Category: Public Administration

Behavioral Skills

Nowadays, public service is exposed to continuous reforms and structural transformations which emphasize the importance of guesswork, evaluation of contexts, and personal experience. To keep pace with these changes, a public administrator should develop such skills as questioning, observation, networking, and risk-taking.

Questioning and inquiring are the basic skills required for the development of an innovative approach to professional practice (Dyer, Gregersen, & Christensen, 2011). Questioning is aimed to challenge the existing state of affairs, create new possibilities, and identify the directions to follow.

The skills of observation are needed to achieve a better understanding of what society actually needs at the current stage of development. Through observation of social interests, new political ideas, and tendencies, the public administrator may gain new insights and generate innovative ideas for future development.

Networking skills are of paramount importance in public administration. Social networks are the major sources of support. Moreover, through social networking, it is possible to collaborate with diverse individuals and organizations, create alliances and, in this way, contribute to the development of forward-looking projects and cultivation of new concepts.

Experimenting is the initiator of substantial changes and improvements. Engagement in new experiences and intellectual explorations facilitates self-education and flexibility (Dyer et al., 2011). Experimenting guarantees the sustainability of professional efficiency in the constantly changing social and political environments.

Defining Public Administration

It is possible to define public administration as “government inaction” or “implementation of public policies” (Shafritz, Russell, & Borick, 2008, p. 6). However, despite the apparent simplicity of the term, it has multiple dimensions: political, legal, managerial, and occupational.

From the political point of view, public administration can be regarded as the complex of activities and practices exercised by the governmental authorities. Public administration depends on the political environment, and the political implications of public service distinguish it from activities in the private sector (Shafritz et al., 2008). At the political level of performance, public administration implements the public interests through policymaking, negotiations, and collaborations with other social for-profit and non-profit organizations and networks.

Law may be considered the foundation and the major cohesive element of public administration. Shafritz et al. (2008) regard public administration as “the execution of public law” (p. 12). Policymaking and other related activities always should be enabled and approved by the relevant legislation. In this way, public administration is bound to the administrative law that provides the legal grounds for the execution of authorities (Shafritz et al., 2008).

The managerial aspect is inherent with public administration as well. Since executive functions are important in public administration, the skills of management become essential to the successful realization of strategies and achievement of formulated objectives. Management in public administration is both goal-oriented and people-oriented, and, it is possible to say, that the efficient managerial performance largely defines the effectiveness of multiple working processes’ outcomes, coordination of personnel, communication with social networks and stakeholders.

The occupational aspect of public administration is versatile and “it ranges from brain surgery to street sweeping” (Shafritz et al., 2008, p. 20). The public sector offers a great variety of positions in distinct domains: cultural, legal, academic, political, social, and scientific. Any profession can be related to public administration in case it is associated with the provision of public services and networking.

Organizational Motivation

The Hawthorne Experiments

According to the Hawthorne Experiments, the employees’ productivity depends on both objective external conditions and subjective internal attitudes towards them (Miner, 2005). For example, when an employee believes that the working condition is changing for better, he/she demonstrates the improvement of productivity indicators. In this way, the subjective perceptions may be regarded as a decisive factor affecting job satisfaction and working performance. Thus, managers should primarily focus on people and their needs rather than merely technical factors of financial and productive growth.

The Needs Hierarchy (Maslow)

Maslow considers that human behaviour is defined by the personal priorities influencing the fulfilment of needs. There are several types of needs: physiological, safety, love and belonging, esteem, and self-actualization (Sengupta, 2011). Every person fulfils the needs starting from the initial physical ones and then climbs up the hierarchy. According to Maslow, the higher needs in the hierarchy acquire significance merely over the years of individual development and obtain the dominant position in the adults’ psychology (Sengupta, 2011). Therefore, the favourable working environment should provide opportunities for the individual needs to be fulfilled. Otherwise, the employees will lack motivation, and their job satisfaction will be reduced.

The Hygiene Theory

Herzberg’s Motivation Theory is focused on two main factors influencing individual’s performance: hygiene factors (working conditions, the level of supervision, organizational policies, etc.) and motivational factors (success, responsibility, career, etc.) (Bassett-Jones & Lloyd, 2005). The hygienic factors define the level of work satisfaction in the context of the surrounding conditions. And the second group of factors serves as stimuli for work’s effectiveness and productivity increase.

Theory X and Theory Y

According to Theory X, people naturally attempt to avoid hard work and responsibilities, and they seek safety and security (Miner, 2005). Based on this, a manager will always structure the functions of his/her subordinates and will centralize the responsibilities to facilitate control over employee performance. At the same time, Theory Y suggests that labour is a natural process, and in case employees are properly motivated for the achievement of organizational goals, they self-organize and independently regulate own work (Miner, 2005). In this way, management needs to focus on the development of organizational culture stimulating the fulfilment of needs for employees’ self-realization.

Leadership

Leadership style is an essential managerial characteristic. According to Lewin’s model, there are three types of leadership: authoritarian, democratic, and laissez-faire (Malakyan, 2013).

Authoritarian leadership is characterized by rigidity, strict control, and discipline – the main focus is made on results. Authoritative leaders tend to ignore the social and psychological needs of their subordinates and, thus, contribute to the decrease in job satisfaction. By contrast, laissez-faire leadership is characterized by low exactingness, connivance, lack of discipline and rigour. It is associated with a share of managerial passivity and loss of control over subordinates by endowing them with complete freedom of action. Democratic leadership may be considered the golden mean between the mentioned leadership styles as it is based on collegiality, trust, communication, creativity, self-discipline, and stimulation. It is not focused solely on the results but recognizes the significance of the methods used to achieve them.

Leadership Approaches

There are many approaches to leadership. For example, according to contingency model, leadership style may be either task-oriented or employee-oriented, and it always should adapt to the situation that can be identified according to three criteria: pattern of leader-subordinate relations, task’s structure, and volume and form of leader’s power (Miner, 2005).

Transactional and transformational leadership principles can be equally efficient although they suggest different approaches to management. Transactional leader operates within the framework of the organizational culture that already exists while transformational leader changes the organizational culture (Miner, 2005).

