The fifties (and especially late fifties) of the twentieth century were marked by certain shift in public administration theory in the USA. Theorists in this field focused on human resources and people’s behavior within organizations. Leadership and decision-making were regarded as some of the most important components of public administrators’ functioning (Cox et al., 2010).
Some of the most prominent public administration theorists of that period were Philip Selznick, Douglas McGregor and Charles E. Lindblom. These theorists contributed greatly to the field of public administration as they developed certain approaches which became the basis for further research.
The Theorists and Their Contribution
Selznick was one of the proponents of organizational approach. One of his major contributions was his attention to the goals set by the organization and employees’ goals (Shafritz & Hyde, 2012). The theorist noted that people often had different goals and this dichotomy often led to poor performance.
Thus, according to Selznick, employees, who did not share the organization’s values and set goals which differed from the ones, set within the organization, could not function effectively (Shafritz & Hyde, 2012). Furthermore, the theorist also stressed that it was crucial to develop proper environment within the organization to enable employees to cooperate and be efficient. Thus, communication was one of the keys to success.
Another prominent theorist of that period was Douglas McGregor. He also focused on the environment within the organization. The theorist claimed that motivation, control and leadership play essential role in the development of proper environment (Shafritz & Hyde, 2012). Thus, McGregor emphasized that leadership was important as employees needed support and control. Inspiring leaders could motivate public administrators, which could improve performance of the latter.
Effective cooperation between employees could be achieved with the help of control. Noteworthy, the researcher stated that public administrators had to know the organization’s goals to be able to perform effectively. The theorist also paid specific attention to motivation as he believed public administrators (as well as any other employees) needed motivation to perform properly and achieve the goals set.
Finally, Charles E. Lindblom also considered the human component of public administration. However, the theorist focused on the process of decision-making. Noteworthy, Lindblom was an advocate of democratic approach and stressed the importance of leadership. However, when it came decision-making, the theorist stressed the importance of cooperation. Lindblom claimed that the government consisted of a number of elites that cooperated (Shafritz & Hyde, 2012).
This cooperation was necessary for proper functioning of public administration. The researcher also noted that public administrators had to be aware of peculiarities of decision-making processes (Shafritz & Hyde, 2012). He noted that it was essential to analyze the process of decision-making to enable public administrators to function effectively.
Conclusion
On balance, it is possible to note that Philip Selznick, Douglas McGregor and Charles E. Lindblom contributed greatly to the development of the theory of public administration in the field of human resources. The theorists exploited behavioral approach and provided valuable insights into the processes of cooperation and decision-making.
It was acknowledged that public administrators needed motivation and leadership to ensure effective work of the US government. More importantly, the researchers developed specific tools which could be used by public administrators. Thus, communication, leadership and decision-making acquired the necessary attention and became central to further research.
Reference List
Cox, R.W., Buck, S.J., & Morgan, B.N. (2010). Public administration in theory and practice. New York, NY: Longman Publishing Group.
Shafritz, J.M., & Hyde, A.C. (2012). Classics of public administration. Boston, MA: Cengage Learning.
The period between 1960s and 1970s was a period of change for the US public administration theory and government. It is necessary to note that this period was characterized by Americans dissatisfaction with the government. The war in Vietnam and a number of scandals involving politics made people distrustful and dissatisfied (Cox et al., 2010). Public administration theorist knew that rapid change was vital.
Theorists agreed that public administration should be separated from politics. It is noteworthy that theorists also criticized bureaucratic mechanisms that existed at that period. As has been mentioned above, political scandals made public administration theorists pay specific attention to human resources. Theorists followed organizational approach and developed strategies to make the public administration efficient (Shafritz & Hyde, 2012).
For instance, Daniel Katz and Robert L. Kahn, Warren Bennis, Herbert Kaufman and many others stressed that the US government was an organization which followed major rules of organizational development. There was also certain need in scientific approach.
Katz and Kahn’s Contribution
Daniel Katz and Robert L. Kahn were the most influential public administration theorists of that period. The researchers claimed that public administration should be seen as an organization where employees cooperate to achieve certain goals and satisfy the clients. Katz and Kahn stressed that employees of the government had to be aware of major goals to be able to successfully achieve them. The theorists saw public administration (as well as any other organization) as a kind of systems.
According to Katz and Kahn, the system should consist of specific subsystems which cooperate (Shafritz & Hyde, 2012). The researchers also believed that the system should be decentralized to work efficiently. Admittedly, decentralization requires proper communication. Thus, the theorist noted that communication was vital for proper functioning of the subsystems and the entire system.
Importantly, Katz and Kahn employed behavioral approach. The theorists paid special attention to people’s behavior within the organization (Shafritz & Hyde, 2012). The researchers emphasized the importance of such concepts as proper structure, leadership, and ideology. According to Katz and Kahn, public administrators had to have certain moral codes and be committed to the organization (Shafritz & Hyde, 2012).
Notably, ideology was seen as the necessary set of norms aimed at uniting employees and helping them cooperate effectively. It is also important to note that Katz and Kahn stressed the importance of constant change (Shafritz & Hyde, 2012). They claimed public administration had to develop along with the society to be able to fit in.
Conclusion
To sum up, it is possible to note that Katz and Kahn were some of the most influential theorists of public administration in the 1960-1970s. The theorists followed organizational approach and stressed that public administration should operate in accordance with the laws of organizational development. The theorists also noted that it was crucial to research public administrators’ behavior. Apart from this, they emphasized the importance of ideology in public administration.
