Category: Public Administration

Abstract

The report will discuss the major Public Administration theory proposed by Frederick Wilson Taylor. The Scientific Management Theory, proposed by Frederick was aimed at improving the operations of plants which were highly dependent on labor and used specialization and automation to make assembly lines faster and output levels higher. This theorys advantages and disadvantages will be discussed in context with Public Administration.

Introduction

Born into an upper class Philadelphia family in the month of March in 1865, Frederick Winslow Taylor had the best education and being raised in a Quaker household which believed in plain living and high thinking, Taylor eventually grew up with those values (Papesh). Often referred to as the father of Scientific Management, Taylors theories are consulted when management decisions are being considered.

The Scientific Management Theory

Frederick Winslow Taylor is most notable for his contribution in the form of the Scientific Management Theory. This theory aims at trying to restructure the organization in such a way as to minimize waste by maximizing the productivity of the resources (O Brian, 2008). The reason scientific management became so popular amongst the managers was that this theory was able to answer the question on how to increase productivity by reducing the labor force which was consuming most of the expenses. The scientific management theory explained that instead of people working in a haphazard manner doing one task one day and an entirely different one the other, what they could do is to have the laborers doing specialized tasks on a more repetitive nature as it would reduce the time for production of a fixed number of goods and help make the laborers more efficient.

Taylor involved time function with the production function and movement studies of the laborers. This was the ground basis for his studies and the core of his theory. His stopwatch approach, in which he would time the employees performance over specific slots helped many organizations improve their productivity.

To support his theory, Taylor came up with the belief that workers can be classified into two broad categories. The first types of workers are those who are hard working, and are physically able to complete the tasks and do so willingly. He was of the opinion that everyone was capable of achieving the character of the first type worker. The second type of worker is one who is lethargic and does not work willingly and is not physically able to deliver.

Taylor saw workers as mechanical beings. He did not consider the human aspect of them while they were at work, and for his process to succeed they would have to be dedicated to their work and not have any other thoughts or feelings at that time (Maheshwari, 2002). This inhuman view of getting things done could be the strongest argument to be raised against his Public Administration theory.

Another reason why this administrative theory faced resistance is that it created two separate groups in the workplace. The management and the labor force. By creating two separate entities, Taylor inadvertently was promoting the notion that laborers have no say in how they are treated or have a say in the job that they do. This forms a bureaucratic sort of structure which may often lead to the management exploiting the laborers for their materialistic gains.

The Shop Management Theory

An extension of the fore-mentioned theory could be the shop management theory. The theory basically addresses the need for breaking down the procedures into its most unitary function and analyzing the time required for completing the task. This would help in minimizing the labor cost while helping in increasing the wage rates (Lauer Schachter, 1989). The time analysis helps in understanding what part of the process is consuming the most time. The process can then be dissected into its basic motions required and can be worked upon. This measure was initially aimed to improve the relations between management and the labor class. In later discussions I will discuss how this theory proved ineffective in the public administration sector.

Fredericks shop management theory had 3 principle benefits for laborers. These included higher wages for employees, more open communication channels between labor class and management and more opportunities for advancement (Lauer Schachter, 1989).

Piece-rate system as per Frederick Wilsons opinion

Taylor did not encourage the piece rate system. When the piece rate decreases to accommodate the reduction in costs for consumers laborers have to work either harder or smarter to be able to make more and more output to get regular income. This kind of system demoralizes the workers and they begin to feel resentment towards the management and leads to deterioration between management and workforce. His theory was that this system should be stopped and workers be provided with justice and opportunities for growth.

Taylor was of the opinion that goals should be kept with the aim of matching production levels to certain desires. If the goal of production was met then the employees should be given higher piece rates. To get higher piece rates the management would have to create production processes which improved the efficiency of the production change. The higher the production levels, the lower the cost of production should be. The amount saved by the reduced cost would be able to help in increasing the piece rate for laborers and they would seek to meet the aims set by the management. Thus, in the end the goals of the management would become the goals of the laborers (Oldham, 2000). As is evident, Frederick Wilsons approach would again aim to improve relations between the two working classes and lead to a harmonious organizational structure.

Although personally not many laborers were willing to embrace the theory, reason being that the goals set by Frederick Wilson were quite difficult to reach. The goals set were quite high and aside from some laborers, many were unable to match them. This theory was practical yet the way it was implemented by Wilson led to resentment from the laborers.

Taylor and Public Administration

In 1906 Taylor proposed the use of his scientific management theory in the operations of government arsenals and navy yards. His foray into Public Administration was not as pleasant as he had hoped for as it resulted in mass strikes and movements against management by the laborers. The theories even though aimed at providing justice to the laborers and provide them with better working incentives were not held in the light that they were supposed to be. As compared to the private sector where employees had less job security and were willing to work no matter what the management decreed, the public sector had no such feelings. Laborers in this sector were not willing to put in the back-breaking effort demanded by Taylor. His theories based their success on laborers being highly productive without wasting time on any other activity, but laborers in the public sector were not used to such management beliefs. They had secure jobs and did not grasp the concept of matching companys goals with their own. Thus, the application of Frederick Wilsons public administration theories in the sector had negative results. Applying the shop management theory proved unsuccessful in the public sector to such an extent that there were mass strikes due to the time keeping of laborers actions and the government eventually had to ban the use of stopwatches in the production line. Thus, the theories which had proved successful in private owned organizations were not applicable in publicly administered organizations (Moss Wigfall & Kalantari, 2001).

Conclusion

In conclusion it can be clearly seen that as a Public Administrative theory, the Scientific Management Theory of Frederick Wilson Taylor has its advantages and shortcomings when applied to practical settings. The theory may help increase efficiency of the plant and make labor hours more productive and higher output yielding, but on the other hand the theory also leads to opportunities to exploit the labor force and to strip them of their most basic rights as humans and individuals.