The transactional approach is based on the concept of reciprocity. The leader recognizes the connection between employees’ efforts and rewards, and he/she appeals to economic rationality. Transactional leadership uses remuneration, promotion, punishment, and sanctions as the major forms of control. At the same time, transformational leadership is based on an understanding of human psychology. The transformational leader motivates for self-development and creates opportunities for self-realization.

References

Bassett-Jones, N., & Lloyd, G. (2005). Does Herzberg’s motivation theory have staying power? The Journal of Management Development, 24(10), 929–943.

Dyer, J., Gregersen, H. B., & Christensen, C. M. (2011). The innovator’s DNA: Mastering the five skills of disruptive innovators. Boston, MA: Harvard Business Press.

Malakyan, P. G. (2013). Anthropology of leadership: An Armenian perspective. Journal of Leadership, Accountability and Ethics, 10(3), 107-126. Web.

Miner, J. B. (2005). Organizational behaviour 1. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe.

Sengupta, S. S. (2011). Growth in human motivation: Beyond Maslow. Indian Journal of Industrial Relations, 47(1), 102-116.

Shafritz, J. M., Russell, E. W., & Borick, C. (2008). Introducing public administration. New York: Longman.

The most important theories in the field of Public Administration have their foundation in the areas of bureaucracy as well as epistemological issues related to the academic and profession in the public service.

Mid-20th century Germany sociologist, political economist and administrative scholar Max Weber has been acknowledged for his outstanding work in bureaucracy, epistemology and administrative discourses. In his magnum opus ‘Economy and Society’ the distinguished scholar described many model types of government and public administrations in the world.

Suppe (1998) explains that Weber’s analysis of the bureaucratization of society became one of his lasting and most epochal parts of his work. It was Max Weber who pioneered the studies of bureaucracy and administration. His works led to the popularization of bureaucracy and set the stage for the ongoing process of rationalization of various aspects of public administration.

Weber’s principles of administration are characterized by hierarchical organization, represented by clearly defined lines of authority and set rules to determine actions taken. He also highlighted the need for expert training of public administration officers. He advocated for career advancement based on merit and technical qualification, but judged by organizations and not by individuals.

Weber undoubtedly influenced many later theorists of various disciplines. His work was also received criticism as well. A handful of scholars at the time, for example, expressed disapproval and blatantly blasted claims made by Max Weber in his historical analysis.

In the US, on the other hand, Woodrow Wilson who later was to become the President and academic Frederick Taylor (1856-1915) took their position in the frontline in promoting American civil service reform. The two played a central role in integrating public administration to academia.

Their work, however, was not met with much enthusiasm at the time until in mid-20^th century following the circulation of Germany scholar Max Weber’s bureaucracy theory. Wilson Woodrow came into public limelight following the publication of his work entitled ‘The Study of Administration’ in the year 1887. His later work earned him a reputation in the US as the father of public administration.

Sherwood (1990) explains that Wilson advocated for the separation of politics from administration and the application of business-like practices in the public sector to improve efficiency. He also called for merit-based assessment and comparative analysis of political and private organizations. Wilson’s separation of politics and administration approach has been the subject of debate over the years and has drawn much criticism as well.

A few distinguished scholars of the time such as Fredrick Taylor wrote powerful books and numerous articles in response to Wilson’s solicitation. In his book ‘The principles of Scientific Management,’ the prominent scholar Fredrick Taylor introduced an approach dubbed Taylorism or Taylor’s Principles. Taylor’s approach was based on scientific analysis and application of scientific management principles.

Taylor recommended a scientific approach in selecting, training and developing each employee. He proposed that managers should apply scientific management principles to plan and execute the tasks. His principles were eventually adopted by various government organizations and private sector industrialists.

Dubois (2009) explains that Wilson’s separation of politics and administration approach continues to influence the scope of public administration to this day.

This is even against criticism, on the background, by second generation scholars led by Luther Gulick (1892-1993) and Lyndall Urwick. Unlike their predecessors, Luther and Lyndall could not reckon upon logical assumptions and generalizations but rather based their theories on facts as presented by work of distinguished scholars such as Henri Fayol, Frank Goodnow and Fredrick Taylor.

Gulick summed up the civic responsibility of administrators in one word POSDCORB. He explained that the work of public administrators involved and was limited to Planning, Organizing, Staffing, Directing, Coordinating, Reporting, and Budgeting. POSDCORB approach, however, received numerous critical responses in the mid-1940s, alongside Wilson’s politics-administration concept which remained the epicenter of debate.

Another generation of public administration theorists emerged in the 1980s in the person of David Osborne and Ted Gaebler. In their book ‘Reinventing Government’ the new crop of theorists introduced yet another New Public Management (NPM) concept. The new model was viewed favorably as it proposed the adoption of private sector-style.

The organizational values and ideas aimed presented by NPM were considered the ultimate solutions to improve the delivery of service in public institutions. This concept treated citizens like customers and encouraged competition between public agencies. This model also promoted competition of the public sector with private firms and encouraged the use of economic incentives.

David Osborne and Ted Gaebler’s NPM approaches became so popular in the US and UK in the 1990s. Ultimately, the same approaches were applied during Clinton’s administration by Vice-President Al Gore to reform federal agencies in the United States.

Then, Wilson’s separation of politics and administration approach and David Osborne and Ted Gaebler’s NPM are the most important theories in this field, based on popularity and effectiveness in places where they have been adopted.

Indeed many scholars agree that modern theories such as Janet and Robert Denhardt’s ‘Digital Era Governance’ all anchor on Wilson and David-Gamblers’ theories. Digital Era Governance is a model of late 1990s to 2000 and focuses more on reintegrating government responsibilities with transformational capabilities of information communication technology.

References

Dubois, H.F.W., (2009). Definitions and Typologies in Public Administration Research, International Journal of Public Administration, 32 (8),704-727.

Sherwood, Frank P., (1990). The Half-Century’s Great Books in Public Administration, Public Administration Review , 50 (2), 253.

Suppe, F.,(1998). Understanding Scientific Theories: An Assessment of Developments, Philosophy of Science, 67 (102),115.

Apart from collecting donations from well-wishers and churches to feed, cloth and provide shelter for thousands of the poor people, the Union Gospel Mission of Vancouver’s program can be redesigned in such a way that it can sustain itself for a long time without relying on regular donations.