In a nutshell, it is possible to state that the period between the 1960s and 1970s was a shift to organizational approach where the major focus was made on people and the system. The theory of public administration also underwent certain changes. It became apparent that public administrators needed theoretical background to function more efficiently. Public administration theorists came up with specific strategies and methods to make the government meet people’s expectations.
Reference List
Cox, R.W., Buck, S.J., & Morgan, B.N. (2010). Public administration in theory and practice. New York, NY: Longman Publishing Group.
Shafritz, J.M., & Hyde, A.C. (2012). Classics of public administration. Boston, MA: Cengage Learning.
In the late 1960s, people revealed their dissatisfaction with the government and the US policies. There was certain distrust as people did not believe in the government efficiency. Public administration theorists came up with ideas on increasing efficiency of the government. It is possible to note that the most remarkable theorists of that period were Anthony Downs, Aaron Wildavsky and Herbert Kaufman.
Anthony Downs
Admittedly, to improve efficiency of an organization it is vital to understand the way the organization develops. Downs described the life cycle of bureaus in detail. Thus, according to the theorist, bureaus are created to address an issue or a set of issues (Shafritz & Hyde, 2012).
Notably, the more tasks the organization addresses, the more new tasks it usually gets. As any other organizations, bureaus grow and this growth depends on the number of tasks addressed. The next stage is decline and disappearance.
However, Downs also notes that bureaus can skip this stage and continue growing or operating if they shift functions (Shafritz & Hyde, 2012). It is necessary to point out that Downs contributed greatly to the development of the public administration theory as he revealed major stages of bureaus existence.
This knowledge is vital for those involved in public administration as it helps understand the aims and methods used in this or that bureaus at different stages of their existence.
Aaron Wildavsky
Wildavsky focused on another aspect of public administration, i.e. budgeting. The theorist stressed that the system that existed at that time was inefficient (Shafritz & Hyde, 2012). Wildavsky also suggested his approach to make the system more effective. Noteworthy, the theorist claimed that in-depth analysis of data is the key to efficiency (Shafritz & Hyde, 2012).
Wildavsky also noted that administrators often lacked the necessary data and it led to inefficient decisions and policies (Cox et al., 2010). It is also necessary to note that the theorist paid specific attention to risk management.
Admittedly, Wildavsky made a significant contribution into the development of the public administration theory as he unveiled flaws of budgeting system along with other weaknesses of the system. Novice public administrators should be aware of Wildavsky’s approach and ideas to come up with effective decisions.
Herbert Kaufman
When it comes to effective decisions, Herbert Kaufman can be regarded as one of the most influential public administration theorists of the early 1970. The theorist criticized the bureaucratic structure and he advocated decentralization of power (Shafritz & Hyde, 2012). He claimed that decentralization could be beneficial for the government as it could help solve issues in regions more efficiently (Cox et al., 2010).
At the same time, the theorist stressed that decentralization should be only partial as decentralized power is often characterized by violations (Cox et al., 2010). It is important to note that Kaufman’s ideas are very important for the development of public administration theory as he explores one of the most burning issues in the field. The theorist reveals advantages and possible limitations of decentralization of power.
Conclusion
On balance, it is possible to note that Anthony Downs, Aaron Wildavsky and Herbert Kaufman provided valuable insights into the nature of public administration. The theorists considered such issues as bureaus life cycles, efficiency of the government and possible advantages of decentralization of power. These are some of the most disputable issues in the field.
Reference List
Cox, R.W., Buck, S.J., & Morgan, B.N. (2010). Public administration in theory and practice. New York, NY: Longman Publishing Group.
Shafritz, J.M., & Hyde, A.C. (2012). Classics of public administration. Boston, MA: Cengage Learning.
The case in question entails at least three legal breaches, which can also be regarded as three ethical problems. One of the breaches is provision of distorted data. Thus, Secretary Swinson revealed a huge surplus in budget even though there was a considerable deficit. The employee deliberately revealed distorted data to hide poor results of his performance and create a positive image of himself.
The second breach is the theft as $1500 was missing. Even though there is some evidence that proves Arnold’s guilt, this breach could be committed by the Secretary Swinson who also could access the money. The third breach was misconduct of the majority of employees who violated the rules, i.e. were late for work, used computers for personal use, and purchased expensive furniture for the office.
Notably, lots of public administration theorists considered issues similar to the events depicted above. To clean up the breaches mentioned above, it is possible to employ approaches of such theorists as Woodrow Wilson, Jane Addams and Frederick Taylor. Thus, Wilson stressed the importance of seeing public administration as an organization (Shafritz & Hyde, 2012).
Admittedly, revealing inappropriate data is likely to lead to huge losses in any company. At that, the mistakes are found rather easily in organizations as a number of employees have access to the data. Hence, public administrators should understand that their actions can lead to their organization’s ‘bankruptcy’ and their unemployment.
This approach can make the Secretary Swinson (and other public administrators) come up with effective ways to address issues rather than try to make everything seem fine and distort data. Hence, the first step to clean up the breech is to make each employee financially responsible for the efficient work of their department.
The theft is a serious breach which needs specific measures. Addams claimed that public administration should be based on the principles of community (Shafritz & Hyde, 2012). Clearly, the money is likely to be taken by one of the employees. The employees do not feel a part of community and this, in part, led to the theft.