References

1. Maheshwari, S. (2002). Human Relations Theory of Organization. In S. Maheshwari, A Dictionary of Public Administration (pp. 261-262). Orient Blackswan.
2. Moss Wigfall, P., & Kalantari, B. (2001). Taylor, Frederick Winslow. In P. Moss Wigfall, & B. Kalantari, Biographical Dictionary of Public Administration (pp. 132-133). Greenwood Publishing Group.
3. O Brian, B. (2008). Structuralist Theory of Bureaucracy. In O. B. Booth, Canadian Political Structure and Public Administration (p. 108). Emond Montgomery Publication.
4. Papesh, M. E. (n.d.). Frederick Winslow Taylor.

The title of the paper is Social Equity as a Public Administration Issue; thus, the two articles that have been identified both touch upon the topic of equality and administration. The first article is titled Social Equity and Evidence: Insights from Local Government., and it was written by S. T. Gooden (2017) and published in Public Administration Review in 2017. The second article is Children of a Lesser God: Administrative Burden and Social Equity in CitizenState Interactions. by M. A. Nisar (2018), published in the Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory.

There is a number of factors that, in my opinion, make these two articles scholarly. Firstly, the page length, as well as the list of references in both articles, are quite substantial; in particular, the second article is seventeen pages long. Secondly, there are in-text citations throughout the text in both articles. Thirdly, the authors credentials do not raise suspicion  Susan T. Gooden is a professor of public administration and policy in the L. Douglas Wilder School of Government and Public Affairs at Virginia Commonwealth University, president of the American Society for Public Administration (201617) and a fellow of the National Academy of Public Administration, while Muhammad A. Nisar is associate professor of public administration & policy at Lahore University of Management Sciences. The articles are divided into sections such as abstract, introduction, research context and methodology, discussion, future directions, conclusion, supplementary material, funding, notes, and references. In addition, there are tables and figures representing the data discussed in the articles. Furthermore, both Public Administration Review and the Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory are well-recognized professional peer-reviewed journals that specialize in the field of public administration.

References

Gooden, S. T. (2017). Social equity and evidence: Insights from local government. Public Administration Review, 77(6), 822-828. Web.

Nisar, M. A. (2018). Children of a lesser god: Administrative burden and social equity in citizenstate interactions. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 28(1), 104-119. Web.

Overview

This paper examines the role of civil servants in the formulation and implementation of public administration through policymaking. It is often seen that public funds may not be properly channelized into productive areas aimed at ameliorating the plight of people for whom such disbursements are meant. As the supreme head of the country, the President of the United States is vested with powers to administer public administration around constitutionally accepted lines. However, it is seen in a bureaucratic setup, highly placed officials cannot function properly until and unless the lowly placed public servants co-operate and support the common cause of social justice. Therefore, it is suggested that rather than adopting populist policies, public administration needs to keep uppermost, the best interests of society, in all their public upliftment plans and programs for the common good of the American people.

The term public administration means learning, executing, and improving governmental policy. The administration of governmental policy is looked after by the civil servants. Their main responsibility is to analyze the problems of society and find appropriate solutions for the problems.

This chapter entitled Public Accountability and Ethical Conduct mainly discusses the peoples response against the irresponsibility of the government towards society. In this chapter, the author discusses the misbehavior of the American constitution. It can be seen that the democratic role of the American government is very weak and they are misusing their power. The mismanagement of government employees results in the private sector earning more financial gains. Apart from negligence, the top officials are indulging in bribery, smuggling, etc, and other unethical activities. They collect a lot of money from the public for the helpline fund instead of helping the poor, like victims of Hurricane Katrina. They misuse that fund by using it for their own personal benefit. The public reacted against the irresponsibility of the government. People have many tools to prevent and correct government misbehavior and irresponsibility. As the people are electing their representative, he should work without fear and favor and should not misuse his power. The administrator should work efficiently and effectively without any laziness.

The author says that the administrators have to fulfill the needs of the citizen very punctually and civilly by analyzing their needs and demands. Administrators are accountable for making laws work as intended with a minimum of waste and delay, for exercising lawful and sensible discretion, for recommending new policies and changes in current ones as needed, and for enhancing citizen confidence in government administration. (Chapter fourteen: Public accountability and ethical conduct, n.d., p.353). The administrators should be well qualified and intelligent to foresee the consequences while taking any action; otherwise, they have to face a lot of consequences for their action. To succeed in keeping sincerity towards his job position the administrator should try to follow the Presidents orders rather than any private agencies.

This chapter involves the investigation on bureaucratic accountability of the framework of Gilbert which distinguishes the formal and informal means. The internal sources are at the top level while the external sources are at the subordinate level. Cooperation between the internal and external sources is essential for proper and effective accountability. The legal power given to the civil servants is used as the tool for directing and managing the subordinates under them. But in some cases like big and composite societies, this legal power is given to the subordinates under the top officers as they cannot control the large agencies without the help of staff members. The government policy should be fair and should give equal consideration to all, based on the individuals rights rather than what became popular. In order to make the policy better and relevant, the information received from the analysis should be clear and prompt and it should be apt to the community too. These policies become effectual and successful only if they focus on the actions which are needed for the future benefit of society. There should also be a good relationship between a bureaucrat and their staff members. By following all these steps, the government can execute the policies in an efficient manner.

Reference List

Chapter fourteen: Public accountability and ethical conduct: Summary. (n.d.). 353.

The central purpose of creating the paper is to inform readers about the existing perspectives on public administration and theories associated with the given concept. In contemporary society, the importance of this element cannot be doubted because of the critical role public services play in the life of citizens regardless of their status, income, culture, ethnicity. At the same time, the complexity of this branch might result in the emergence of multiple misunderstandings and conflicts. The existing lack of knowledge about how the functioning of this sphere is organized and what are the core components that precondition its evolution might also result in negative outcomes. For this reason, it is critical to reveal the topical approaches to public administration, including the most relevant theoretical framework that can be utilized by people working in the sector with the primary aim to achieve the main goal and align the effective cooperation at all levels. For this reason, the paper provides a deep insight into the given topic and familiarizes readers with the major concepts.