To begin with, a revolving fund can be set up for the program. This fund should comprise of a large pool of donation that earns interest in a financial institution. After that, the interest value earned should be set aside for expenses. Alternatively, investment projects can be set up with the same revolving fund so that proceeds can be used to provide shelter and other basic needs to poor families.

Second, it is crucial to mention that the number of poor people is continually growing. As much as the Union Gospel Mission might be willing to support the initiative, it may reach at a time when the burden can be overwhelming. Hence, it is highly advisable to establish self-help groups within the selected poor households.

These groups can be formulated in the same way as community-based organizations that seek to improve the quality of life for members. Through the self-help groups, small investment projects can be set up to generate income for members. Since the concept of self-help groups relies on pooling meager resources together, it will be one way of ensuring that the Union’s mission remains sustainable both now and in the future.

The feeding program must be a major undertaking for Vancouver’s Union Gospel Mission. Serving over 260,000 meals per year cannot be an easy task for a program that fully relies on donations and input from volunteers. To improve and effectively manage the feeding program, the Union can reduce its budget by initiating agricultural projects.

Most of the foodstuffs consumed by the poor families originate directly from farms. Foodstuffs from farms can significantly minimize monetary demands of the feeding program. Hence, the saved funds can be redirected to other projects within the program.

In regards to the challenge of homelessness, it is vital to emphasize that a permanent solution is highly welcomed. Although the Union might secure temporary homes (through rents and leases) to the poor people, a long term home development plan can be put in place. In other words, permanent homes can be constructed for the poor people with the assistance of the corporate world.

Through the social-corporate responsibility initiatives that are common with business organizations and government agencies, the management at Vancouver’s Union Gospel Mission can present a formal request for support (both financially and in kind). The feeding and housing program is a noble duty being performed by the Union. Therefore, adequate support from other organizations can be sought with the aim of boosting the program.

Finally, there is a direct correlation between the growing instances of addiction and poverty. Most poor households are vulnerable to both substance and drug addiction. The program can be redesigned and modeled in such a way that addicts can be rehabilitated within the affected communities.

This calls for the establishment of rehabilitation centers with professional counselors. Nonetheless, setting up rehabilitation centers single-handedly can be a major challenge for the Union. Therefore, the program can team up with local governmental and non-governmental organizations to rehabilitate the addicts and equally increase public awareness on the negative effects of drug and substance abuse.

Participating in developments project at the community level is an essential part of community growth. An effective community development projects involves the community members and it is therefore very essential to incorporates them to address their needs adequately.

Developing effective communication strategies, giving others opportunity to express their views, and the ability to engage community members are few of the most important skills needed to make a community project successful. This paper will provide an overview of an independent project I want to take to improve my community.

The problem to be addressed

In any society, a health care facility is very basic in attending to medical needs of all community members. Without a proper functioning healthcare centers, community members cannot have their needs addressed sufficiently (Debnath 13). For a long time now, my community has been facing this problem despite of numerous efforts to put up a well and fully functioning health care facility. Between the years 1995 and 2009, there existed a fully functional community health care center (community hospital) funded by the government.

During this period, the community hospital was reliable and it played a big role in addressing medical needs of all community members. However, today the hospital does not function anymore. Due to issues of leadership, poor management, and embezzlement of public funds, the community hospitals collapsed.

Today, my community is facing a big problem and there is need to have an effective community hospital. Most community members go through rough times in case of emergencies especially at nights when a family member or a friend is sick. Generally, the main problem is that there is no community hospital.

Ways people have tried to solve it in the past

The government and private developers have tried to address this community problem (lack of an effective community healthcare facility). First, the government has tried to be in the forefront to refurbish or renovate the community hospital. Immediately after the collapse of the community health care center in the year 2009, government officials from the department of health came to the community and assessed the already collapsed health facility.

After extensive evaluation, the officials wrote a report to the ministry recommending for renovation of the facility. Nevertheless, the government officials did not consult or involve community members during the assessment and implementation of the project. Shortly, the government embarked on renovation plans as a way of implementing recommendations by health experts.

By early 2010, the government had already done an extensive renovation of the facility and the community hospital was in a good shape. With all government’s efforts, the project was not successful since it could not address the needs of the community members.

One major reason why the renovated community hospital project never became successful is lack of community involvement. When the government came to renovate the community project, none of the community members was involved in the renovation process. It is important to involve community members given that they are chief stakeholders (Rotary International).

Government’s failure to involve community members in the renovation process led to building a facility that did not address most essential community needs. For instance, in the renovation process, the government did not include a pediatric ward, which is a basic need. Because of this, most community members had to seek for such basic services in other healthcare facilities.

In fact, this has been a major issue because community members are forced to seek essential services somewhere else. Since the problem continued, private developers came in towards the mid of 2010 in an effort to make changes and address the existing issues.

The private developers came in to facilitate renovation and setting up of an effective community healthcare facility. In June 2010, after the community health facility was deemed to be ineffective, a private developer came to the community in an effort to revive and make the project become a success. Due to numerous complaints by community members, the private developer was determined to make the project successful.

As such, the developer approached and consulted the local authority. All through, the developer was in constant communication with the local administration regarding the community health care facility. During implementation and re-adjustment of the facility, the developer consulted the local administration hoping that the project would at least address community needs.

Just like what happened in the case of government officials, the private developer did not consult or involve the community members. According to the developer, the local administration represented the entire community and therefore there was no need to consult or involve community members directly.

Because of this particular mistake, the community project was also not successful this time round. One major problem why the project was not a success is due to high cost of services. After the private developer did changes to the facility, the services become expensive for the locals and this pushed them away from the community facility.

In my community, most members are not in the formal employment sector and therefore most of them are low-income earners. By adjusting the cost of services higher, most community member could not afford to pay for services. This factor forced community members to look for alternative or cheaper services. If the private developer had fully involved all community members when making changes, probably the project would become successful (Mellinger and Chau 274).

How to solve the problem

I am very determined to make the community healthcare facility become effective in addressing all community needs. Because of this, I have been doing research and getting advice from experts on how to address the problem at hand. According to community participation approach, all stakeholders, especially community members should be involved or consulted in every step of a community project (Bessette 35). This is because involving community members ensures that all issues are addressed according to their needs.