Therefore, it is important to launch a series of team-building training courses. It is also crucial to develop a strong culture and make employees share the principles developed. Addams noted that public administrators could work hard when they understood they were a part of the community (Shafritz & Hyde, 2012).
Public administrators should understand that a misconduct (and especially such a serious breach as theft) committed by one of them will negatively affect the rest of them. Finally, it is important to install some surveillance (cameras) or use additional measures of safety.
Poor performance of the public administrators can be explained by inefficient human resources management. According to Taylor, public administration is an organization and, thus, its efficiency depends on effectiveness of its employees (Cox, Buck & Morgan, 2010). To improve the situation in the department in question, it is vital to focus on human resources management (motivation, development, etc.).
Lindblom’s Muddling Through
It is possible to note that the case in study can be regarded as an illustration of Lindblom’s concept of muddling through. According to Lindblom, scientific approach that presupposed collecting data and thorough analysis of information did not work in the real world (Shafritz & Hyde, 2012).
Admittedly, public administrators have to make lots of decisions and they tend to follow certain patterns which have been used rather than initiate a change. Thus, Karns and Peters did not look for some evidence but simply accused Arnold of stealing the money. Instead of trying to find the thief, they berated a person who seemed to be the guilty person.
Secretary of State Swinson also muddled through as he did not want to implement any changes. Instead of trying to analyze certain flaws in their budgeting, the Secretary fired the intern who could collect the necessary data and come up with a preliminary analysis. Swinson also fired Karns and Peters to help his friends with employment.
It is possible to state that Swinson did not want to work, but he simply acted in the way lots of public administrated had acted. He did not need the change even though the department was malfunctioning. Swinson was not interested in thorough analysis; he jumped to conclusions and tended to adopt the behavioral patterns which had been used by other bureaucrats.
Scientific Management
Charles E. Merriam believed that scientific method could positively affect the development of public administration (Cox, Buck & Morgan, 2010). This method involves collecting data, in-depth analysis, making decisions and implementing change. This approach could be applicable in the case under consideration as the efficiency of the department (as well as each employee) was insufficient.
However, the department is not ready to adopt the new approach and start working efficiently. The department should undergo certain changes to become more effective. To develop a new strategy for the department, it can be beneficial to consider the theory x and y. Thus, according to McGregor, employees’ performance could be considered in two different ways (Shafritz & Hyde, 2012).
Hence, it is possible to assume that Swinson was one of the representatives of the employees x, i.e. he was reluctant to work hard and cared about his salary only. The Secretary implemented policies which made the rest of employees reluctant to work harder. It is possible to assume that the rest of the employees could be initiative and responsible if they were motivated properly.
The use of this approach could be beneficial for the department in question as it would lead to the necessary change and creation of the appropriate atmosphere. The present case also shows that formal and informal cooptation can is likely to have a negative impact on the employees’ performance.
Employees were distrustful and did not cooperate with the intern. It is important to make all employees understand the importance of hiring new people to make them more cooperative.
Gulick’s Approach
Gulick believed in the effectiveness of the scientific approach and developed a specific type of analysis (Shafritz & Hyde, 2012). According to Gulick, it is crucial to plan, organize, direct, staff, coordinate, report and budget properly to enable public administration function properly (Shafritz & Hyde, 2012). To address short-term goals of the department in question, it is important to hire Karns and Peters (perhaps, temporarily).
It is also essential ask all employees (including Swinson, Karns and Peters) to make reports highlighting such aspects as budgeting and some projects. This will help reveal violations if any. Of course, those who have committed some breaches should be punished (fined, fired or even brought to court).
To address long-term goals, it is necessary to ensure proper functioning of human resources professionals. Each employee will have to adopt Gulick’s approach, i.e. they will have to plan and report on their performance. The department should also be restructured so that employees could have supervisors who guide them and monitor their performance. The department’s head should also be monitored in order to avoid breaches.
Weber’s and Goodnow’s Concepts
Weber and Goodnow were advocates of bureaucracy as they believed that only this approach could be efficient (Cox, Buck & Morgan, 2010). The theorists stressed that only professionals in specific fields could effectively ensure proper enactment of laws (Cox, Buck & Morgan, 2010). Therefore, the agency in question should adopt certain approach based on the concepts revealed by Weber and Goodnow.
As has been mentioned above, human resources management is the key to improvement in the present case. First of all, employees should be hired in accordance with their qualities and professionalism (skills, experience, etc.) to be able to fulfill the tasks given. Weber’s and Goodnow’s principles can help the agency become efficient.
The employees should have the necessary expertise in certain fields, which will make the agency effective. Swinson hired new employees instead of Karns and Peters, but he did not focus on the new employees’ expertise. This is unacceptable and leads to further violations and poor performance of the organization. The structure of the agency should also be well-developed.
Thus, supervisors should guide employees and monitor their performance. The actions of the Secretary should also be monitored as this will help avoid violations. Employees should also have monthly (or weekly) meetings where they should discuss the most burning issues.
Evaluating the Case
It is possible to employ different approaches and methods to evaluate the case. However, Herbert Simon’s concepts concerning individuals’ decision-making will be the most effective. Thus, Simon believed that it was possible to analyze and predict people’s behavior and decision-making within the organization and public administration (Shafritz & Hyde, 2012).