Definition

First of all, it is essential to provide an understandable definition of public administration as the complexity of the term might precondition the emergence of multiple misconceptions or gaps in knowledge. Following the most popular approach, it is a set of actions aimed at the successful implementation of government policy via the effective management of public programs and integration of existing regulations with real-life conditions (Shafritz and Hyd 12). Public administration might also be taken as an academic discipline that studies the processes described above and is responsible for preparing civil servants that will be working in the sector and help align the successful social intercourse. As it comes from this definition, it becomes a critical element of any state and society as cooperative human action can be created only through a chain of specific activities that support the existence of the government and provide it with an opportunity to manage people effectively. The critical importance of the issue preconditions multiple attempts to investigate it from various perspectives to understand the core components and its nature.

Today, public administration theory is divided into three branches in accordance with the main ideas suggested. These are classical public administration, new public management, and postmodern public administration theories (Fry and Raadschelders 19). All these offered theoretical frameworks offer their unique vision of the discussed idea and offer various ways in which a citizen or a worker can understand the current duties, rights, and obligations. The analysis of these approaches will help to generate an improved understanding of the discussed topic.

Classical Public Administration Theory

Classical public administration theory is the oldest perspective that emerged on the way the sphere should function and its basic peculiarities. In accordance with the given approach, a bureaucracy peculiar to the functioning of any government should be managed as any business (Shafritz and Hyd 22). The model presupposes the existence of a particular hierarchy that becomes the main tool to achieve goals. Formally written rules and procedures should be used as the main guidelines regulating the work of public servants and guaranteeing a high level of cooperation between various actors (Shafritz and Hyd 34). At the same time, there is a critical need for the division of labor or specialization that should be introduced to achieve the best possible outcomes by delegating duties and guaranteeing outstanding performance levels because of optimal performance (Shafritz and Hyd 34). Being considered founders of classical theory, Wilson and Weber emphasized the necessity to create a potent bureaucratic apparatus as it is the most rational form of administration that might help people to engage in meaningful cooperation and achieve the best possible results (Fry and Raadschelders 78). This idea creates the basis of the whole paradigm.

There is also a critical need to create coordination committees that will help monitor the work of the basic elements of the system and avoid flaws. Moreover, the classical theory presupposes the adherence to decentralized schemes to avoid overreliance on a particular department or unit as it might precondition the collapse of the whole system (Shafritz and Hyd 45). In such a way, the given approach cultivates bureaucratic, decentralized schemes characterized by the strict hierarchy. The primary aim is to assist people in their cooperation on terms established by existing regulations.

New Public Management

The further development of the scientific approach to public administration and society preconditioned the emergence of new perspectives on how this sector should function. At the same time, the increased importance of the ideas of the free market and its values shaped existing attitudes towards the given sphere and preconditioned the introduction of critical alterations (Fry and Raadschelders 110). For this reason, the new public management emphasized the importance of citizens as the main recipients of all services offered by the public sector. In this regard, the achievement of positive results can be accomplished by the creation of a quasi-market environment characterized by the rivalry between private and public services trying to provide better and more effective assistance (Fry and Raadschelders 111). The given competition is expected to become a basis for the improved work of the sphere and its ability to offer customers the best possible options. At the same time, there are several core elements of the model, such as a focus on financial control and money value to constantly increase efficiency and create better conditions for both administrators and citizens (Fry and Raadschelders 122). This idea will also help the sector to remain beneficial.

As for the bureaucracy, it should be replaced with more effective entrepreneurial approaches similar to those utilized in the sphere of management. It will help to meet the modern requirements of the administration sector and ensure its further stable evolution and functioning. It will help to meet demands to the work of the public administration and provide specialists with more tools needed to align the successful cooperation between all agents involved in critically important processes (Fry and Raadschelders 129). For this reason, the new paradigm utilizes the ideas that have become topical in the 20th century and are devoted to clients needs.

Postmodern Public Administration Theory

Finally, the postmodern public administration paradigm is the framework that emerged based on concepts popular in the new era and its values. In accordance with this very theory, previous approaches to this sector remain outdated today as they are not able to satisfy new emerging challenges and issues. For this reason, there is a new model resting on the economic utility that can explain all events and factors traditionally impacting the sphere (Theodoulou and Roy 112). In accordance with the given theory, the majority of issues peculiar to the work of public servants are dialectic, which means that there are multiple opportunities for their resolution and generation of the most beneficial outcomes that would help to satisfy diverse needs of people affected by the proposed actions (Theodoulou and Roy 123). Additionally, postmodern public administration theory promotes the concept of deterritorialization that presupposes disregard of existing boundaries with the primary aim to create new forms of international cooperation, increasing the quality of peoples lives in all regions (Theodoulou and Roy 125). It will help to create more effective approaches to the work of various authorities.

Anti-state and anti-jurisdiction appeals peculiar to the paradigm also contribute to the creation of a particular framework that is characterized by the necessity to consider the real needs of individuals instead of the adherence to regulations that gradually lose their effectiveness (Theodoulou and Roy 126). That is why the traditional approach to organizing the work of public servants should be replaced with innovative ones that promote an improved understanding of current issues and their importance in the modern world.

Summary

Altogether, the three proposed theories of public administration can be taken as the basis of the spheres work. The existence of critical differences in them is preconditioned by the utilization of alternative approaches while cogitating about the important factors that impact the creation of a certain method and its promotion in terms of the existing goals. However, regardless of these radical divergences, the given paradigms remain topical for the modern world as they are utilized at multiple levels and in various states. That is why it is critical to acquire their improved understanding and be able to cogitate about the major concepts proposed in terms of these theoretical frameworks to remain effective and choose between the option that fits the existing context and satisfies topical needs.

Works Cited

Fry, Brian, and Jos Raadschelders. Mastering Public Administration: From Max Weber to Dwight Waldo. 3rd ed., CQ Press, 2013.

