to detect a problem and suggest appropriate solutions.

The binomial probability distribution is a particular method for the estimation of events’ probability. In other words, it allows public managers to “determine the probability that an event will occur a specified number of times in a certain number of trials” (Meier et al., 2015, p. 145). The binomial probability distribution considers a Bernoulli process that obtains two essential characteristics: the first one is the categories of either a success or a failure of a trial, and the second is an independent probability of both categories (Meier et al., 2015). Trials’ number, the success number, and the probability of the event’s occurrence are necessary for the determination of the binomial probability distribution.

The binomial probability distribution is used in multiple spheres for the identification of specific issues that require solutions. For instance, for public managers, it helps to define the number of employees with particular characteristics in the organization to determine the existence of particular tendencies, such as gender or racial discrimination. The binomial probability distribution cannot indicate the issue, however, it may be regarded as evidence of its existence. In addition, the binomial probability distribution may be used by state and local governments to improve their performance by the readiness for certain events. For example, governmental park systems may use the binomial probability distribution to predict the number of river overflows due to excessive rainfalls during a particular period. In the same way, this method may be applied to the work of police or fire departments for the modeling of events’ probability. In this case, these services will be more prepared for emergencies, such as fires or crimes, for more efficient response or even prevention.

The Poisson distribution is one type of probability distribution that exists along with the exponential and the hypergeometric probability distributions. It is based on a Poisson process, “a pattern of behavior when some event occurs at varying, random intervals over a continuum of time, length, or space” (Meier et al., 2015, p. 159). Similar to other probability distributions, the Poisson distribution follows a Bernoulli process as it refers to the event’s occurrence or absence and the independence of these categories (Meier et al., 2015). However, the main difference between Bernoulli and Poisson processes is the unknown number of trials in the latter. In addition, for a Poisson process, the success or failure of the event does not impact the probability of other events.

Conclusion

In public administration, the Poisson distribution is used to model the probability of events’ occurrence in particular time intervals taking into consideration that these events have a constant mean number. In this way, the Poisson distribution may contribute to the improvement of various public services’ performance. For instance, the definition of a probable number of crimes during a night may optimize the work of the police and other agencies to provide an efficient response, such as arrests and psychological support for victims. In addition, the Poisson distribution is applied for the prediction of natural disasters, such as floods or earthquakes (Cupal et al., 2015). Scientists and environmental engineers record calamities’ average number in a particular location within a given period to use this data for the calculations of the Poisson distribution. In turn, these calculations will provide the probability of disasters’ occurrence in the future. In this case, the Poisson distribution allows to prevent mass property destruction and life losses.

References

Cupal, M., Deev, O., & Linnertova, D. (2015). The Poisson regression analysis for occurrence of floods. Procedia Economics and Finance, 23, 1499-1502.

Meier, K. J., Brudney, J. L., & Bohte, J. (2015). Applied statistics for public and nonprofit administration (9^th ed.). Cengage Learning.

Introduction

Building relationships between individual subjects in different communities or groups is often accompanied by the practice of establishing management mechanisms. Regarding the public sphere as a whole, administration, as a phenomenon designed to build an algorithm for control and reporting and regulate the nature of relevant services’ operations, makes it possible to realize similar goals. To avoid mistakes and differences of opinion, the application of adequate theoretical and practical methods is an essential attribute of successful work. As a result, successful public administration can be characterized as a set of theoretical and practical tools designed to maintain order and effective control.

The Need for Administration

The relevance of administration in the public sphere is due to a number of reasons. Firstly, coordinating any interventions involving cash and other forms of assets requires a competent approach to avoid planning errors. According to Grimmelikhuijsen et al. (2017), it is critical to consider traditional administrative principles from different perspectives, including behavioral nuances, largely due to the expanded range of duties imposed on public managers. Secondly, the ability to coordinate the work of different authorities and establish a coherent operational algorithm in which each party engaged effectively copes with the tasks assigned is a valuable administrative perspective. Therefore, the importance of competent management is determined by the multilateral nature of relationships in the public environment.

The need for administration is also due to the importance of managerial work to build valid decision-making strategies. For instance, as Ho (2018) notes, most governments face constant public pressure and hardship due to financial issues. Establishing control cycles, such as fiscal and reporting conventions to comply, allows administrators to maintain order and control cash flows both within specific sectors and beyond. By using adequate monitoring mechanisms, responsible persons maintain the stability of all systems, whether inside or outside organizational units. Theoretical and practical factors, in this case, play an essential role as justified incentives and drivers, allowing those in power to rely on specific management frameworks. Thus, administration contributes to maintaining order and ensuring adequate control over various aspects, including such important ones as financial activities.

Theoretical and Practical Implications

The reason why the theoretical and practical nuances of public administration should be taken into account is the possibility of establishing flexible coordination norms. For instance, Andrews et al. (2017) consider the features of building the administrative apparatus in Turkey. The researchers analyze the transition to advanced and innovative policy-making at the end of the 20th century in the country (Andrews et al., 2017). According to them, such a shift was largely due to the use of a strategic approach based on combining theoretical and practical nuances (Andrews et al., 2017). In other words, by creating a robust conceptual framework, administrators can build sustainable and efficient practical patterns to follow. As a result, for public administration, different types of data are useful.

Conclusion

Public administration is a field that involves a wide range of theoretical frameworks and practical steps designed to establish order and ensure control over various aspects. The significance of administration is due to the critical tasks that the responsible executors cope with, namely asset monitoring, reporting, and other duties. The combination of practical and theoretical aspects makes it possible to form strategically competent projects to optimize control and improve the administrative functioning of governing boards.

References

Andrews, R., Beynon, M. J., & Genc, E. (2017). Strategy implementation style and public service effectiveness, efficiency, and equity. Administrative Sciences, 7(1), 4.

Grimmelikhuijsen, S., Jilke, S., Olsen, A. L., & Tummers, L. (2017). Behavioral public administration: Combining insights from public administration and psychology. Public Administration Review, 77(1), 45-56.

Ho, A. T. K. (2018). From performance budgeting to performance budget management: Theory and practice. Public Administration Review, 78(5), 748-758.