According to the theorist, individuals make decisions based on certain data as well on their needs. Thus, Swinson fired people because he wanted to employ his friends. He also made a decision to distort budgeting data instead of trying to understand the reasons for the deficit. The agency’s employees were inefficient and their poor performance can be explained by the lack of motivation.
It is possible to fix the crisis situation by monitoring its performance. Thus, employees’ (as well as the Secretary’s) performance should be monitored. To make the monitoring effective, the agency also needs improvement in the sphere of communication.
Thus, employees should be aware of the goals of the organization. More so, they should share the organization’s values and adhere to the agency’s culture. There should be monthly meetings and team-building activities. It is also crucial to introduce motivation practices to make the employees more efficient.
This strategy will be effective as the major issue is the ineffective human resources management. The Secretary Swinson violated a number of rules, which justifies introduction of effective monitoring.
Poor discipline and performance of the employees is also explained by the inappropriate practices adopted. The agency needs an inspiring leader who will create a team of professionals who share the same values and are committed to achieve specific goals.
Reference List
Cox, R.W., Buck, S.J., & Morgan, B.N. (2010). Public administration in theory and practice. New York, NY: Longman Publishing Group.
Shafritz, J.M., & Hyde, A.C. (2012). Classics of public administration. Boston, MA: Cengage Learning.
The three main areas of interest in public administration today include the organization of the main lawmaking structures, awareness of the ‘human feature’ in administration, and the relationship between government and administration. The first area of interest is the debate of how the main lawmaking structures (federal, state, and local) should be organized. Interest in the organization of lawmaking structures is high as a result of several state reform studies. Second, the rising awareness of the ‘human feature’ of administration is an area of interest in public administration because the administration is concerned with the behaviors of people in the public environment and the psychology of managerial behavior. Third, there is a rehabilitated interest in reexamining the customary theory of the relationship between government and administration, and in reevaluating the position of the manager in the formation of strategy (Agranoff, Robert., 2001, p. 541).
Brief History of Public Administration
Since the early 1990s, several state civil repair systems have been attacking as the “quiet crisis” has become louder. Critics characterize civil service and worker systems as unbending, regressive, awkward, and cumbersome. Public administration managers complain that obtainable systems impede their aptitude to manage and create critical personnel choices. This results in workers who are frustrated because they are not sufficiently compensated and do not take liberation in well-deserved gratitude. Political officials portray personnel systems as unfeeling and incompetent. Civil servants complain that the continued censure of their work is caused by an organization that was adopted for a workforce with dissimilar challenges and needs. Some scholars contend that public personnel administration is characterized more by events, rules, and methods rather than by purpose or consequences.
Program Requirements for Evaluation
Definition of Evaluation
Research suggests that significant relationships exist between the strategic planning (SP) process and a few basic adult learning concepts. Additionally, it is proposed that the events within strategic planning can benefit by utilizing the adult learning concept in which the results of strategic planning can be improved by their service. The result is a strategic planning method that applies the adult learning theory and education method. These techniques are operationally and theoretically critical to the organizational learning process while also facilitating management competencies.
How Evaluation is Used
The challenge for today’s administrators is to be familiar with when to take a risk and seek an occasion for shifting the stress onto outcomes so that these become a more significant piece of the executive process.
Examples of Evaluation
There are many examples of agency performances that symbolize the ongoing results of the public organizational processes. The organizational process is a central concern in central public administration because it is the primary means of judging the consistency of agency decisions with policy permission, and also provides the principal method to gauge how agencies satisfy varied public needs in a plural society. In short, managerial performance is a basis for measuring agency accountability and reflects who gets represented in the organization’s multifaceted share of public resources.
Program Requirements for Planning
The public sector has implemented strategic planning as part of its organizational management structure for several reasons, including utilization for self-assessments, better communication, and increase participative decision making (Rabin, 2003). Program requirements for planning are explored by studying a strategic planning (SP) model to find out its method and purpose. The assessment of the SP process will highlight certain aspects of the model which are pertinent to a few of the basic principles of adult knowledge.
Definition of Planning
Planning, the initial constituent of the public administration process, is frequent, yet overlooked the critical factor that affects the outcome of the evaluation. Strategic planning is defined by Jack Rabin (2003) as “a formalized and systematic process used by any organization, enterprise, or community to identify and achieve future goals through collective action” p. 63. Ultimately, information of process provided by managerial studies on put together services and formal and relaxed networks is not sufficient there is an art to working using individuals and groups in a group of people.
How Planning is Used
Planning is the first step to establishing an effective implementation process. During this important stage, key details are devised which lead to the strategic vision. Objectives, landmarks, agenda, structures, processes, procedures, roles, everyday jobs, and resources are recognized and defined during this stage. Strategic planning has been favored by large, private, corporations as a method of improving competitive advantage (Rabin, 2003). Government and non-profit organizations are also incorporating strategic planning to improve performance and accountability as a result of social and technological changes (2003).
Example of Planning
The meaning of the public administration process is vital because of the number of “stakeholders” involved. Information and power are frequently dispersed among government agencies, nonprofit providers, and special interest groups. For example, in the case of homelessness, even the effective public administrator must struggle with the staggering number of service suppliers in the group of people that address some feature of homelessness. The disintegration difficulty for human service programs is well known because of poor planning and coordination.
Policy researchers have found through key players in the process, that several theories in public administration on harmonization and program completion are feasible. Public policy refers to the entire process by which administration determines events and decisions, i.e., what to do and what not to do. Although a lot of fine policy process models live that are very useful for conceptualizing and analyze public policy, the real phenomena hardly ever fit tidily into the categories as distinct in terms of timing and happiness. The public policy process in its place appears additional like a “primeval soup” from which policy emerges on an uneven basis.
Requirements for Program Development
Research in the discussion of requirements for program development is prevalent. For example, a report by the National Association of Schools of Public Affairs and Administration (NASPAA) advocates the development of new skills for former students of public administration programs which include team building, cooperation, communication, citizen participation, and multicultural consciousness (NCAPAA) to go along using the more customary technical training in workers, managerial law, finance/budgeting, and program evaluation.
Definition of Program Development
The object of SP is to develop an approach and plan in a manner that best fits an exact organization to its exacting environment. It does this by making use of techniques designed to appraise the internal individuality of the organization, the peculiarity of the environment, and the possibilities for planned utilization of both. There are quite a few models of this method.
How Program Development is Used
The Strategic Planning Model
Ethics in Public Administration. Ethics in public management is said to have a loan of from philosophic civilization, especially in look upon to captivating deontological or teleological viewpoints, which partly wrap significantly with the very old and modern differentiation. A deontological viewpoint refers to universally practical inflexible roles or commandments; it tends to be linked with very old ideas. A teleological viewpoint refers to captivating situational factors into explanation to attain desirable outcomes; it tends to be linked with contemporary ideas.
Deontological Perspective. Assuming sincerity to be morally appropriate put into practice, from a deontological viewpoint it would not be moral to lie in any circumstance since ethical performance just is invariably good. From a teleological viewpoint, it would not be moral to lie unless responsibility so would encourage a more significant end than any end to promote by being truthful. Public management authors on ethics more usually express the teleological viewpoint. One exacting form of teleological principles is attributed to women. This view is that principles or moral actions involve thoughtful individuals in the optimistic sense. Because persons and their requirements or concerns vary, the trimmings of ethics differ as well.
Public Administration Literature. Another thematic anxiety in public administration text is how public organizations affect principles, i.e., how does the contextual state of affairs that is the public association have an effect on ethics? Public organizations are supposed to support and allow principles or to weaken and dissuade. Mostly, according to the public administration author, it appears that organizations preserve other concerns and principles that drive out opportunities for notice to ethics. The healing course of deed is the reconfiguration or redirection of public associations in ways supportive of ethics. For example, less emphasis on success or more emphasis on principles would create ethical behavior additional probable.
Program Requirements for Design Components
This identification emerges rationally from the SWOT psychoanalysis in performance with the mandates, principles, and mission. Insights increase from the first four steps are applied here to start to fit the what, when, where, why, who, and how of organizational rationale to the managerial environment.
Definition of Design Components
According to the expert analysis “A strategy is defined as a prototype of purposes, policies, programs, events, decisions, or resource share that define what an organization is, what it does, and why it does it.” Moreover, this is a chief and detailed step at which option actions are careful which mature into strategies to deal with the strategic issues recognized at pace five (Schmidt, Mary. R., 2002, p. 81).
How Design Components are Used
Review and Adopt the Strategic Plan or Plans
This is a continuance of step six. The focus here is stakeholder participation directed toward an official adoption choice. This may just be the termination of step six but, if key stakeholders have not been intimately involved in the preceding steps, an appraisal of all that has occurred may be in order as a two-way participative learning device.
If we examine the history then we approach to be acquainted with that the bulk of subsystem theories of public policy agreement bureaucratic agencies a position in the policy creation process. They do not, though, adequately address the habits in which bureaucratic organizations may act deliberately or the consequences of a planned bureaucratic act for policy outputs. Krause (1997) demonstrates that the system of government deliberately adjusts their policy stress in response to the events other actors to stay put viable players in the subsystem. In a picture of a dissimilar type of planned behavior, Carpenter (2000, 2001) suggests that government departments can make more independence for themselves and alter the composition of subsystems by vigorously creating “coalitions of esteem” in the middle of involved groups. Though comparatively incomplete in the figure, these works suggest that technical strategy is an important constituent of the subsystem government that creates public policy.
Examples of Design Components
Recommendations For Public Policy Ethics Research
We advocate that those in public policy advantage from the skill of public management by focusing on principles issues that can be “heard” in the public kingdom, the real bark dogs. The topics address includes universal and specific things to be erudite from public management, exact areas of public management literature to consider, and particular issues in principles for public policy. Indifference to public administration, which tends to think on the learn of public agencies implement policies, public policy presents particular challenges in look upon to ethics research since of its diversity in adding to its greater anxiety for other fraction of the policy process, (e.g., developing issue, formulation, and legitimation). Public policy variety includes different institutions, actors, and professions; contradictory parties; a wide variety of topic matters; and a large figure of participants with different agendas. As a result, center study efforts might be more hard in public policy than in public management.
Based on our appraisal of research on principles in public management, we advocate that public policy adopt the next general points on ethics investigation.
Pursuing Ethics in Public Administration
First, the purpose of pursuing ethics in public management is to do the right obsession, which usually involves avoiding being very self-serving at the expense of others. This anxiety arises from the advantaged positions that public administrators hold in the public division and the requirement to protect the trust of the public by drama in an appropriate fashion to the purpose (15). Second, public policy learning should pursue public management writings on the philosophy that are, mainly, extraordinarily free of self-righteousness. Third, the preliminary point for lots of ethical concerns in public policy can frequently be public administration literature on a topic since that literature is so varied and far-ranging. Fourth, public policy researchers ought to stay as empirically oriented as possible, which means dealing using the apparent manifestation of ethical questions. An experiential and practical compass reading helps avoid the temptation to pursue imperceptible or peripheral concerns.