Shafritz, Jay, and Albert Hyd. Classics of Public Administration. 8th ed., Cengage Learning, 2016.

Theodoulou, Stella, and Rave Roy. Public Administration: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press, 2016.

Governments are complex organizations with hierarchies and forms of control and management. For efficient operation, their activities should be based on practices supported by empirical evidence. Public administration is an academic discipline that constitutes the basis for effective public policies and their implementation. This paper will discuss what public administration is, what jobs exist in the field, and what changes may come in the future.

Overview

Public administration can be viewed from two different perspectives  practical and academic. It is an implementation of the governments public policy and a discipline that yields academic knowledge and frameworks while studying this implementation (Ongaro, 2020). Another goal of public administration from a theoretical perspective is to prepare professionals for the work in civil service (Ongaro, 2020). Individuals with a degree in public administration can work at a variety of government levels, including budgeting, human resources, public communications, and law. Due to the fact that governments have to handle a diverse range of concerns, public administration is not an isolated field. Instead, it is a mix of management, accounting, ethics, and other studies with the aim of improving the lives of citizens and ensuring stable government function.

Policy-making is central to public administration because it is the means through which governments interact with citizens. Therefore, decision-making is a significant component of the field, and students preparing for public administration roles often spend time studying public behavior and response to various government decisions. For instance, the US public was outraged by the countrys participation in the Vietnam War and lost confidence in the government (Hughes, 2016). Many people called for changes in the administration because of their perceived inefficacy (Hughes, 2016). Along with policy analysis, the core elements of public administration are organizational theory, ethics, budgeting, and human resource management (Ongaro, 2020). This broadness of the field requires professionals to be proficient in multiple disciplines.

Where I Fit

The multi-disciplinary nature of public administration means that professionals in this field may work on a broad range of project types. For instance, some individuals work designing and facilitating social services, while others are responsible for public safety. Although I study all aspects of public administration, I am more inclined toward economic development in communities. The roles that I will be able to take are policy analysis regarding the local economy, facilitation of employment, and ensuring that people have educational opportunities to be able to compete for open jobs. These concerns should be addressed both at the federal and local levels. Since most public administration jobs are filled on a non-election basis despite being connected to politics, my career will start at a local level. When I have enough experience and expertise, I can propose my candidacy for an elected position to work on issues of a larger scale.

The ultimate goal of public administration, despite the vastness of the field, is to make decisions that benefit communities. Therefore, aside from having expertise in macroeconomics, policy analysis, and organizational theory, I should have a solid base in ethics. Decisions should not be based on guessing and instead should rely on empirical evidence and ethical concerns. Walker et al. (2019) suggest a replication process that can bring scientific methods to the field of public administration. My responsibility, in this context, is to get acquainted with such techniques to be able to make sound decisions as a professional in the public sector.

Future Changes

The field of public administration has changed significantly for the last several centuries. Before the Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act of 1883, non-elected government jobs would be disseminated among companions and friends of a winning political party (Waller, 2020). Many labeled this principle as a spoils system because people would get civil service jobs without any competition (Waller, 2020). The act required that the majority of federal positions are awarded based on the results of entrance exams and candidate qualification (Waller, 2020). This reform meant that public administration was becoming an academic discipline instead of being a patronage-based profession (Waller, 2020). Also, it created a clear division between politics and civil service. Contemporary scholars today are calling for further changes in the field. Most people believe that the inefficiency of governments is caused by bureaucracy, and changes will come only when public administration will draw experiences from the private sector (Waller, 2020). In other words, public administration should be based on the same principles that are driving organizations in the private sector. One of the examples is the competition between different corporations in terms of technological advancements.

Conclusion

Public administration is an extensive subject both in academia and practice. It encompasses operations in the public sector and designing and implementing policies aimed at improving the lives of communities. Therefore, ethical and evidence-based decision-making is critical in public administration. For improved efficacy, some people are suggesting the discipline to start using the knowledge commonly applied in the private sector. Competition and strive for improvement can lead to efficiency and effectiveness among government organizations.

References

Hughes, R. (2016). The American south and the Vietnam war: Belligerence, protest, and agony in Dixie. Journal of American History, 103(2), 541-542. Web.

Ongaro, E. (2020). Philosophy and public administration: An introduction (2^nd ed.). Edward Elgar Publishing. Web.

Waller, I. (2020). The Pendleton Act: Time for a change. Tenor of Our Times, 9(1), 49-58.

Walker, R. M., Brewer, G. A., Lee, M. J., Petrovsky, N., & Van Witteloostuijn, A. (2019). Best practice recommendations for replicating experiments in public administration. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 29(4), 609-626. Web.

Over the past few years, government workers of the United States have moved into a state of relative liberation. This doctrine can largely be said to have been caused by the legal and judicial practices as well as, the political efforts that have further driven the development of a modern militancy on the part of authorities. The overall effect of this privilege is that the president and other Executive branch members in the government; can overrule or resist certain subpoenas and policies made by the judicial and legislative arms of the government. However this privilege is not documented and accounted for in the United Nations constitution, but was put in place by the supreme court as a measure to help separate the powers held by the different arms of the administrative system. However the legitimacy of the privilege depends on an individual case where it is established by the prosecutor; especially in matters where the supervision of the executive would interfere or influence the security concerns of the given federal branch.

The doctrine of privilege was reversed because; it gave unlimited powers to the executive arm of the government; which is not responsible for the enforcement of the law and other policies. The fact that the executive could overrule the decisions of the other two arms of the government would further mean that the power of the state would only lie with the executive. The ultimate defect of allowing the powers to be left with one arm of the government would be that; the executive would impair cases that were of interest to the National security of the nation. The other claim is that the powers bestowed by the given privilege on the executive; would mean that the process of evidence discovery and information sharing between the different arms on matters of national interest would be affected. However the doctrine of privilege still prevails in matters that infringed the general interest of the American people and where justice administration was under threat. An example of the impacts of this privilege was the release of classified information documents to the defense counsel of the Oregon-based Islamic charity case; that was seen as a great compromise to the national security system.