First, there is need to go to the community and engage all members in focused group discussions (Murphy 19). Through such discussion, community members will have an opportunity to say exactly what they needs and they will also participate in decision making. In addition to this, community members will have adequate time to air their complaints especially concerning why the project has not been successful in past. This is very important in solving the problem.

In the focused groups, community members will be categorized according to gender and age. Later, they will discuss all their needs and organize them in order of priority (Murphy 45). My role will be making sure that all community members participate in all discussions since this step is very essential. Throughout the whole process, I will engage community members in all steps because they are chief stakeholders and therefore their involvement is crucial.

After all crucial needs have been arranged in order of priority; I will help community members in inviting donors. At this point, the process of renovating the community project will begin. This is the implementation stage (Murphy 42). At this stage, we as organizers (I myself and others) will create a conducive environment so that community members are able to participate in the project directly.

We will engage all community members so that they can provide materials, funds, labor, advice, and opinions where necessary. During this period, there will be constant monitoring of the project to check whether all needs are being addressed at every step (Rotary International).

Once the project has been implemented successfully, I will go back to the community members asking them to support the project. This is important especially if the community has a qualified individual who can work in the project; this is significant in empowering the community members. Lastly, I will consult community members to select a team that will be monitoring and providing report to the local authority and donors for sustainability of the project.

Conclusion

Community participatory approach is very important when implementing any community project. It is also essential for developers to involve community members in any community project because they are crucial stakeholders who should not be ignored under any circumstance. It is my believe that the project will be successful since community participatory approach creates a sense of ownership, enables accountability and ensures project sustainability (Bessette 78).

Works Cited

Bessette, Guy. Involving the Community: A Guide to Participatory Development Communication. Ottawa: Southbound, 2004. Print.

Debnath, Rita. Professional Skills in Nursing: A Guide for Common Foundation Programme. California: Sage, 2009. Print.

Mellinger, Messenger & Chau Min. (2010). Conducting focus groups with library staff: best practices and participant perceptions. Library Management, 31. 4 (2010): 267 – 278. Print.

Murphy, John. Great Ideas to Make Your Community Project Successful: A Guide for Community Groups. Wellington: Triple a foundation, 2006. Print.

Rotary International. Communities Actions: A guide to effective projects. 2012.

Appropriateness of Government Official Lying to Public

Many philosophers have come up with arguments to support exemptions to the collective social proscription on dishonesty. Some hold that lies can be necessary for the face of coercion or intimidation (Shafritz, Russell, & Borick, 2013). They maintain that individuals should not be honest to persons who do not deserve to know the truth. In some instances, public officials are forced to stretch the truth to guarantee public safety. The Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution guarantees the security of citizens (Bjola, 2014). The amendment prohibits law enforcement agents from conducting unreasonable searches or apprehending people without sufficient evidence. Bjola (2014) claims that police encounter challenges in striking a balance between upholding the constitution and guaranteeing public safety.

The courts and society concur that police officers cannot fight crime efficiently without having to conceal some information from the public. At times, they have to disguise themselves or lie to persons being investigated to enable them to gather the necessary evidence. For instance, if the police want to apprehend a person accused of child pornography, they require searching the suspect’s house and even computer to gather proof. In such an instance, it would be appropriate for them to lie to get the suspect’s consent.

A government official is allowed to stretch the truth in the fight against crimes. For example, undercover officers cannot succeed in their missions without a level of dishonesty. Telling the truth would blow their cover, therefore subjecting themselves and the society to risks. The courts have confirmed that lying to criminals does not amount to an infringement on their constitutional rights (Shafritz et al., 2013). Indeed, such deceiving actions are an essential and efficient way of combating crimes. Shafritz et al. (2013) allege that public officers are allowed to lie if telling the truth might compromise national security. For instance, in the fight against terrorism, officials may conceal information from the public to prevent the possible leak of classified data that may give criminals an upper hand.

How Hierarchy of Ethics Governs the Behavior of Public Officers

The hierarchy of ethics refers to a set of principles that govern decision-making and operations in the public sector. According to Downe, Cowell, and Morgan (2016), the rules have a significant influence on the behaviors of federal officers. The hierarchy of ethics places public interests before personal goals. Thus, a public officer is expected to act in ways that benefit the general public. Downe et al. (2016) aver, “The hierarchy of ethics requires public officers to have due regard for the rights, duties, and proper interests of all others” (p. 901). Downe et al. (2016) maintain that individuals in the highest-ranking public offices have greater moral obligations than those below them. The primary goal of the public offices is to serve citizens. Consequently, the highest-ranking officers have a unique responsibility to nurture intelligence and good characters that are essential in delivering services to the public.

In other words, the officers are expected to be role models to their subordinates. The exploitation of lower-ranking officers by their seniors contradicts the spirit of the hierarchy of ethics. Public administrators have a right to exercise their discretional powers. Nevertheless, the hierarchy of ethics requires them to make sure that their rights do not hinder those of the people that they serve. The administrators have to guarantee that they safeguard public property and exercise their powers in line with the established labor ethics.

References

Bjola, C. (2014). The ethics of secret diplomacy: A contextual approach. Journal of Global Ethics, 10(1), 85-100.

Downe, J., Cowell, R., & Morgan, K. (2016). What determines ethical behavior in public organizations: Is it rules or leadership? Public Administration Review, 76(6), 898-909.

Shafritz, J. M., Russell, E. W., & Borick, C. P. (2013). Introducing public administration. Upper Saddle River; NJ: Pearson.

Introduction

Representative democracy refers to governments that are established by electing several people to represent a large population. They establish a self-sufficient governing body, which is tasked with protecting the interest of the electorate (Urbanati, 2006).

Constitutional democracies are forms of representative democracies, where regimes are governed by the principle of free and fair elections, in addition, to an aggressive political process. This example of representative democracy allows political pluralism (Kis, 2003). This mode often assumes different constitutional forms; a federal republic, like India, Brazil or Germany, or a constitutional monarchy, like Canada, Spain and Japan. It also provides for a presidential system like Brazil, a semi-presidential system like France, or a Westminster system, which is mostly used by the commonwealth nations.

A republic is defined as a state that allows a section of the subjects to have dominion and supreme control of government. It should be noted, that these governments are not led by monarchs, rather, an executive whose mandate is ratified by popular suffrage and a constitutional dispensation (Brandolini, 2009).

Impacts on Democratic Governance

It has been observed that most of the nations operating under constitutional, democratic systems often disregard the will of the majority. After the elections, vested interests resume control of the government, greatly reducing the number of policies passed with the interest of the electorate. Majority will is also constrained by an existing constitution or a previously created precedent. This has led to assertions that liberal democracies are suitable decoys for plutocracies, oligarchies or Plutarch governance systems (Kis, 2003).

Representative democracy has several provisions, which mirror expectations of ideal democracies. They have independent judiciaries, which may adjudicate the legality of legislative acts. Options for deliberative democracies exist through high commissions, but enforcing popular measures is also possible through recall elections and referendums.

Federalism

Federalism refers to a mode of governance where dominion is shared between a central government and the constituent political units. These units may be provinces or states, depending on the mode of government used in a nation. This creates entities called federations, and proponents of this governance style are referred to as federalists (Campbell, 2004). Under separation of powers, the nation is classified in branches. Each branch is allocated unique responsibilities to discharge. These responsibilities are structured in a manner that ensures no branch is superior to the other. The judiciary, executive, and legislature form the most commonly used branches. It was conceived in primeval Greece and was widely used by the Roman Empire (Smith, 2004).

It is commonplace that two levels of government are required in order to have an effective federal system of government. The power structure between the levels should be designed to allow each level some superiority on several issues. Modern practices have revealed a shift from this trend, as shown by President Johnsons Creative federalism. This concept sought to increase the involvement of the central government as they attempted to realize socially tolerable results on several pertinent issues. These included hunger eradication and reducing poverty levels, among others. This did away with the need for justification before the national government was allowed to intervene in state matters.

This era also saw the Supreme Court empowered to intervene in political and judicial matters handled at the state level. This was depicted when the General Assembly of Tennessee was compelled to reapportion legislative districts in order to achieve equal representation of persons. This order was issued by the Supreme Court, which operates at the behest of the national government, and not the regional governance level.

The Nixon and Ford regimes oversaw policies that shifted the authority and responsibility that accompanied allocation of funds to the state governments, in order to manage the intergovernmental grant system. These attempts of state intervention in the management of state affairs continued with President Clinton’s regime, which sought to restructure the systems of power within federal institutions by devolving higher authority to lower levels of government.

Separation of powers

This concept provides for the separation of the arms of government. This protects against abuse of power by applying the concept of checks and balances. In the 18^th century, the states applied these laws differently, with states in the north disregarding it unreservedly. This meant that government officials held posts in different institutions, a matter which amounted to conflict of interest. It is noteworthy that states in the south observed this principle to the latter (Ellis, 1993).

Presently, congress is the only body having legislative capacity. This privilege is governed by the ‘no delegation doctrine’. This was illustrated in 1998, when the high court barred congress from allocating President Clinton the authority to veto provisions of a bill before signing it into law. John Marshal, a former Chief justice, who wrote, that while congress was tasked with discharging legislative functions, technical aspects of these bills required expert contribution, introduced a new concept.

Insight gained

It is notable that initial republicans bore many similarities with classical liberalists. This is evidenced by the numerous beliefs they had in common, including reverence for the rule of law and constitutionalism. Ideological differences between the two sides are occasioned by liberty. According to the republicans, policy interventions and laws governing public association do not constitute the lessening of freedom. This is opposite to the liberals, who equate liberty to independence from arbitrary power (Sheldon, 2001).

References

Brandolini, A. (2009). Republics and kingdoms Compared. Massachusetts, MA: Harvard University Press.

Campbell, T. (2004). Separation of powers in practice. California, CA: Stanford University Press.

Ellis, R. (1993). American political cultures. London: Oxford university press.

Kis, J. (2003). Constitutional Democracy. New York, NY: Central University Press.

Sheldon, G. (2001). The Political Philosophy of James Madison. Maryland: John Hopkins University Press.

Smith, J. (2004). Federalism. British Columbia: The University of British Columbia Press.

Urbanati, N. (2006). Representative Democracy Principles & Genealogy. Chicago, CI: The University of Chicago Press.

Introduction

Improvement in the productivity and performance of many organizations in both public and private sectors remains to be a desirable goal. Over the decades, many scholars have attempted to come up with ideas that can assist organizations to systematically and sustainably improve their performance. One American scholar who has made a major contribution in the field of management is William Deming. This statistician and theorist came up with a management method that placed great emphasis on quality management through constant improvement efforts. Deming encouraged the use of analytical tools in the quality management process. The positive impact of his work on organizations has made Deming to be considered as one of the most influential management theorists. This paper will set out to provide a brief overview on William Deming and highlight his contribution to public administration.

Brief Overview of William Deming

William Deming was born in October 1900 to well-educated parents who stressed on the importance of a good education to the young Deming. Deming completed his high school education and joined the University of Wyoming, where he studied electrical engineering. By 1928, Deming had completed his Doctorate program in mathematics and physics at the Yale University. Deming started applying statistical methods to management in the late 1920s following his association with Walter Andrew Shewhart, who was a renowned statistician (Wolf 211). The statistical process employed by Deming was first tried out on a large scale in Japan. After the Second World War, Deming visited Japan as part of the American led reconstruction effort. He taught statistical control to engineers, managers, and scholars and these methods were implemented with great success in the country (Wolf 212)

By applying Deming’s techniques, Japanese manufacturers were able to produce products of high quality leading to global demand for these products. This led to Japan emerging as a global leader in manufacturing. Many Western countries were eager to try out these methods for themselves. As such, Deming’s ideas on quality management have been tested in many organizations in Western countries. Prakash declares that results of these empirical tests are overwhelmingly positive thus supporting Deming’s quality management theory (41). Deming proclaimed that his theory of Quality Management can “apply to a service organization with little modification” (49). The Service organizations that Deming had in mind included public sector organizations. Prakash confirms that while manufacturing companies were the first to exploit Deming’s ideas to respond to competitive challenges, many service organizations and government departments have tried to use these ideas (42).

Contribution to Public Administration

Interpretations of Deming’s work have been used in a wide array of organizational settings. His works have also been used successfully in public sector organizations. For this reason Deming, though his 14 points of management, has made significant contributions to public administration. The first major contribution by Deming is from his emphasis on Quality Management. Deming promoted Total Quality Management (TQM) as the primary means through which an organization can reach excellent results in its operations (Matei 47). Deming’s theories on management had a number of TQM principles and techniques that have been adopted by many public organizations.

TQM can be achieved by constantly improving the operations in the organization. A significant argument made by Deming was that “85% of the problem is in the system and 15% in the people” (Wolf 220). This observation recognized that in most cases it is the system, and not the workers, that is responsible for the problems being experienced. As such, the only way to make improvements is by uncovering the mistakes in the system and then working on improving them. Deming emphasizes on the importance of the system in the overall working of any sector. He declares that managers must always strive to constantly improve the system (Wolf 211). These improvement efforts should focus on the work processes.

Change is necessary for TQM efforts in both the public and the private sector. However, there is a significant disparity in the view of change by actors in the public and private sector. Mcnary states that while the private sector is eager to embrace change and gain a competitive advantage, the public sector demonstrates less enthusiasm for change processes. The major reason for this is that there is no competition and profit motive in the public sector. This provides little incentive to overcome the status quo. Deming demonstrates that the public sector also has reason to promote change. Most public sectors have scarce resources meaning that the available resources have to be utilized in the most efficient manner. Through change, the system can adapt itself to address old processes more efficiently and deal with new processes. Deming understood that changes have to be undertaken from the system level (Matei 44). The changes must address the root causes of current problems.

Deming offered a cycle of transformational efforts that can be used to implement change in Public Administration. Management should begin by planning and then follow up by doing. After this, checks should be made to review the progress of the transformational efforts. Finally, management should act in response to the findings of the check. In the act stage, standardization and improvements are made to the process. To ensure continual improvement of the process, the Deming’s PDCA cycle is repeated at a future date for additional improvement of the process. A key requirement in Deming’s cycle is that the individuals involved in the problems have to take part in the change implementation (Prakash 46). Managers cannot unilaterally make decisions on the transformational efforts and implement them. Instead, they must elicit the participation of the workers Wolf declares that from a practical standpoint, “the key to improvement of system processes is to involve workers at all levels in the improvement processes” (218). Statistical analysis techniques are important in gauging the impact of the change efforts. Deming’s cycle is therefore followed by training personnel in techniques for performing statistical analysis. Deming proposed the development of analytical tools and methods that workers could use to gather data on the effectiveness of current work practices. Analysis of this data could help to determine where improvement efforts could be targeted. Wolf notes that the statistical analysis methods proposed by Deming are simple enough to ensure that all workers in the organization can use them (212).

Deming noted that there are situations in an organization that require the input of managers in order to improve the situation. The situations are caused by multiple underlying forces in people and the environment. The underlying forces compel movement to a different level while at the same time some of the forces might be acting as restraints. To improve the situation, the manager needs to understand the character of the current situation and then address the underlying forces in order to produce the desired outcomes. Deming described a line of action as the starting point for determining the next step in a series of steps to be taken to improve the current situation (Wolf 210). Deming asserts that managers and workers must avoid the temptation to work with abstract improvement goals for the system in mind (Wolf 211). Instead, they should start with the system as it is in the current situation and then take actions to constantly improve it. In public administration, Deming encourages the workers to begin from the situation at hand and proceed to take the actions needed to move to higher levels of performance.

Deming highlighted the importance of quality assurance in all industries including service provision. He claimed that the success of an organization could only be ensured if the products made are consistently of a high quality. To realize this consistency, there needs to be some form of statistical control of the production methods. Without statistical control of the work processes, there is bound to be a variance in the quality of the goods or services produced (Matei 45). Deming asserted that all efforts must be made to reduce variation in system performance and therefore achieve the production of uniform output.

Another contribution by Deming to public administration was about the kind of relationship for working with contractors. Public administration often requires working with contractors to accomplish certain tasks. The manner in which the public administration officials select the contractors has an impact on the performance of the organization. Traditionally, PA officials placed a great emphasis on cost when awarding contracts. Specifically, most awards were won by contractors who offered the least cost for providing services or delivering goods. Deming condemns this approach of giving primacy to cost considerations (Matei 46). Instead, he states that Public Administrators should endeavor to develop long-term relationships with their contractors. This long-term relationship makes it possible for the administration to foster an attitude of working together with the contractor and therefore provide the opportunity to improve services. This is based on the concept that for service improvement to occur there was to be a dedicated working relationship and trust between the parties involved. Long-term arrangements provide the opportunity for this kind of relationship to be developed.

Deming stressed on the importance of education in improving performance. According to him one of the main methods through which management could ensure continuous improvement of the system was by constantly training and retraining workers. Education has an impact on the individual and the organization as a whole. At the personal level, constant learning increases the proficiency of the individual since learning is a staff development strategy. The individual has a positive predisposition to change because of the constant learning efforts. The system is impacted on by learning since education fosters change in how processes are carried out (Mcnary 289). Trainers play an integral role in the implementation of any TQM program. Deming asserted that an organization that desired to engage in TQM needed to train a number of individuals who would serve as trainers for the rest of the organization. These trainers would receive training in both theory and tools. Mcnary documents that the training includes background information on Quality Management practices, specialized courses in sampling development of proficiency in using various statistical quality tools (288).

Deming asserts that managers must have a long-term focus instead of seeking quick results at whatever cost. The people in charge need to make bold decisions with the long-term success of projects in mind. Focus on long-term results might be hard in public administration. Most politically elected and appointed officials who are in charge of the resources seek quick and short-term results, which are needed to help them stay in office (Mcnary 284). Deming’s warning that managers should focus on long-term results has influenced public administration since officials who follow Deming’s teachings avoid the temptation to seek quick and short-term results.

Deming supported the empowerment of employees in the organization. Public administration suffers from the bureaucratic organizational structure typical of the government. This structure makes it hard to incorporate quality principles in the delivery of services to the public (Prakash 46). Due to Deming’s contributions, many public administration offices have redesigned their organizational structures. Instead of the traditional bureaucratic organizational structure, new structures that alter authority lines have been implemented. These new structures increase employee empowerment and streamline the processes leading to increased efficiency.

Conclusion

This paper set out to highlight Deming’s contribution to public administration. It began by providing an overview of William Deming and his contribution to management theory. The paper noted how Deming was able to apply the statistical methods learnt from his engineering background to management. He was able to come up with management theories that emphasized on the importance of TQM. This paper has highlighted the contributions that Deming made to Public Administration. His concepts have become accepted as crucial management tools that enable administrators to improve efficiency and effectiveness of their processes.

Works Cited

Matei, Ani. “Convergence of the Policies for Promoting Total Quality Management in the Public Administrations of Balkan States – European Union Member States.” Theoretical and Applied Economics 18.3 (2011): 41-76. Web.

Mcnary, Lisa. “Quality Management in the Public Sector: Applying Lean Concepts to Customer Service in a Consolidated Government Office.” Public Administration Quarterly 32.2 (2008): 282-301. Web.

Prakash, Singh. “Deming Management Method: Subjecting Theory to Moderating and Contextual Effects.” Quality Management Journal 20.3 (2013): 41-69. Print.

Wolf, James. “Neely Gardner and Deming’s Total Quality Management: Parallels and Connections.” Public Administration Quarterly 16.2(2000): 209-221. Web. 10 April. 2014.

Introduction

Research seeks to give some facts as to why something is or is not. It involves fact finding by means of collecting data and creating or choosing a hypothesis. Hypothesis in turn is a means to validate the testability of a research problem. As a result, it gives them a connection between the problems being researched on: connecting the observations and the solutions to a problem. Therefore, a hypothesis takes into account a tentative suggestion into the nature of the problem facing the researcher. Many writers has suggested that research, just like a question, takes the course of why “if an event P then R “is the result. The whole process therefore involves determination of variables that cause the effect. Depending on the type of research at hand, variable types may be demographic, behavioral, attitude-based, and those based on beliefs or things. Whatever the description of a variable, all have two attributes: they must be mutually exclusive and exhaustive.

Research problem

The research problem that would be investigated here is whether the government uses deterrence to prohibit nonprofit organization’s bid to involve in policy making processes (Berry, 2005). This research problem seeks to establish if the policies made by the government deliberately sideline the involvement of non-profit organizations the right to vote and therefore have an opportunity to pass some legislative laws that favor them. Non-profit organizations take the form of helping the lowly in the society. Therefore, does the government restrain these organizations to participate in the policy-making processes?

This is an empirical problem and therefore, it shall collect data from the government database that accurately provides information: financial and level of operation. From this information, research units shall be household and institutional. At institutional level, questionnaires will be sent to the management of the sample organizations with questions targeting answer to whether they are restricted in civic legislation (Brink, 2004). Another unit would be to involve members of these individual organizations with the help of questionnaires to obtain the empirical data about how they view the government’s role in their participation in the policy-making process (Kirkham & Ford, 2009).

Individualistic fallacies are more likely to arise when the household units are targeted for date collection. This shall be avoided by clearly drawing a comparison in the findings at the institutional level.

Hypothesis one would be: the government restricts non-profit organizations participation policy-making. Independent variable here would be the government’s restriction, dependent factor would be lack of participation in policy making by the non-profit organizations. Control variables would be sections of the Laws are used to restrict.

Hypothesis two would be: some sections of the government Laws are not clear to allow non-profit organizations participation in the policy-making process. Independent variables would be the clarity of the laws, the dependent variable would be misinterpretation of the Laws by non-profit organizations and the control variable would be the legislation processes of policy-making are unclear. Any changes in the variables would render the two hypotheses invalid. Therefore, they remain as they are.

Conclusion

Choice of a research design is not a haphazard process. It involves a clear definition of a knowledge claim that a researcher is after. As shown from this section, all this depends on choosing a hypothesis that is testable. The problem under investigation depends also; to a significant extent, on the type of variables; dependent, independent and control variables. A hypothesis which is testable makes future reproduction of the same results for future researchers. The end product is that research shall avoid: bias in the results and reduction in fallacies (ecological and individualistic).

References

Berry, J. M. (2005). Nonprofits and civic engagement. Public Administration Review, 65, 568–578.

Brink, H.C. (2004). Measuring political risks: risk to foreign investment. Burlington: Ashgate publishing company.

Kirkham, K., & Ford, D. A. (2009). Are state marriage initiatives having an effect? An initial exploration of the impact on divorce and childhood poverty rates. Public Administration Review, 69, 846–854.

Legislatures in democratic, authoritarian, and totalitarian regimes

Legislatures with democratic authoritarian and totalitarian regimes serve different functions. Authoritative legislatures are structured in accordance with customary laws Such legislatures define laws in terms of words put forward by great men describing what truth is as documented in the ‘books of wisdom’(Guy 2010, p.98). The better parts of the legislatures are inflexible but permit very little flexibility from the prevailing regime sources such as the military and churches.

On the other hand, totalitarian legislative regimes’ functions are designed to give total control over the citizens. A clear line between what is permitted and what cannot be accommodated is set subjecting the disobedient to tough consequences. A regime characterized by executive dictatorship must ensure that the legislature has no choice.

Parliament as an unrepresentative institution of Canadians

The assembly endorses its initiatives to keep off anyone in the public affairs execution. The hierarchical system of governance makes the Canadian parliament, not a true representative of the people due to bureaucracies involved.

One can argue that Canada, characterized by authoritarian and totalitarian regimes, which depend on institutionalized legislative-executive decisions emanating from an individual or a group of elite committees, removes parliament far from being a true representative of Canadian interests (Guy 2010, p.102). The reality that Canada has a monarchy form of leadership proves such critics as valid. The queen has a significant say on the policies developed, and many times if not all, has the final say. To make it more people-oriented, Senate reform would benefit the implementation of public policy in Canada.

The origin and meaning of the term bureaucracy

The term bureaucracy was derived from the Latin word ‘bureau’ which means a ‘writing table’. In the 18^th century, people used the term to refer to officials’ working places. The suffix ‘crazy’, borrowed from Greek, refers to ‘rule’. Some people attribute its origin in Germany before its popularization spread in France. Max Weber regards Bureaucracy as officials in power or bureaucrats performing their power to continue executing constitutional duties alongside their obligations. These characteristics seem relevant, inevitable in the modern age, and hence impossible to survive with less of it.

Politics and public administration

‘Expert’s knowledge’ is crucial in the formulation of public policies, since most of the policies brought up are normally binding to all citizens. It is therefore imperative for the cons and pros of the policies to be given a second glance before they are enforced by various authorities. The public should take an interest that unelected public servants are conferred with enormous powers to make policies. The interest, however, is limited to the extent to which it should guide the members of the public in making sound decisions when deciding who to vote in as elected members of the government.

The elected members in turn appoint and or endorse non-elected government employees in the assembly. The fact that law-making responsibility needs to be delegated to some bodies which have adequate requisite wit on particular areas of specialization nullify the notion that the law making should be confined only to the elected politicians who have direct accountability to the public and hence questionable by them.

Custom, ethics, justice, and law

The concepts of custom, ethics, law, and morality are different yet inseparable if their different applications need the amount to the administration of justice. Morality is codes of conduct that evolve within a society while laws encompass the various codes of conduct developed and enforced by the state for the sake of regulation of relationships between persons and or organizations. Customs characterizes the deeply ingrained beliefs that prevent people from derailment from doing what is described as ‘right’. All the concepts predict action by some force, which is beyond compromise. Similarly, all the concepts have similar elements.

The functions of the judicial branch of government

The judicial branch of the government interprets the constitution as per the facts of each case. It interprets and applies the law on behave of the state. The key function of the judiciary aims at putting into place the mechanisms of conflict resolution. Although the judiciary does not make laws, the judge’s decisions are binding to other judges. The underlying facts of each case are normally different and dependent on the evidence put forward by both plaintiff and the defendant’s side. This makes law not easily equated to the principles of universal justice.

Reference

Guy, J. (2010). People, Politics, and Government. (7th.ed). Scarborough, Ontario: Pearson Education.

Introduction

This paper is a literature review that critiques two articles which are based on the concept of public administration and the core values that are found in public administration. The paper explains the layout of the articles and the basic points which have been noted in the review.

Maesschalck, J. The impact of new public management Reforms on public servants’ ethics, Towards a theory

There has been increasing concern on the impact that is laid by the “new public management reforms”. There has been a lot of literature on this theory which at a time has acted to confuse most readers. Maesschalck (2004), in his article, proposes a theory that best explains the reasoning behind this statement. In his article, he articulates that with the translation of the effective literature into some conceptual framework, then it is possible to come up with a proposition set that is integrated thus forming a theory. This theory happens to be so because of the complementary nature of the positions which are taken by different authors on the same topic.

This article starts with an introduction to the concept and the effects of the vice. In this phase, the paper looks at the ethical defects that are evident in many organizations ranging from corruption among others. The ethical issues that result from the reforms in public administration and management crop up.

The main issue that Maesschalck (2004) aims at is the relationship that exists between the reforms on new public management and the ethics that are displayed by the public servants. According to the author, he has tried to inform the reader on the possibility to convert the arguments as put across by various people to a framework that can be theorized.

In his research, the previously perceived rivals in ethical positions turned out to be complementary thus supporting his work. Despite the seeming bias in the perception that is put across, there is a concentration on ethical benefits in terms of decision making. The interrelation of the reforms with the ethical patterns has also been looked at by the author.

At the beginning of the paper, there is a proposition that most administrators are confused by the claims in the literature. In the course of the paper, there was an offer to introduce some answers to the dilemma. To begin with, it would look into ways in which there can be a theory that can be used as a guide to predicting the standards used to make some certain decisions and the common traits that are followed in association with the pattern of interaction.

The author proposed the use of a survey to research the hypothesis. The theory would then be expanded qualitatively. Case comparisons were also employed by the author to understand the relationships that existed. The article also provided advice based on hard evidence on the relation between the occurrence of unethical behaviors and the dominance in which the factors could interact.

Using the preset criteria and basing on the propositions that he needed to answer to, (Maesschalck, 2004) was able to come up with a theory that would explain how the different interaction patterns in the realm of public management would be used to predict unethical behaviors amongst the administrators and the effects that the behaviors aimed to.

Cooper, T. Big Questions in Administrative Ethics. A Need for Focused, Collaborative Effort

Cooper (2004) is worried about the matters that are seemingly affecting public administration about ethical concerns. Of major concern to this author is the lack of a criterion which can be used to address this issue in a clear cut manner. According to Cooper (2004), this work is requisite, and lack of it may cause ethics in administration being left out as a hard to tackle the issue. The author has organized his paper as a set of questions that seek to address this matter in a comprehensible way. These questions focus on how activities can be laid out in a focused manner and also well collaborated to solve the quandary.

This paper was reached through a survey that was conducted on a group of ten individuals. The interviewees were fed with a form of a questionnaire through which they could be able to nominate the questions that they thought were best placed to tackle the ethical dilemma. The respondents were able to give their ideas and the main questions chosen by the author.

In trying to address the concept of ethics in administration, it was found out that some questions which addressed some specific topic areas needed to be addressed. In the first place there needed to be an insight into the normative foundations that were to be laid for ethical public administrations. This question addresses the main ethics that should be taken into account whilst making ethical government decisions. This question noted out some key aspects which have seemed to affect the ethical pattern for decision making, which are values of the regime and the constitution, theory of citizenship, social equity, and virtue-based ethics, and matters of public interest.

Pertinent too in this field was the question of how the American ethical administrative norms fitted in the global contest. In answering this question, Cooper (2004) tried to show the relationship of the norms to the experiences of a common American. Cooper (2004) also tried to answer a question on how organizations would be designed in such a way that they would support the ethical conducts. Last in this list of questions was an insight into the matters and circumstances that would lead people to treat others equally and fairly and circumstances that would deem otherwise.

According to Cooper (2004), the questions that were posed in this study were not the only questions that would have an impact on the ethical behaviors of different individuals in their administrative fields who are concerned with matters of ethics. In trying to solve these questions, he proposed that groups should be set that should allow for the questions to be discussed in a variety of forums. Such groups should raise questions in seminars and other meeting points to make the propositions clear to all. In this article, Cooper (2004) has tried to show the importance of ethics as a value in public administration and the various aspects that are accompanied by ethics that need to be focused on in detail by any particular organization. This can be one way of heading towards administrative success in the public offices in the land.

References

Cooper, T. (2004). Big Questions in Administrative Ethics. A Need for Focused, Collaborative Effort. Public Administration Review, 64(4), 394 -407.

Maesschalck, J. (2004). The impact of new public management Reforms on public servants’ ethics, Towards a theory. Public Administration ,Vol. 82(2), 465– 489.