Public Policy Research and Collective Consensus
The appraisal of public administration research on principles leads us to advocate more especially that public policy research on ethics reproduces a communal consensus. Also, we suggest an uneven draw round of what that consensus might comprise. The need for a communal consensus is obvious from looking at the public administration literature. Devoid of denigrating any particular point of view, piece of work or author, the variety in how ethics is unstated and the way writings range over approximately the whole scope of public administration and beyond reduces its permanence and constancy and the ability of authors to communicate efficiently. Paradoxically, writers in public policy may not have as much complexity focusing since the area may lack the cohesive self-identification unspecified by public administration writers.
Envision In Public Policy
The rough outline of the communal consensus that we can envisage in public policy includes three elements: a remarkable or limited considerate of ethics, the choice of a “low-road” approach to dealing with issues in ethics, and a usually recognized group of troubles addressed by ethics research. We advocate a singular understanding of ethics incomplete to universal rules to avoid disagreement of interests where participants in the policy process follow their self-interest extremely at the expense of others. The rules comprise laws, expert codes, and managerial regulations and standards. The wellbeing that we have in mind is first and foremost financial but also includes group or ideological benefit. This advice reflects a nonflexible, customary, and publicly oriented conceptualization of ethics. Those conceptualizations engage a conscious negative response of supple and confidentially oriented conceptualizations as being not suited to coping through conflicts of attention in public policy.
Peculiarly Sensitive Concern for Public Policy
False ethics charges are a peculiarly sensitive concern for public policy ethics because they simultaneously constitute both dishonesty and extreme self-righteousness. False charges seem to be driven by personal animosity and ideological interests. People making false charges it appears that either fool them or justifies deceit by the purity of their cause and the obvious ethics injury of people who disagree with them.
Conclusion
In the end, we recommend that public policy research in ethics be concerned using actual instances of publicly apparent troubles concerning conflicts of attention that may be dealt with by rules. In doing so, we advocate that researchers gain what they can from preexisting public administration literature devoid of losing a sensible orientation or a consensual focus.
Reference
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To begin with, it is necessary to mention, that Public Administration can be broadly described as the development, implementation, and study of branches of government policy. Public Administration is linked to pursuing the public good by enhancing civil society and social justice. Though public administration has historically been referred to as government management, it increasingly encompasses Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) that are not acting out of self-interest.
Suggestion
Taking into account the ethics of the occurred situation, it is necessary to mention the theory of the influence of ethics on Public Administration by William Mosber. The residual complexity in managing public service ethical issues is a result of the power and authority that government usually has over people. As a result, the leftover ethical matters are usually connected to the matters of government treatment of people. These essential expectations of proper treatment obtain from the basic notion of rights, stipulated in the constitution, and expand to wider anticipation on the matters of human rights. As all the following and deeper rights are grounded essentially on the Human Rights, the fact is that, only the qualified person may occupy the consultation positions. The described case reveals the significant demerit in the system of public administration, as the scheme of rank transfer is absolutely incomplete, as the reconfirmation and the appointment of the other person on the heading job may be got round just by postponing the solving of the matter.
As for the delegation, and the matters of revealing the trouble to the journalists, another relevant theory suits this case. Some researchers state, that citizens are usually rather skeptical of the press, and the times, when the credit of trust was absolutely unrestricted for mass media had irrevocably passed, as well as the government, and they also argue, that inexact press information advances this skepticism. For instance, Stanyer states, that in the Iraq conflict, due to the media’s necessity to be competitive, velocity was generally more significant, than precision. The data, that media was getting from the government was generally scrappy, and sometimes intentionally deformed. Often, journalists did not have the time to confirm the data they get. While, it is realizable that mistakes had been made, mainly as different media resources aimed to be the first news association to inform of something, as withdrawals and alterations were exceptional, the media left the notion that they did not take any care of the matters of accuracy. That is why there is no need to take care of the delegation and try to invent some reasonable explanations. The fact is that journalists would take anything, as they need to promote their issuing, but the only demerit is that everything that is said may be used against the person, who represents the public administration institution. Here goes another theory, stating the capacity of the press to take anything, and expand it on the pages of the publication. It all happens because of the reasons stated above, and proving, that mass media had lost its credit of trust because of its own fault.
Conclusion
Here goes the conclusion, that the appeared problem is to be solved only internally, but it will be impossible not to contact the mass media representatives in order to explain the problem, and “feed” them with reasonable explanations.
The recreation is the vital part of the people’s lifestyle. It is not less important than the work environment. The local municipal committee announced about its efforts to cut the recreation program. I consider this step as the inadmissible. The local authorities cannot deprive the people from the opportunity to take the rest and to enjoy the places for sightseeing in their own town. I firmly believe that the intentions of the municipal committee should be disputed.
The recreation and parks department, the functions of which the committee is going to limit, should be defended by the public. The goal of the authorities is to cut spending but we must stand up for our right to have the places for rest in our town. I suggest the expansion of the recreation and parks department and I have a number of arguments to support my idea. First of all, it should be said that the recreation zones are the important part of the urban utilities.
Every developed town has such kind of places. Why our town should be an exception? According to the American Planning Association, “they provide people with formal and informal gathering places to be physically active, socialize, relax, build community, and connect with the natural world” (“Parks and Recreation” n.pag.). It is a well-known fact that the physical activity improves people’s health. That is why we can say that the recreation zones are the necessary elements of the healthcare. If our municipal committee is concerned with the well-being of the citizens, it should do its best to save the recreation zones and to support the activity of the recreation and parks department.
There is a claim that the recreation zones are the epicenters of the crime in the town. However, it is the task of the local authorities to provide the social security and it does not mean that the social places should be closed. It will be much better if the committee will increase the guarding in these areas. Besides, it is better to prohibit the smoking in the social places in order to prevent the fires than to deprive people of the opportunity to take the rest and to socialize. According to the report of National Wildfire Coordinating Group, the risk of the fire in the recreation areas is really very high but it is the responsibility of local authorities to prevent the hazardous conditions (Recreation Are Fire Prevention 23).
Besides, it should be mentioned that the recreation zones are the places of the organization of the entertainment events or meetings. I guess that people should not be deprived of the opportunity to participate in them. The recreation zones support the economic activity and employment because they are the places of location of many clubs, kiosks, and cafes (“Sport and Recreation Zone Code” n.pag.).
In order to summarize all above mentioned, it should be said that the recreation zones should be protected by our community for several reasons: they facilitate the sport activities and, thus, contribute to the improvement of people’s health; they support the socialization of people; connect them with the natural world, contribute to the employment, and they are the places for the relaxation and entertainment. The municipal committee should take actions to broaden the activity of the recreation and parks department and to prevent the hazardous conditions in such kind of places.
Works Cited
“Parks and Recreation”. Planning. 2013. Web.
Recreation Area Fire Prevention. 1999. Web.
“Sport and Recreation Zone Code”. Sunshinecoast. 2012. Web.
The state legislature merit program is an effective approach to allocating awards; this means that the terms of allocating the awards should be specific when outlining the criteria for those who qualify for the merit award program. Leaving this decision to the managers is likely to cause significant problems regarding the distribution of the merit increase.
A better structuring of the program could be achieved by combining the merit increase awards with the 3 percent across-the-board raise for all the state employees. This eliminates potential problems associated with judgments on the distribution of the program (Kearney and Carnevale 56). The program should ensure that there is a uniform merit increase for all the employees basing on their performance.
There are a number of issues raised by the merit pay system that require implementation. The first notable issue is adopting a merit pay system that is based on the principle of fairness to ensure that no particular group feels that it has been undermined.
The second issue raised by the merit pay system is the methodology that can be used in assessment of the performance. The challenge is assessing the performance of senior wardens who have served for a long time, and recently hired guards who are yet to serve. It is important also acknowledge that one size does not fit all (Kearney and Carnevale 65).
Developing a plan for the merit pay system requires taking into consideration both the viewpoints of the conflicting sides. This implies that the merit pay system should take into consideration both the concept of performance appraisal and the fact that all the guards are competent and need a merit award for their service.
Basing on this, a performance evaluation system will be established prior to the implementation of the merit based systems. This means the distribution of the merit based pay awards will base on the outcomes of the performance evaluations. This guarantees fairness during distribution basing on their performance.
The reaction of the union is mainly because it is of the opinion that its employees failed to undertake their duties that they are paid to accomplish. It is the role of the union to ensure that employees assume their responsibilities as stated under their pay requirements.
Failure to do so raises questions; this could be the possible justification of the union’s action. In addition, the union action is justified because they were not informed that the students were doing the work that their employees are supposed to do.
The termination of the bargaining unit members because of budget cuts was not of importance in this case. This implies that the municipal union should investigate the circumstances leading up to the action prior to the implementation of any action such as the laying off the workers (Kearney and Carnevale 63).
The decisions undertaken by labor unions usually have an impact on the daily lives of the citizens; this is mainly because of their disruptive nature. For instance, unions impose strikes and boycotts, which are likely to impose significant effects on the delivery of public services. In this particular case, the union argued for accountability, which resulted to questioning their motives by the public regarding their role.
In the capacity of the union president, addressing the conflict requires the reinforcement of accountability among the union employees to undertake their union work. Failing to perform the union work in future will result to punishments such as being laid off.
This guarantees that the park is attended at all times without any concerns that the students will abandon cleaning up the park. In either case, the school should seal an agreement that gives the voluntary responsibility of attending to the park, which will be followed by laying-off the union workers for budgets cuts (Kearney and Carnevale 61).
Works Cited
Kearney, Richard and David Carnevale. Labor Relations in the Public Sector. New York: Marcel Dekker, 2001.
The wars in Africa and other poverty-stricken countries in the world are not as a result of their own doing, but due to the activities of the world’s wealthy nations. These rich countries carry on their nation building activities making use of the weak as for their own benefits. As such, the world will never be void of poor countries despite their spirited efforts. This paper will therefore discuss the process of nation building in countries and the consequences faced by the countries where nation building is not a success.