The basic principles of the Pendleton Act of 1883 drafted by the New York civil service commission; were basically geared towards reforming the administration of civil service administration. The principles were meant to limit the excessive misuse of power, and were also to play the role of limiting the unfair practices that were being practiced especially on matters of employee recruitment. The Act had the principle of ensuring that there was the installation of a system of competitive scrutiny of individuals, in filling up federal civil service posts so as to ensure that the civil service was not utilized for the political interests of certain officers. Initially only 10 percent of the number of federal positions was selected based on critical examination; leaving the rest to the choice of individuals and affiliated groups. The act also sought to address the political removal of federal employees from posts of work; due to politically motivated reasons. This was achieved through an order that provided that the removal of civil service personnel could only be done based on just reasons; which were officially presented in writing before the removal was executed. It also provided that the removal of employees would be preceded by a written explanation of the causes of dis-employment; and that they were entitled to the making of a reply concerning the case. It also held the principle that the world war two victims were to get jobs in the civil service, and provided for the thirty-day suspension of workers based on personnel-related violations among other actions.

The civil service reform act led to the development of a system that would be used in the resolving of disputes. This involved the formation of unions and employment agencies that would help protect the rights of employees and manage the difficulties of tenure administration. The act provided that recruitment would be merit-based covering the different groups in society depending on the knowledgeability of the candidates and equal opportunity. The preference hiring of family members was prohibited; and it also created the provision for the removal of employees who proved inadequate in performance. The act also sought to establish a more flexible public service administration; that allowed for the formation of rules to govern the course of service. The act also provided that civil workers especially those within the classified service could turn to any independent administrative court, to petition actions taken against them. Finally, the labor relations agency was established to oversee the processes of dispute resolution and collective advocating of the workers rights and dispositions.

The interpretation of the Pickering v. Board of Education case is that; the lack of substantial evidence to the knowledge or recklessness of employees in making wrong statements to do with public importance; would not lead to the loss of employment positions. This interpretation holds that employees have the right to speak on matters of administration and policy enforcement where they find acts of injustice, or gaps in action provided they do not do that with malicious or individualistic interests.

Connick V. Myers 1983 was a case between a junior Attorney who rejected the change of the section of the court in which cases would be heard. After that she wrote a questionnaire to other attorneys practicing at the same level as hers; about the transfer policy; the need for a grievance committee; and on matters of confidence in their supervisors. After making this move the seniors were furious and discharged her for failing to accept the transfer and insubordination. Due to this she appealed to the District Court that she had wrongfully been discharged; and after consideration into the case she was reinstated and given back pay damages among other fees. This case was resolved due to the fact that an employees freedom of speech is arrived at; after balancing the personal interests and the public concern in a given action. This is the case because the interest of the state as an employer was promoted in the attempt, to make the public service more efficient through the given employee.

Rankin v. McPherson is a Supreme Court ruling as to whether the first amendment defends public employees who make severely serious comments about the President. The courts ruled out that protection would not extend to statements that are threatening to the president, but an extreme statement on matters of public interest by an employee without policy-making mandates and no public involvement would be protected.

Introduction

Government decisions have a direct impact on the lives of its citizens. Hence, citizens are allowed to seek legal action whenever they feel that the decision-making process is not fair and democratic. Democracy refers to active participation of citizens in the decision-making process, while fairness is about how fair the decision-making process is, both in terms of transparency and the procedures used. Fairness has two connotations, but of great importance in administrative law is procedural fairness.

Procedural fairness is concerned about fairness with regard to the decision-making process. Substantive fairness, on the other hand, is concerned about the outcome in terms of whether the decision made is in good faith. As a government agency, it is a requirement that our decision-making process does not only involve citizens, but is also conducted in a fair manner.

We have had several instances in the past where citizens have taken us to court because of lack of fairness in our decisions. Therefore, I have developed this brief manual to guide employees on issues pertaining to administrative law. The manual addresses four critical concepts of procedural fairness, namely; discretion, credibility, bias and the extent of duty to give reasons.

Discretion

Discretion is about making choices, depending on the individuals interpretation of circumstances. For example, your boss can give you work to do, but you are at discretion to decide how you will do it so long as you meet the set targets. Similarly, we are always at discretion to choose our friends, what to wear, places to visit, etc.

Public officers make decisions on a day-to-day basis. The difference between administrative decisions and personal decisions is that administrative decisions have to be made within jurisdictive boundaries. Therefore, the law determines how much discretion a government officer has when making the decision in question.

For instance, using the word shall in the law means that a government officer has no discretion while may gives the officer some discretion. If the law states that the Minister may grant application&, then the Minister can as well choose not to grant the application if he/she feels that it is in the publics best interest.

But does discretion lead to procedural fairness? Most government officials have been sued because of unfairness in their discretionary decisions. However, it is never easy to assess discretionary decisions. Prior to Baker v. Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration) case, the courts understood discretionary decisions simply to mean reasonable decisions. The court would rule in the governments favor without considering the decision-making process if the decision made was reasonable.

This approach, however, only looks at substantive fairness issues at the expense of procedural fairness. When determining Baker v. Canada, the Federal Court of Appeal judges introduced a criterion for assessing discretionary decisions, i.e. pragmatic and functional approach, which considers: the decision makers expertise; the nature of the decision and; the language in the law. This approach takes into consideration such important issues as legitimate expectations and fettering, which are important in procedural fairness.

Credibility

Credibility refers to how trustworthy and believable a person is. As public officers, we are often bombarded with information from different sources, hence the need to determine the credibility of such information before factoring them in the decision-making process. For instance, if a person appears before a public officer in charge of immigration to seek federal refugee recognition, then the officer will have to subject the person to some sort of interview as a way of assessing the persons credibility before granting him/her the recognition.