Discussion
Many political and social writers have expressed their concern and views regarding nation building, but in order to understand the concept we must first define a nation. A nation is a group of people that are held together by the same ideas, principles or ideologies. These principal can be religious, political, cultural, and social and normally these groups use the same language. With this definition in mind, then the process of nation building can easily be understood. Political and social writers have given two schools of thought or general approaches to the issues of nation building. According to Stephenson (2005) nation building is seen as a reconstruction of failed states through aid and other forms of developmental assistance. The other approach to nation building is the use of military force to restore the democracy of a state. The United States is one perfect example of a country that has succeeded in nation building; this is because the people were able to unite under a democratic state despite theirs differences. The people of the United States had different origins and this meant they had different ideologies but they were able to unite into one state. Despite the difficulties the initial 13 states were united into one state after a long time therefore making nation building successful (Tocqueville, 2001). Nation building is a very difficult process and this was no exception to the United States, and to some extent it was worse people as stated earlier the people living in the United States had different origins. Nation building was not achieved easily in the United States since its history is marked with many wars, one of them being the civil war of 1861. This is the only way in which nation building could have been achieved.
On the other hand, in its quest to make nation building a success, the United States used other nations. For example, a lot of “poor” countries depend on the United States for assistance. Hence during the war in Somalia the United States came in handy to provide its military to restore the peace. This is in reference to the second approach given by political and social writers. When the United States took over Somalia, she wanted to restore peace and democracy in that state. And in order to do this, Somalia had to undergo some reconstruction in terms of its economy, politics and the society as a whole. This would only be achieved by giving Somalia the much-needed aid, Farah (1993). The countries that give the aid dictate how and where the aid will be used. This then means that the real needs of the people are not meant and this result in unrest. For example in Somalia, reconstruction has not taken place, that is people are still living in refugee camps, the roads are almost impassable and the society in general is in conflict.
Nation building can be seen as a way of controlling other sovereign nations. For example due to the aid provided to Somalia by the United States, she gets to decide every that happens in Somalia. Therefore the United States has control not only within her boundary but elsewhere. This is another way in which the countries that have achieved nation building take advantage of others that have not (Walter, 1997).
Conclusion
Nation building can be seen as a positive thing, like when a country wants to achieve democracy but on the other hand when other countries take advantage of others all in the name of nation building, then this same process becomes tricky.
References
Anderson, Mary. (1999). “Do No Harm.” London: Lynne Rienner Publishers.
Mohammed, Farah. (1993). The Preferred Future development In Somalia, Michigan: Vikas publishing house
Tocqueville, Alexis de. (2001). DemocracyinAmerica. New York: Signet Books
Walter, Sheldon.(1997). Learning from Somalia: The Lesson of Armed Humanitarian Intervention. New York: Westview Press.
The late 1990s and early 2000s are characterized by attention to holistic approach. Public administration theorists noted that it was crucial to analyze a variety of aspects to be able to come up with effective strategies to make the government effective.
Notably, lots of theorists provided specific strategies which could be employed by politicians and public administrators as well as educators. It is possible to single out two major directions theorists moved, i.e. ethics and structural improvements.
Ethics
In the first place, it is necessary to note that the majority of theorists addressed issues related to ethics, but some of them paid special attention to this aspect.
For instance, Lewis stressed that unethical behavior among public administrators will increase in the future due to creation of new groups with certain interests (Shafritz & Hyde, 2012). Stone also pointed out that implementation was impossible if there were no public values.
Adams and Balfour even introduced the concept of ‘administrative evil’ (Shafritz & Hyde, 2012). The theorists noted that the modern government had various harmful technologies which can have numerous negative effects on the development of the public administration as well as entire society.
It is also necessary to mention the theorist who stands out due to her rather revolutionary approach.
Stivers was one of the pioneers of the feminist perspective with the public administration field (Shafritz & Hyde, 2012). The theorist also paid a lot of attention to ethical behavior and implementation.
Structural Improvements
Admittedly, the theorist mentioned above also looked into structural improvement, though their contribution is less significant than that of other theorists in this field. For instance, Barzelay and Armajani heavily criticized bureaucratic structure of the government.
The theorists implemented a profound research and analyzed experience of public administrators in Minnesota (Shafritz & Hyde, 2012). The theorists came up with some generalizations which could be exploited by public administrators nationwide.
Moore also contributed greatly to the field as he provided an in-depth analysis of the role played by public administrators, the sources they can employ and the way they can innovate (Cox et al., 2010).
It is important to add that the theorist claimed that bureaucratic structure was inefficient and needed changes which were possible to implement. Joseph S. Nye was another influential theorist who provided insights into the effective structure and implementation.
Nye stressed that decentralization and centralization were both ineffective as only complex collaboration of agencies can contribute to efficient implementation (Shafritz & Hyde, 2012). Rubin also focused on the level of autonomy given to agencies.
The theorist came up with valuable insights on the budgeting and effective collaboration. Finally, Agranoff contributed greatly into development of the public administration theory as he came up with a number of strategies which enabled agencies collaborate effectively.
The theorist’s ideas on collaborative management became highly popular among public managers as well as educators.
Conclusion
To sum up, it is possible to note that the major concern of the public administration theorist is still implementation and effectiveness of the government. Theorists try to develop effective approaches to make the public administration more efficient.
The theorists pay attention to such aspects, as structure, cooperation, ethics, budgeting, etc. The theorists mentioned above have had a significant impact on the development of the theory as they provided important insights into different aspects of the government.
Reference List
Cox, R.W., Buck, S.J., & Morgan, B.N. (2010). Public administration in theory and practice. New York, NY: Longman Publishing Group.
Shafritz, J.M., & Hyde, A.C. (2012). Classics of public administration. Boston, MA: Cengage Learning.