So far you must have realized that credibility goes hand in hand with discretion. In the example above, the officer will exercise discretion, but must assess the credibility of the applicant to be able to provide reasons for either granting or denying the recognition.

When assessing credibility, government officials must: state it in advance that credibility is being assessed; grant the victim an oral hearing; give the victim a chance to address concerns about his/her credibility; believe evidence that passes the test of truth; be moderate with interrogations targeted towards the search for inconsistencies and; give reasons when the victim is found not to be credible.

But does credibility lead to procedural fairness? In my opinion, credibility is based on personal judgment and can be more subjective than objective. The burden of proof lies with the person whose credibility is being assessed and issues such as personal differences, power, race, skin color or class can easily mar the process. Credibility assessment can only be fair if it does not overstep on human rights.

In Khan v. University of Ottawa, the court noted that the process used failed to fairly assess Ms. Khans credibility by not allowing her an oral hearing. However, the court referred the case back to the examination committee instead of ordering the law school to allow her to write another exam.

While this judgment might lead to procedural fairness, it is very unlikely that it would lead to substantive fairness. The committee has already prejudged Ms. Khan and listening to her oral submission might not change much. Nevertheless, assessing credibility is not as easy thing because it depends on how convincing the person is.

Bias

Bias can be considered the opposite of credibility. While credibility focuses on you evaluating others, bias is more of others evaluating you. As a public officer, it is expected that your decisions are free from prejudice. It is wrong to make decisions based on prejudgment. For example, a suspect can never be labeled criminal unless he/she is subjected to a court process and a ruling made based on the facts presented. In this regard, the notion of bias comes in when someone feels that the decision-making process is marred with partiality.

The notion of bias is important in achieving procedural fairness. Bias has two concepts, namely: impartiality, which is concerned about the decision makers state of mind and; independence, which focuses on the relationship between government agencies and the government. In this regard, procedural fairness is only achieved if the process is free from influence by the government and the decision maker is impartial.

While it is easy to raise concerns about credibility, it is never easy to handle biasness, given that the accused usually has powers over the decision-making process than the person accusing. For instance, a job applicant may notice nepotism in the recruitment process, but raising the issue would make the applicant look snoopy while keeping quiet would only make the applicant uncomfortable.

In the event that the applicant decides to sue the recruitment committee and the court rules that the process be repeated, the committee is most likely to victimize the applicant, hence prejudice.

In defining bias in Zundel v. Citron, the court gave room for objectively justifiable bias arguing that fairness is not absolute. This can, however, be misused in the decision-making process, especially in cases where the decision maker has some discretional powers. Again, evaluating the courts definition raises issues as to whether or not disposition or inclination amounts to bias.

According to the courts definition of bias, disposition or inclination only amounts to objectively justifiable bias, which is acceptable in administrative law. However, some layers may argue that an inclined person already has a biased understanding of the issue. But, which is worse? Having an expert in the decision-making process or someone who does not understand the issue?

The Extent of the Duty to Give Reasons

In the introduction section, I mentioned that a governments decision-making process is only considered fair if it is transparent and follows the right procedures. In this regard, citizens have a right to know the reasons supporting the various decisions made by government officials. It is only when citizens have access to the reasons that they are able to judge whether or not the decision arrived at is fair. In this regard, the duty to give reasons as used in administrative law refers to written reasons.

However, granting this right can be tricky, especially where the reasons are considered highly confidential. Hence, the need to define the boundaries within which the duty to give reasons is applicable. In determining Baker v. Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration) case, the court noted that the duty to give reasons does not apply in all circumstances.

Consequently, the court came up with two exemptions, namely: where the person has right to petition and; where the decision is likely to significantly affect the person concerned. Hence, government officials are at discretion to give written reasons only where the decision being made falls within this criterion.

Abstract

Today, it is necessary to state clearly the essential character of public administrations activities. The question of the essential character of what public administration can do in relation to the public services was proposed by Denhardt and Denhardt. The discussion of the question should be referred to the concept of new public management developed by researchers. The essential character of public administrations actions is associated with the notions of political neutrality, democracy, public interests, and new public management.

Introduction

To improve the approaches used by public administrators in order to do the public service effectively, it is necessary to state clearly the essential character of this process and associated procedures. The question of the essential character of what public administration can do in relation to the public services was proposed by Denhardt and Denhardt, thus, to respond to this question, it is also necessary to refer to the concept of new public management developed by researchers to describe the modern situation in the sphere of public administration (Denhardt & Denhardt, 2011). From this point, today, the essential character of public administrations actions is closely associated with the ideas and notions of political neutrality, democracy, public interests, and new public management.

The Essential Character of Public Administrations Actions in the Field

Public administration serves to implement the governmental regulations in order to address the public interests, thus, to develop the most effective plan of implementation. As a result, the governmental policies and regulations are managed to respond to the publics needs, and this shift from writing the document to implementing the policy in the real society is very important. That is why, the effectiveness of the public administrations activities depends on the definite neutrality of public administrators from business and politics necessary to avoid any negative impacts on the process of policy implementation to satisfy the needs of this or that group.

Denhardt and Denhardt state that government shouldnt be run like a business; it should be run like a democracy (Denhardt & Denhardt, 2011, p. 2-3). From this point, it is impossible to refer to the profits for one of the parties, but it is necessary to contribute to democracy. Political administrators cannot follow this or that political actor as well as the certain business (Overeem, 2005, p. 312). Thus, the essential character of what public administration can do in the public service is reflected in the efficient implementation of governmental policy to provide the good for all the categories of the society while basing on the principles of democracy and neutrality.

The Main Tenets of New Public Management

The rapid development of the world makes public administration also adapt to the changes in the vision of public management. Nowadays, it is important to focus on the innovative business methods to realize the public management, but it is necessary to avoid the domination of the business principles (Rubin, 2002, p. 90). Thus, the principles of new public management can serve to create the perfect background for the dynamic development of public administration. According to Denhardt and Denhardt, the New Public Management refers to a cluster of contemporary ideas and practices that seek, at their core, to use private sector and business approaches in the public sector (Denhardt & Denhardt, 2011, p. 12-13). This approach guarantees the necessary flexibility in providing the services (Morse, 2010, p. 111).

For instance, to realize the anti-poverty and welfare neighbourhood programs, public administrators more often choose to cooperate with the private sector and to apply effective practices used by charity organizations, investors, and sponsors to promote and implement the productive welfare programs. The war with poverty is the complex process which should be resolved at the governmental level while involving the business resources.

Thus, the essential character of public administrations activities today should be discussed with references to the principles of new public management as the way to improve the approaches used in the sphere of public administration during a long period of time.

References

Denhardt, J. V., & Denhardt, R. B. (2011). The new public service: Serving, not steering. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe.

Morse, R. (2010). Public administration and community collaboration for Capella University. USA: Wiley.

Overeem, P. (2005). The value of the dichotomy: Politics, administration, and the political neutrality of administrators. Administrative Theory & Praxis, 27(2), 311-329.

Rubin, H. (2002). Collaborative leadership: Developing effective partnerships in communities and schools. USA: Corwin Press.

Lessons from Serving as a Public Budgeting Leader and Manager in the Public Sector

Public budgeting refers to a field of administration that revolves around the assessment of the available resources and their allocation to the various activities of a firm or organization. I have learned that public budgeting managers must possess relevant financial analysis skills to conduct their roles effectively (Fudge, 2013).

One of the key roles that I learned about a budgeting manager is that the person must be well equipped with the knowledge to analyze a variety of financial information, which may include revenues, expenditures, and the opportunity costs to determine the feasible projects in which the available resources should be assigned (Lee, Johnson, & Joyce, 2012).

Other than financial analysis for decision-making, the budgeting manager must conduct regular internal audits to ensure that the costs at each stage of project implementation are in line with the budget. It is important to note that the primary objective of budgeting is to track costs, a purpose that can only be achieved by regularly comparing the actual costs with the budgeted ones. Next, I learned that the budgeting manager must reconcile the budgeted cost against the actual expenditure at the end of every financial year or at the completion of each project (Fudge, 2013). Any variances between the budgeted and the actual costs must be explained. Other roles include offering professional advice to other departments of the firm and participating in meetings to discuss the various budgeting issues.

Skills and Knowledge Attained

One of the important skills I have attained from the course is the processes and approaches to preparing a suitable budget for an organization. As it currently stands, a budgeting manager can apply several methods to formulate a budget. One of the approaches that may be used to develop a financial plan is the lump sum budgeting. The stated method involves estimating the revenues and expenditures as lump sums without indicating the various units of disbursement (Stillman, 2012).

The other method of budgeting is the line-item approach, which involves breaking down the estimated revenues from each unit and linking such income with the corresponding expenditures. Another approach to budgeting is the balanced budget, which involves estimating the revenues and expenditure of each item to make sure that the income exceeds the disbursement. Next is the performance budgeting method, which involves the assessment of the outcomes of funds allocated to various projects. Others include program budgeting, PPBS budgeting, zero-based budgeting, flexible freeze, and priority-based budgeting, among others.

Can Budgetary Decision-making be Rational

A rational decision can be described as a course of action taken after considering several courses of action. In taking such a decision, the responsible person considers several courses of action. The individual chooses the best one. Some of the factors that a decision-maker considers include the resources required to implement the program, the capital available to the firm, the human assets accessible, technological needs, and the opportunity costs (Henry, 2015).

Based on such analysis, the decision-maker considers the course of action, which maximizes the revenues of the firm with minimal costs. In other words, the rational decision is the one, which yields maximum revenues to the firm. A company can implement such decisions with the available resources. It is important to note that a project may be profitable. However, a company may lack the resources necessary to implement it. This situation underscores the need to consider the available resources to ensure that the chosen course of action is executable.

Based on the described explanation of rational decisions, it may be concluded that the budgeting process is characterized by level-headedness. As stated previously in this paper, the budgeting process involves assessing the revenues of a company for a specified period and assigning the revenues to the various projects available for investment. The budgeting process is characterized by the assessment of the costs associated with mutually exclusive projects to determine the one that is worth investing (Mikesell, 2013).

The budgeting manager is charged with the responsibility of assessing the costs associated with each project to prepare a report regarding the most feasible project. In addition to assessing the costs, the budgeting manager also assesses the human capital needs of the project to determine whether the company has the necessary labor and technology to successfully implement the project without failure. In the absence of such assessments, the project would fail at different stages of implementation, a situation that may negatively affect the profitability of the business.

The Origin of Line-item Budgetary Structure

The line-item budgeting refers to a method of preparing the budget, which involves grouping individual financial statement items based on the unit price and departments (Joseph, 2017). The method offers a comparison between the figures for the past accounting periods and those of the current or future transactions. This structure was invented as a remedy to the gaps created by the lump-sum budgeting approach in terms of tracking the costs associated with each department or unit.

As stated previously, the lump-sum budgeting method involves estimating the revenues and expenditures as a whole. The method could not clarify the amount that each department contributed to the total revenues or costs. This situation made the accounting of the departmental costs a hectic task to the extent of necessitating the development of a budgeting method that could track the revenues and costs associated with each section.

Scholars Primary Criticisms of this Budgetary Structure

Although the line-item budgeting approach has notable strengths over the lump-sum method, it faces several criticisms from scholars. One of the shortfalls of this budgeting method that critics use to discredit the approach is that the budgeted items are not accurate (Joseph, 2017). The reason for such allegations is that this method utilizes historical figures to predict current and future revenues and costs. Basing the future estimates on historical figures is a major shortfall since such numbers may change with fluctuations in the business environment. For example, inflation and currency fluctuations may affect future costs, which may not be reflected in the historical figures.

The other shortfall of the line-item approach is that it may precipitate overspending by the departmental managers (Joseph, 2017). Since the budgets are formulated based on historical figures, the departments are assigned a standardized amount of money each year. If the money assigned to a section is not fully exhausted at the end of a financial year, the departmental managers are motivated to spend it in a rush for fear of budget slash in the subsequent period.

Factors that Account for its Broad Acceptance and Continued Use

However, as much as the line-item budgetary method has several shortfalls, it also has a certain level of strength, which makes it attractive to budget managers. One of the strengths of the method is that it is simple to apply. It can also give accurate figures. The view is grounded on the fact that the method bases its estimates on past figures (Joseph, 2017). A budget manager only needs to scrutinize the trends in revenues and expenditure for a particular item to estimate the costs for the subsequent period. This situation creates simplicity, which makes it attractive to small and medium-sized enterprises.

References

Fudge, M. (2013). Performance budgeting within state and local governments: The disconnect between public manager efforts and legislative action. PA Times. 

Henry, N. (2015). Public administration and public affairs. Abingdon, England: Routledge.

Joseph, C. (2017). Advantages & disadvantages of a line-item budget.

Lee, R., Johnson, R., & Joyce, P. (2012). Public budgeting systems. Burlington, MA: Jones & Bartlett Publishers.

Mikesell, J. (2013). Fiscal administration. Boston, MA: Cengage Learning.

Stillman, R. (2012). Public administration: Concepts and cases (9th ed.). Boston, MA: Cengage Learning.

Methodology

The survey method, as well as the experimental method, can be used for quantitative research. As a rule, survey research is used to investigate the attitude of respondents and demographic peculiarities of different research groups. Ethical issues are very important for survey design because respondents should be provided with questionnaires, interview questions, or self-completion mail surveys (Cox, 2009, p. 221) about the expected outcomes. For investigation of the attitude of the respondents to the educational reforms, it is necessary to include different types of questions (open-ended, multiple-choice, etc.) into the list to be answered. Written consent should be signed by respondents to notify them and receive their permission to use data collected with the help of surveys and personal data. Survey research can be used in experimental designs (Garson, 2008, p.1).

The experimental strategies used for inquiry should include dependents and independent variables and the relationship between variables (Mcnabb, 2007, p. 212); when one of the independent variables changes, the dependent one changes as well. The sampling methods are not applied to experimental strategies while being applied to survey strategies. The written consent of respondents and their demographic features are not relevant to the experimental strategies unless the experiments involve certain changes in the parameters of the organism as in health care. The quantitative methods are popular in public administration though experiments concern more the attitude and changes that can be attained through changes in the group sample sizes and conditions in which they occur. Reliability and validity are integral components in research because invalid data cannot be used in practice with the same or at least similar results as in the research. The theory should be supported with practical application of findings.

Abbreviated Research Plan

Introduction

The relationships between different organizations can be built on various bases including mere cooperation or direct partnership when the organizational behavior of one company may influence the organizational culture of another. In this respect, it is necessary to trace the tendencies in the violations of organizational rules and policies to prevent violation of mutually adopted organizational rules when two organizations cooperate in the areas related to public administration.

Purpose Statement

The ability of organizations to cooperate without violation of each other’s organizational policies is very important, especially for the areas where people provide services and promote policies and regulations and where no conflicts should arise due to the expected high level of organizational culture in such companies.

Research Questions and Hypotheses

The research should be conducted to investigate the organizational culture in different fields related to public administration and companies that work directly with this sector. In this respect, it is necessary to analyze the organizational culture in two parties concerned (using examples of the effective and ineffective cooperation of organizations in this sector) and explore how the two organizations can influence each other’s organizational behavior in case it was strong/weak, violated/non-violated, and other aspects. The research hypothesizes that a company with strong organizational behavior regardless of the fact whether it is positive or negative is sure to influence another company’s organizational behavior in terms of adoption of the same rules, regulations, and behavioral principles.

Research on Organizational Culture

The importance of the organizational behavior in the company is great because it influences the way the organization operates in terms of partnership, cooperation, and other types of activities that include other companies that either operate in the same sector or can be impacted by the operation of the organization. In this respect, a company with stronger organizational values that can be reinforced through “leadership, selection, and socialization” (Pfister, 2009, p 156) is sure to impact the company with weak organizational values. Analyzing the cases when the rules were violated and collecting data with the help of surveys concerning the employees’ ideas about the reasons of violation and the overall attitude toward the organizational culture including the set of policies, bonus/punishment strategies, and other aspects.

Schein (2010) claims that there are assumptions concerning the behavior of individuals and possible explanations of different patterns of behavior; as such: “People work best when they are given clear rules to cover all situations… and (2) people like immediate feedback and will not obey rules unless rule violation is immediately punished” (p. 322). In other words, it is possible to combine the interviews with observations and standard surveys as suggested by Creswell (2003, p. 15). The variables to be investigated in this case include the number of employees in each organization, the period when the organizational policy was operating and frequency of changes in organizational policy under the influence of employees’ opinions. Besides, it is necessary to investigate the relation of the similarities and differences in organizational polices of the companies to be reviewed with regard to the level of satisfaction expected from employees that can be collected with the help of open-ended interviews bearing in mind possible threats to internal validity enumerated in the study by Shadish, Cook, and Campbell (2002).

References

Creswell, J. W. (2003). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Pfister, J. (2009). Managing organizational culture for effective internal control: From practice to theory. New York: Springer.

Schein, E. H. (2010). Organizational culture and leadership (4^th ed.). San Francisco, CA: John Wiley and Sons.

Shadish, W. R., Cook, T. D., & Campbell, D. T. (2002). Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for generalized causal inference. Boston: Houghton- Mifflin.

Cox, R. W. (2009). Ethics and integrity in public administration: concepts and cases. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe.

Garson, D, G. Research Designs: Statnotes, from North Carolina State University, Public Administration Program. (2008). Web.

Mcnabb, D. E. (2007). Research methods in public administration and NONP: qualitative and quantitative approaches. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe.