Category: Psychology

Introduction

Mental illness describes conditions and disabilities that impede a persons capabilities to handle themselves during everyday life. The severity of the ailments can range from intermittent anxiety to suicidal tendencies. Fortunately, modern psychological assessments and treatments, including therapy and medication, can often help those suffering a mental condition if identified in time. An example of this is Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD), which tends to externalize as emotional unpredictability and imprudent actions taken by the patient (Davidson et al., 2010). BPD is a psychological condition that makes individuals highly erratic but can be treated with dialectical behavior therapy.

Description of BPD and a Sample Mental Status Exam

Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD) is a mental condition that tends to manifest as emotional instability, recklessness, and impulsive behavior. Symptoms incorporate but are not limited to, high volatile contractions to changes in mood, binge eating, and intentional endangerment of self (Krawitz & Jackson, 2008). The individual with BPD tends not to have a stable self-identity and often perceives the world dichotomously. Approximately one percent of people living in the developed world suffer from BPD, with seventy-five percent of patients being female (Krawitz & Jackson, 2008). There is some evidence that BPD can be related to genetics, as it tends to appear in family units. Furthermore, because of the range of patient responses to BPD, worldwide statistics may suffer from overdiagnosis, and many might be undergoing issues such as substance abuse (Morrison, 2014). Overall, borderline personality disorder generally manifests as swift, unpredictable mood swings, sometimes culminating in aggressive behavior.

A mental status exam is required to determine if the patient has BPD, during which a specialist will ask questions and note the behavior and appearance of the individual. Generally, such an exam will include assessments of clothing and general self-care to determine self-destructive disorders and lack of personal maintenance. Attention to eye contact and the specialists openness level is also relevant (Norris et al. 2016). BPD can, at times, be suppressed, so it is essential to look for signs of erratic behavior outside of the exam, including scars and lack of grooming. It is important to note that mental disorders are not exclusive, and the specialist should be aware that an individual may suffer from more than one condition. Furthermore, the specialist should reserve diagnosis until the end of the exam, as the manifestations of many disorders overlap, for example, BPD and manic depression.

Language is particularly important for determining if the patient suffers from a personality disorder. The rate of speech should be noted, as roughly one hundred words per minute is normal, meaning anyone speaking significantly slower may be suffering from a cognitive disorder (Norris et al. 2016). The tone, memory, and ability to recognize emotions in speech are all relevant to diagnosing BPD. Simple memory tests, such as asking the patient to say three words, then repeat them in five minutes, can be employed. The specialist can repeat questions with various tones of voice to see if the patient can differentiate emotions. A lack of such an ability is indicative of some degree of mental illness (Norris et al. 2016). Overall, since BPD is potentially overdiagnosed, it is important to consider alternatives and to reserve judgment until the end of the investigation.

The Clinical Model of Intervention

The literature suggests that one of the sufficient ways of treating a BPD is the implementation of dialectical behavior therapy (DBT). Dr. Marsha Linehan developed the form of treatment in the 1970s, making it a relatively novel approach (Krawitz & Jackson, 2008). DBT is a method that includes extensive work between a therapist and a patient, who engage in specific recognition and change-based tactics. Interestingly, DBT utilizes the dialectical method, which is defined by argument and contraposition, followed by their overall synthesis, similar to the means of dialectical philosophy. Dr. Linehan herself believed that although individuals were not initiators of their conditions, they are the only ones capable of solving the issues (Krawitz & Jackson, 2008). Thus, psychotherapy is developed to enhance a patients emotional management by understanding the catalysts of their behavior and revealing a set of valuable coping skills.

Dialectical behavior therapy has been studied by numerous medical experts to define its effectiveness and determine appropriate classifications. The latest study suggests three distinct subtypes of DBT, including Low Anxiety, Emotional/Disinhibited, and Inhibited (Sleuwaegen et al., 2018). The arrangement was found in the reactive and regulative nature of therapy. The Low Anxiety subtype is distinguished by low levels of Behavioural Inhibition and Activation Systems reactivity (BIS and BAS) (Sleuwaegen et al., 2018). On the other hand, the Emotional/Disinhibited subtype is characterized by high levels of BAS, medium BIS, and a lack of effortful restraint. Overall, individuals listed under this subtype are characterized by higher levels of dissociation than patients with the other two varieties of DBT. Whereas, Inhibited subtype presents low BAS levels, average effortful control, and high levels of BIS.

Notably, inpatient treatment exhibited an example of the successful performance of DBT, as it led to significant improvements. Particularly, the study claims that vital changes were detected in non-suicidal injury ratings (NSSI), general clinical symptomatology, borderline-related symptoms, and dissociation after a 3-month DBT program in BPD samples (Sleuwaegen et al., 2018, p. 322). Additionally, various trials employing DBT registered a significant decrease in non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) occurrences and overdose attempts than a group following treatment-as-usual (TAU) (Fowler et al., 2018). While comparing the three principal subtypes, academics discovered that unlike the Emotional/Disinhibited and Inhibited subtypes, the Low Anxiety one did not provide major changes in clinical and borderline indications and dissociation (Sleuwaegen et al., 2018). On the other hand, studies did not determine significant coping progress variations between the subtypes. Additionally, individual results point out that some patients either did not experience substantial positive alterations in their diagnosis or ended up dropping out of the treatment. Distinctly, similar statistics of dropouts embody all three subtypes of DBT. Although the effects of the DBT treatments can be considered mixed, the majority of patients experienced positive results, which are worth noting.

Conclusion

Psychological therapy incorporates a broad area of studies, as it deals with a variety of mental health conditions. A borderline personality disorder is an illness distinguished by continuous development of inconsistent associations, incomplete understanding of oneself, and extreme emotional responses. Individuals suffering from the disease tend to engage in self-harming practices and regularly show other risky behavior patterns. The disorder can be treated using different clinical models of intervention, most notably dialectical behavior therapy. DBT is divided into three distinguished subtypes, with Low Anxiety being the least effective in reducing the symptomatology. Overall, DBT has proved to be efficient in numerous ways; however, it requires further examination to define its overall performance.

References

Davidson, K. M., Tyrer, P., Norrie, J., Palmer, S. J., & Tyrer, H. (2010). Cognitive therapy v. usual treatment for borderline personality disorder: Prospective 6-year follow-up.The British Journal of Psychiatry: The Journal of Mental Science, 197(6), 456462. Web.

Fowler, J. C., Clapp, J. D., Madan, A., Allen, J. G., Frueh, B. C., Fonagy, P., & Oldham, J. M. (2018). A naturalistic longitudinal study of extended inpatient treatment for adults with borderline personality disorder: An examination of treatment response, remission, and deterioration.Journal of affective disorders, 235, 323331. Web.

Krawitz, R., & Jackson, W. (2008). Borderline personality disorder (the facts) (1^st ed.). OUP Oxford.

Morrison, J. R. (2014). DSM-5 made easy: The clinicians guide to diagnosis. The Guilford Press.

Norris, D. R., Molly S. C., & Shipley, S. (2016). The mental status examination.American Family Physician, 94(8), 635-641. Web.

Sleuwaegen, E., Claes, L., Luyckx, K., Wilderjans, T., Berens, A., & Sabbe, B. (2018). Do treatment outcomes differ after 3 months DBT inpatient treatment based on borderline personality disorder subtypes?Personality and Mental Health, 12, 321 333. Web.

Anorexia is quite a prevalent disease these days. Many people chase beauty standards, forgetting how important it is to look after their health. A very striking example of this disease is one of my friends. For the sake of his privacy, let us call him Bob. Bobs problem was that he weighed a lot more an than he should have. Because of this, he developed a complex that he needed to lose weight as soon as possible, despite his health condition. Eventually, Bob lost 40 kilos in six months, but the consequences of his weight loss were a very low BMI, food avoidance, fear of gaining extra pounds, fewer meals, irritability, and more (American Psychiatric Association, 2017).

It is difficult to say how he felt among the people who saw him. Many who were used to his weight knew, though Bob is not the most handsome, but a charming person, kind and friendly. But since Bob had lost too much extra weight, his aggression had become uncontrollable. It was hard to see how a very kind guy had turned into a literal demon, frightening everyone around him with his behavior. No wonder many of his friends left him when support was most important. For example, Bob would get angry just because his friend was 10 minutes late for a meeting with him. They didnt speak to each other for a very long time after that.

Bob was lucky that there were people who cared for him and could help to deal with the psychological barrier. He successfully overcame his fear of food, allowing himself to eat a little more than before. Many years of literature and lectures helped him understand his mistakes and help others correct them. Bob is now a successful coach who is happy to share his experiences with others who have decided to watch out for themselves.

References

American Psychiatric Association. (2017). DSM-5 Diagnostic criteria for Eating Disorders. Web.

Definition of stroke

Stroke is a condition that is associated with the malfunctioning of the human brain-a sudden death of cells within the brain (Mohr, 2011, p. 18). The major cause of stroke is failure of sufficient blood supply to the brain. Since blood supplies the brain with oxygen, it follows that the brain fails to get sufficient oxygen supply. This leads to the immediate death of all the brain cells that lack oxygen supply. Ultimately, this might end up causing paralysis, impairment of the speech and loss of the reasonability memory. In the extreme cases, it can lead to death.

Pathophysiology of stroke

There are two causative mechanisms of brain damage, which include hemorrhage and ischemia. Ischemia stroke is the most popular one involved in more than 80% of the stroke cases (Natan, 2009, p.298). In this case, lack of blood supply to the brain leads to the lack or rather absence of neuron substrates, which are very essential. Ischemia stroke is very severe and graduates very quickly since the brain lacks glucose, which supplies it with energy to carry out anaerobic metabolism. Hemorrhage stroke represents 15% of the brain stroke cases. The basic cause of this type of stroke is the pressure injury that results from the deep penetrating blood vessels. It causes damage to the brain tissues by distracting the linking ways.

Causes of stroke

One can derive the causes of stroke from the knowledge of the various types of stroke, which include cerebral thrombosis, cerebral embolism, intra-cerebral hemorrhage and subarachnoid hemorrhage. The impairment in supply of blood to the blood can happen under two conditions: clotting of blood within the brain or in some cases in the neck region. This leads to the development of two conditions-cerebral thrombosis and cerebral embolism. The intra-cerebral hemorrhage and subarachnoid strokes result from bursting of blood vessels in the region of the brain.

Cerebral thrombosis occurs when blood clots inside the brain an aspect that blocks the vessel involved thus blocking blood flow to the brain. Such clots are due to the hardened blood vessels and this occurs mostly in the morning hours or in the night. When blood clots within other parts of the circulatory system, the clot causes cerebral embolism (Warlow et al, 2008, p.269). This clot finally comes into an artery supplying the brain closing it, thus cutting down the blood supply into the brain. Hemorrhage also refers to bleeding. This occurs when a blood vessel in the brain raptures due to pressure or trauma. Vessels with weak walls are the most vulnerable to such a phenomenon. The difference between intra-cerebral hemorrhage and subarachnoid hemorrhage is that the first affects vessels inside the brain, while the latter affects arteries at the brains surface.

Complications of stroke

Depending on which part of brain is affected and the period over which the brain has lacked blood flow, stroke can cause both impermanent and permanent disabilities. The major complications may however include paralysis on one side of the body due to lack of blood flow to the brain. It may also include a difficulty in swallowing or talking due to difficulty in moving the mouth and throat muscles (Geyer, 2009, p.360). One may also fail to talk due to hardship in expressing thoughts in language. One can also lose memory or have difficulty in understanding. It may be hard for the victim to reason, make judgment, or even understand normal life concepts. In addition, pain is inevitable. One will have very strange sensations, or numbness in the affected parts of the body.

Nursing intervention

Nurses should ensure that the stroke patients do not make many movements or activities involving walking (Natan, 2009, p. 305). They should rest on a bed with bed pans all through. They should encourage consumption of liquids and help them stay calm. Such patients need olive oil bowel softener as well as moving their arms and legs together with gradual massages on them. All these should go along with thrombolytic therapy to dissolve the blood clots if the stroke is still within its first 3hours.

References

Geyer, J. D., & Gamilo, R. G. (2009). Stroke: A Practical Approach. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Publishers.

Mohr, J. P. (2011). Stroke: Pathophysiology, Diagnosis, and Management Stroke, Pathophys, Diagnosis and Management. New York: Elsevier  Health Sciences Division.

Natan, M. (2009). Stroke: Practical Guide for Clinicians. Basel: Bornstein Karger Publishers.

Warlow, C. P. et al (2008). Stroke: Practical Management. London: Wiley-Blackwell Publishers.

Introduction

Dr. Jamison has joined a group practice of psychologists who have asked her to develop her biography to post with her picture on their social media page. They have asked Dr. Jamison to reach out to her former clients from her last employer to solicit testimonials. Dr. Jamison is very concerned about this request. She was unaware that the group practice had a social media page. When she visits the page, she sees several client testimonials for other psychologists in practice, some of which appear to reveal identifying information about the clients. This essay aims to examine the importance of confidentiality and code of conduct in professional psychology as well as determine the issues concerning this practice group and suggest ways of improvement.

Main body

Social media sites are crucial in modern-day society because they provide people with an efficient means of communication. However, such Internet resources store information about the users utilizing them. The collected data may contain private information that is not supposed to be seen by the public. Given the fact that anonymity is one of the main characteristics of the Internet, it puts users in unequal conditions. People who post their private information online may experience feelings of insecurity and anxiety. Needless to say, using personal data as an advertisement is wrong in many ways; however, it is especially detrimental when it comes to professional psychologists, who are to abide by the code of ethics (Ashton & Sullivan, 2018). This lack of respect for the clients privacy is the polar opposite of what psychologists strive to achieve. People seek mental assistance when they do not have anybody else to support them, or they want to hear advice from a professional. Even if the treatment was successful, it is not ethical to use it as an example to persuade more customers to use psychological services.

There is one proper way of reacting for Dr. Jamison in this situation if she is a professional with moral standards. The solution is to inform the group that their advertisement strategy is not only flawed but also illegal (Moore & Frye, 2019). In the USAs case, the Health Insurance Portability and Accounting Act is a federal law that regulates the collection of health data and prohibits such use of private information. This crimes responsibility ranges from fines to imprisonment; hence, it is not beneficial for the office to risk potential lawsuits.

However, it is possible to improve their advertisement strategy without using personal data. If they intend to describe their professionalism and support it with evidence, they should instead give thorough descriptions of their achievements in the field of medicine. Even though this type of data may not be comprehendible by an average citizen, it will still give plenty of insight into the groups staffs accomplishments. Listing thorough descriptions of their services, as well as success rates of their methods, would also make their group more attractive to clients. Furthermore, if they insist on using clients feedback, they could omit personal information from the social media page and leave only positive reviews of their treatment outcomes. However, if they still want to show their methods working in real conditions, they could use clients as examples but replace their real names. This change will give clients a feeling of security while making the effectiveness of treatment seem more reliable.

Conclusion

In conclusion, using personal information in advertisements in any field of business is not only unethical but also unprofessional. The benefits of this strategy are too insignificant to be considered; however, the numerous flaws and questionable legality make it suboptimal at best. There are multiple ways of improving the current strategy, such as thorough descriptions of staffs qualifications and services and removal/replacement of personal information. These improvements will help the group expand its client base and make its business more trustworthy.

References

Ashton, K., & Sullivan, A. (2018). Ethics and confidentiality for psychologists in academic health centers. Journal of Clinical Psychology in Medical Settings, 25(3), 240249.

Moore, W., & Frye, S. A. (2019). A review of the HIPAA, part 2: Limitations, rights, violations, and role for the imaging technologist. Journal of Nuclear Medicine Technology, 48(1), 1723.

Today, more than ever before, global situations and activities are reorganizing peoples affiliations with their daily environments in nearly all civilizations across the world.

The global conditions have had obvious psychological ramifications on nearly all aspects of human nature, not mentioning the fact these activities have critically influenced individuals cognitive, psychosocial, behavioral, spiritual, and emotional capacities (Greenfield, 2004). For example, the rapid rise of the internet and globalization has critically affected how individuals interact with each other, and how they interrelate to the immediate environment.

Presently, more people prefer to communicate with their family, friends, and peers using wired computers or wireless technology, perilously exposing their psychosocial and emotional growth to unhealthy developmental patterns (Greenfield, 2004).

In the article Psychology in an Age of Ecological Crisis, Stokols et al (2009) traces the influence of the global and environmental conditions on peoples cognition, behavioral patterns, and well being

In summary, this article examines the quick changes occurring in the structure and constitution of human environments at both local and global levels and the implications of these changes for personal and public health (Stokols et al, 2009, p. 181).

Specifically, the researchers concentrate their efforts on evaluating the roles and functions that psychological research and practice can play in facilitating people, institutions, and communities to efficiently manage compounded sources of environmental change, including collaborating effectively towards curtailing their negative influences on population health issues and societal cohesion.

The researchers are of the opinion that critical analyses of psychological phenomena are indispensable if we have to understand the conduits through which individuals perceive, experience, and react to worldwide threats in the context of their individual behavioral situations and local communities.

There is a mounting substantiation, for example, that US soldiers coming from battlefronts in Iraq and Afghanistan are psychologically affected by the environmental influences of the war, not to mention the fact that such physical and environmental influences have indelibly taken a toll on the soldiers subjective well-being (Bell et al, 2005).

The study remains committed to the fact that psychological processes such as environmental cognition, information processing, stress, and coping play key roles in determining how global conditions impinge on individuals psyche and behavior in the context of their daily lives (Stokols et al, 2009, p. 181). In equal measure, the sources of problems affecting people at a global level and the generation of strategies to remodel them are all intimately allied to psychological and behavioral processes.

For example, climate change and depletion of ozone layer must never be explained in terms of atmospheric chemistry only; rather, they have to be comprehended also as offshoots of individual behavior and motivation that have ultimately led to adverse environmental changes. According to the researchers, the solutions to such global problems absolutely depend on the ways in which people and political leaders identify these threats and commence collective efforts to resolve them.

In this regard, the identification and mobilization of psychological and situational conditions that facilitates individuals to move away from anxiety and passivity in the face of global threats toward constructive collaborative action is of paramount importance (Stokols et al, 2009, p. 182).

In analysis, it is imperative to note that the technological, political, geo-physical and social forces witnessed in todays ever changing global environment has had a profound influence on the field of environmental psychology.

The world as we know it today can be equated to an era filled with technological hazards, depleted natural resources, and persistent threat of both political and armed conflicts (Stokols et al, 2009). According to Greenfield (2004), everybody, including a school child, is now in the know that scientific and technological progressions have immense potential for both good and evil.

A critic would therefore need to understand the role of environmental psychology in facilitating people, institutions, and communities to efficiently manage the multifaceted sources of conflict brought by such factors in both individual and community contexts.

According to Bell et al (2005), environmental psychology is principally concerned with environments as the context of individual actions and behavior.

Our moods, actions, and behavior are significant only if they can be well comprehended in terms of their context, that is, in terms of the environment, which is the key determinant in deciding which human actions are possible and how challenging or successful such actions can be.

The article agrees with this line of thinking when it argues that transformative changes in human actions and behavior in the 21^st century are largely attributable to particular technological, political, environmental and social forces (Stokols et al, 2009).

For example, the rapid materialization of the internet, wireless gadgets, and digital communications technologies have acted to reinforce the fact that environmental influences on human behavior, actions, attitudes, worldviews, and moods are all-encompassing and important.

Environmental psychology also concerns itself with evaluating the ramifications of human actions and behavior on the environment (Bell, 2005). The basic presupposition is that behavior and environment reciprocally influence each other.

According to the article, psychological procedures such as emotional stress and environmental cognition plays fundamental functions in determining how typical situations impinge on peoples psyche, actions, and behavior as they negotiate their daily activities (Stokols et all, 2009). For example, the issue of global warming has had a profound effect on behavior and mindsets of individuals and political leaders if the recent Copenhagen meeting on environment is anything to go by.

Air pollution and economic recessions are major causes of concern in the world today. Yet, according to the article, because human actions and behavior, either individually or collectively, causes such issues to arise, it is only reasonable that modification of human actions and behavior will present one of the best channels to curtail such adversarial activities.

Environmental psychology shares the same view as it argues that principles of learning, motivation, perception, attitude formation, and social interaction can be vehemently used to show why individuals engage in counterproductive behavior, especially in relation to the environment.

Reference List

Bell, P.A., Greene, T., Fisher, J., & Baum, A.S. (2005). Environmental Psychology, 5^th

Ed. New York, NY: Routledge. ISBN: 0805860886

Greenfield, S. (2004). Tomorrows people: How 21^st century technology is changing the way we think and feel. London: Penguin books

Stokols, D., Mizra, S., Rumerstrom, M.G., & Hipp, J.A. (2009). Psychology in an age of ecology crisis. American Psychologist, Vol. 64, Issue 3, pp. 181-193. Retrieved from Ebscohost Database

Introduction

I recently added a new phrase to my precious list of big words: mob psychology. This particular new phrase has a special significance to me, since I happen to have experienced it first hand. And having done so, I concur with everything ever written about mob psychology. It is evil. It is retrogressive. It can tarnish your personality for life. It reads off a script from hell. And it can happen to anyone.

Background

A year ago, I had some pretty intriguing friends. These friends cared nothing about formal education. According to them, the world out there has all the lessons that one needs in this life. And so they used to live a carefree life, bound only by the rules of survival. Surprisingly, they came from quite affluent families, and their parents should have given them a better perspective on life. But as it happened, their parents had their hands full with marital disagreements or career commitments or just total indifference.

One of those friends in particular was a real fiend. Jacks favorite pastime was causing as much misery as possible. If you saw his eyes glistening with joy, someone nearby must be suffering. At first, his unique take on the world had me at a loss. But with time, and prodded on by his disciples, I slowly assimilated his opinions and perspectives on life. A favorite saying of his was that rules were made to be broken or at least bent. It became my favorite saying too. A day spent within the boundaries of normal rules became inconceivable.

Day of reckoning

One day, we went a bit too far. The day started just like any other: with a splitting hangover. After nursing our wayward heads back to normal, we charted out the activities for the day. There were innocent people to hurt, little puppies to kick around, and little children to bully. At the end of it all, there were all sorts of mysterious drinks to put in our systems. A perfect day hence. With Jack as the leader, we set off to accomplish the days goals.

Trouble began brewing very early on that particular day. Jack snatched a purse from an old lady and began to run away. We all took off after him. Three seconds later, two Alsatian hounds were on to us. We hadnt seen them before, but obviously they must have been lurking around the old lady. At the sight of the hounds, our excitement turned into terror, and survival took on a whole different meaning. Down the street we all sprinted, our breaths coming fast and hard, and adrenaline pumping everywhere.

I realized one thing almost immediately. I was at a clear disadvantage. My buddies had torpedoes somewhere around their feet. In no time at all, I was lagging behind everybody else, and could soon imagine the Alsatians sniffing at my heels. This picture gave me some added stamina, and I gunned down after my buddies. But not for long. An object on the street soon brought me down in a resounding crash.

For several moments, I blacked out. When I came to, I was flat on the street. When I tried to lift my head, pain shot up from everywhere, and several colored lights appeared in my vision. The lights may have been imaginary, but the dog staring at my nose wasnt. I snapped into a sitting position, terror flooding my system again. An Alsatian was taking an unhealthy interest in my leg, while the other breathed down on my left ear. To make matters worse, a small crowd was starting to gather around. The Alsatians were clearly waiting for a command from their owner. I dared not move a muscle.

After what seemed like an eternity, I heard a sharp command, and the hounds backed off. Turning around, I came face to face with the old lady. She was staring at me, an unreadable expression written on her face. In the background, I saw Jack and the other buddies being bundled into a police car. I came to learn much later that my buddies had had the misfortune of running straight into a blind alley. But at that time, the old lady was just staring at me.

I also stared at my body for the first time. I noticed the torn shirt, turning crimson from my breeding nose. The knuckles on my left hand were peeled, and blood from them mixed with the dust around. My trousers were also torn at the knees, and were barely recognizable under the layer of grime. I was missing one shoe and, incredibly, even the sock for that foot was lost. From my once-over, I knew exactly what I looked like: a native street urchin.

During those interminable moments before the old lady did anything decisive, I thought about my situation. The implications hit me like a thunderbolt: that from a relatively respectable kid, I had, in one stroke, descended right down to the dregs of society. No longer could I hold my head up in the society, even if I got off on a light penalty. I had just lost an image that had taken me years to build. I resolved right there and then that, whatever happened, I would strive to change my ways.

Redemption

The old lady must have been reading my thoughts. With nothing more than the cool, inscrutable gaze, she called her Alsatians to her side, and began to walk away. As if on cue, all the other people who had gathered around me also dispersed. At long last, I stood up on shaky feet, shook what dust could come off my clothes, and walked homewards. Luckily, my parents were not yet there. I got a bath ready and scrubbed myself sore.

Conclusion

Since then, Ive frowned upon group thinking. I have come to value the process of thinking as an individual. Although peer pressure is still a real force in my life, I at least try to put everything in perspective before giving in. The costs of allowing myself to be led by a peer are too stiff for me. Jack and the other buddies are still paying for their misdemeanors. Hence I may have turned into a loner somewhat, but at least Im not out there in the streets, denying my very existence as an intelligent human.

Introduction

We all know that television and the advertisements they depict mislead us. However, only about 12 percent of Americans interviewed acknowledged that the media actually has any influence in their lives. We constantly succumb to deceptions time and time again without being able to stop ourselves. The media sets standards for us because it is a powerful conveyor of socio-cultural ideals that appeal to us (Donht and Tiggeman, 2006).

What we dream about love, lifestyle among many others largely come from the media and the other, albeit small percentage comes from our family, friends and our self-conceived expectations. Some People who work behind the scenes on this addictive commercials or programs are very witty and crafty, usually with knowledge of the human psychology and are able to project their own notions in our mind, towing with our imagination and ultimately driving their points home, usually creating a desire in us to emulate or to purchase.

They spend most of their time selecting images, words and even songs that they associate with their products stirring predetermined emotions in us with optimum outcomes. The messages are plastered in our subconscious mind and their repetition leads to brainwashing.

The media, undoubtedly, is a very strong tool with a lot of potential for good or bad. Media advertises and promotes a wide range of information that is received by the subconscious mind. Most images portrayed are of blemish free, skinny women who have become the center of all adverts.

These images drive ordinary women into spending big in a bid to match the standards set on the advertisements. As the media appeals to the subconscious, it is hard for the person to know that she has been brainwashed to desire what she sees rather than be content with the natural beauty characterized by flaws. It is in the nature of human beings to desire to be better in order to be appealing to their peers who they are in constant comparison with.

Statistics

The National Eating Disorders Association (NEDA) approximates that 7 million girls and women in the United States struggle with an eating disorder compared to 1 million boys and men. She further puts the average weight of the American woman as 140 pounds and the average height as 543. In sharp contrast, the average weight of the American model is 117 pounds and the height is 511. Fashion houses prefer thin models (Hesse-Biber, 1996) hence 98 percent of American models are thinner than the average American woman.

Even children under 10 years of age say that they feel better about themselves when they are on a diet whereas, 91 percent of college students have attempted to diet at one point. Dieticians say that almost all people on a diet will eventually regain their weight within 1 to 5 years and will attempt to diet again in future. These statistics are alarming and point towards a systematic brainwash in effect in the society.

Discussion

Researchers argue that what women perceive of their body has no bearing whatsoever with what it actually is. Cash (1990), states that the body image is whatever women perceive of themselves and what they imagine others perceive of them. Only one fifth of women in the United States are comfortable with their outlook and nearly half of the women population overestimates their actual weight and the rest think they are too skinny.

The thin ideal has been projected extensively to the point that stars who are larger than the set ideal have their images contorted using computer programs to depict them as  more beautiful. For example, actress Kate Winslet was made to look much thinner and shapelier for a recent cover appearance on GQ magazine.

The thin concept (Wilcox and Laird 2000) has led to the increase in magazine articles touching on dieting and weight loss issues promoted for the aesthetic beauty rather than for health benefits. There are a number of scales nowadays that measure body image in comparison to self-esteem. All the scales e.g., The Shape and Weight Based Self-Esteem Inventory depict a growing dissatisfaction in women regarding the way they look and this has affected their self-esteem outcome.

Societal and internal pressures, stemming from the internalization of the thin ideal are the leading causes of women insecurity. This occurs due to people comparing themselves and their partners to the images on the media advertisements. The society has been systematically brainwashed into thinking that people can only be judged by their physical outlook. This has put enormous pressure on women in particular as they are the ones that are judged harshest.

They have been the object of beauty in society from time in memorial but a shift has occurred that nullified the parameters of inner beauty that were being used traditionally and has put emphasis on the physical beauty. In Fiji, the installation of satellites led to a drastic change in values and body image among girls with an average age of 17 barely years later. They abandoned their traditional societal norms or modified them to reflect those of the western world.

The trend was only starting to take root in Iran before the government placed a ban on western television reversing the trend. They required women depicted in public media to be fully covered and this explains why there is more satisfaction about body image among Iranian women in comparison to their American counterparts (Dorian, 2002).

A study conducted in Missouri Sate University involving 36 college females between the ages of 18 to 25 (2009), using the Franzoi Body-Esteem Scale and two sets of thin models and those of normal body size, came to the conclusion that women were not affected by the images they saw in the slides that were shown. They concluded that women whose self esteem was negatively affected already had the notion and that the media images did not in any way influence the change.

However, Lin and Kulik (2002) found out that the proliferation of the thin ideal had a very negative impact on body image satisfaction among many other studies conducted with the same conclusion: that there was a correlation between media images of slender women and the self-worth of women.

As a control study, a sample of college students was exposed to images of models that had features of an average woman, as compared to their counterparts who were exposed to thin models. The study concluded positively that self esteem of women who viewed models of average build were not as negatively affected as did those of the sample that viewed thin women.

Having this misconception, largely proliferated by the media, has led to destructive behavior in women striving to match the standards set in their subconscious. Some of the behaviors lead to dieting and eating disorders that affect the anatomy of women some with serious often detrimental consequences.

It is stated that only one tenth of the Australian women population has never resulted to dieting at any one point in their lives. This statistic is very alarming as the dieting practiced does not reflect the scientifically accepted optimum required for the normal operation of the human body. The psychological damage resulting from failure of such diets is enormous, let alone the physical ones.

The media focus on women beauty nowadays is distorting as it is depicted as comprising skinny features that are unnatural in look. These images are plastered in a myriad of magazines, movies, television and others mostly purchased by insecure women often leading to self pity.

These women are projected by the subconscious as being role models that they should aspire to match, hence unorthodox methods are applied. In a bid to conform, women result to eating less and other unhealthy eating habits. Statistically, the average model twenty years ago weighed 8 percent less the normal woman; however, a difference in trends has further forced this figure to 23 per cent less. The pressure is therefore more today in comparison to some years back.

Women have no control over the brainwash they are subjected to by the media. This is simply because the projection of standards hard to match is essential for the growth in profits of the cosmetics and beauty industry. Consequently, these insecure women are most likely to purchase beauty products, designer clothing and dieting supplies, usually pills.

This is further compounded by the entry of the diet product industrial players who capitalize on the self-pity attitude already instigated by the cosmetic industry on insecure women. The media is the tool used to further these notions innocently or otherwise in a bid to capitalize on the massive advertisement budgets set by those industries. The diet industry that is smaller than the cosmetics industry is estimated to be worth over $100 billion a year in the US alone.

The growth in this trend, argued by researchers, also reflect depression, low self-esteem and unhealthy eating habits already existing among the women population and hence they result to looking at these models further compounding their misery.

Conclusion

The media is a part of our daily lives and although it has a negative effect on the lives of many, we cannot live without it as it is a source of recreation and important lessons. The proliferation of the thin ideal among women can largely be attributed to a declining standard of societal influence on the young people thus creating a vacuum that the cosmetic and diets industries prey on. The society in general and parents in particular have taken a back seat in the responsibility of shaping the younger generations.

The adverse effect of this negligence is witnessed in declining self-esteem, depression, hopelessness among others. Psychologists advocate that parents be involved in shaping the lives of their children from an early age sheltering them from the adverse effects of the media and teaching them to hold themselves in high-esteem.

References

Cash, T. F. and Pruzinsky, T. (1990). Body Images Development, Deviance, and Change. New York: The Guilford Press

Donht, H.K. & Tiggemann, M. (2006). The contribution of peer and media influences to the development of body satisfaction and self-esteem in young girls: A Prospective study. Developmental Psychology, 42, 929-936.

Dorian, L. and Garfinkel, P. (2002). Culture and body image in western culture. Eating and Weight Disorders, 7(1), 1-19.

Hesse-Biber, S. (1996). Am I Thin Enough Yet? The Cult of Thinness and the Commercialization of Identity. New York. : Oxford University Press

Lin, L and Kulik, J. (2002). Social comparison and womens body satisfaction. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 24(3), 115-123.

Wilcox, K. and Laird, J. (2000). The impact of media images on womens self-esteem: identification, social comparison, and self-perception. Journal of Research in Personality, 34(2), 278- 286.

Introduction

The purpose of this essay is to explore the topic, Influences of the Environment on individuals as a part of Environmental Psychology. Environmental Psychology helps individuals to understand their relationship with the environment, including both built and natural environments. Studies have established that environments influence individuals behaviors at certain levels. Individuals immediate behaviors depend on specific environments in which they take place. In other words, people feel comfortable in natural settings while unnatural environments disturb behaviors. Therefore, individuals behavior needs are related to their environments. Several researchers have demonstrated harmful influences of urban environments on human behaviors (Mathew, 2001). At the same time, human behavior patterns could also experience break down in artificial environment and therefore, the need for restorative environments.

A connection between health and the environment

An earlier study by Stephen Kaplan attempted to highlight the relationship between health and the environment (Kaplan, 1992). Human beings are connected to their environments. Over time, built environments have replaced significant parts of humans natural environments. Natural environments have critical roles to play in individuals health. For instance, Kaplan shows that the gap between people and their natural environments leads to experiences of mental fatigue (Kaplan, 1992). As a result, individuals tend to be less tolerant, less effective, and less healthy (Kaplan, 1992, p. 134) due to disconnect with the natural environment.

Kaplan noted that the natural environment had a critical role to play in limiting such negative effects. Hence, it is imperative to understand the relationship between environments and human health.

Contemporary environments have exposed human to pressures. These pressures compete for human attentions. Studies have provided valuable knowledge that has made human prone to stimuli, which are hard to ignore but not helpful or satisfying. At the same time, other researchers have shown improved health outcomes in certain environments. Consequently, there is a clear relationship between human health and the environment.

How the natural environment has affected or influenced my health and/or well-being

Today, I operate in a built environment with various competing interests. As a result, I experience pressures that inevitably change my life. While these pressures have existed, they have cumulative effects that have aggravated my interaction with the built environment.

Therefore, the natural environment has served restorative purposes for my well-being and health. In this regard, accessible natural environments offer natural environments that restore health, particularly by reducing mental fatigue. Kjellgren and Buhrkall (2010) noted that the natural environment offered an imperatively higher rating of degree of altered states of consciousness (ASC) and energy than the simulated natural environment (p. 464). This study finding reflects the effect of the natural environment on my well-being.

The natural environment helps me to relieve stress and mental fatigue. This facilitates restoration of my normal mental status. Being away in forests, parks, beaches and mountains have helped me to improve my health. The built urban environment does not provide me with adequate opportunities to seek restoration in the natural environment. The inability to gain access to the natural environment readily has been detrimental to my mental health. Natural environments, therefore, have provided me with opportunities to improve my health.

My own restorative environment(s)

My ideal restorative environments are parks, mountains, beaches and forests. These natural environments provide me with opportunities to interact with nature and feel the sense of being away from urban environments and constant distractions.

These natural environments have been restful and offer healing experiences. At the same time, they provide me with opportunities to reflect past events of my life and develop new life priorities.

The natural environment presents comforting conditions but also offers opportunities to experience its wildness. Such experiences also allow me to learn new things about natural environments. Restorative effects of natural environments on me have profound health benefits and allow me to appreciate them.

Factors contribute to the environment being restorative to me

There are some elements, which make the natural environment restorative to me. First, the sense of being away from urban settings to natural environments has restorative effects. In most cases, the need to get away and experience nature serves restorative purposes.

Second, the natural environment has fascinating effect. This drives my interest to interact with nature involuntarily. Abilities to engage nature freely without too much demand and confusion promote restorative experiences. Natural settings offer inherent attractions that motivate me to indulge further.

Third, I normally find restorative experiences in specific areas such as mountains, lakes, beaches and forests. I have found out that I am compatible with these places. I can therefore experience restorative effects on natural environments in such settings. I need less effort to interact with these places due to compatibility. I have noted that it is difficult to function in urban environments than in natural settings.

Finally, the extent to which I engage the natural environment also influences my restorative experiences.

Conclusion

The essay has explored Influences of the Environment on individuals as a part of Environmental Psychology. It highlights the relationship between individual health and natural environments. It shows that people derive restorative benefits from their natural environments. The urban built environment creates pressures to people and they seek to escape such settings in natural environments. People are able to relieve their mental fatigue and stress once in the natural environments.

The natural environments can provide effective restorative experiences if people understand specific environments that meet their unique needs. Overall, people must understand the relevance of natural environments on their health and well-being.

References

Kaplan, S. (1992). The Restorative Environment: Nature and Human Experience. In D. Relf (Ed.), The Role ofHorticJnue in Human Well-Being and Social Development (pp. 134-142). Portland, OR: Timber Press. Web.

Kjellgren, A., & Buhrkall, H. (2010). A comparison of the restorative effect of a natural environment with that of a simulated natural environment. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 30(4), 464472. Web.

Mathew, G. (2001). Environmental Psychology. Web.

Introduction

Individuals have varying opinions about the different experiences that they encounter in life. Ritchhart, Church, and Morrison suggest that a proven program for developing students critical thinking should be available over the Internet and other sources apart from classroom lessons (7). This article will provide critical analysis of two websites, viz. Psychological Research on the Net (PRN) and the Foundation for Alternative and Integrative Medicine (FAIM). PRN is a better website as compared to FAIM in terms of the ease of access and quality of ideas.

Critique

Website 1

1. 1. URL and date of visit

This website was accessed on February 2, 2015.

2. 2. Name of individual/corporation which created and ran the website

John H. Krantz, in collaboration with the Hannover College Psychology Department, organizes and maintains this website. The Hannover College Psychology Department is the main sponsor of this website.

3. 3. Appraisal of format

The website is organized chronologically, with the most recent studies at the top. The topic is clearly presented with few but detailed sub-topics addressing many issues on developmental disabilities.

4. 4. Three things that I learned

PRN is a friendly and informative site because after reading an ongoing study investigating autism, it has provided sources of support for each question in case the participants are stuck. In addition, PRN is a reliable source with companion links to more information. Third, it is open to more additions when new evidence is obtained.

Website 2

1. 1. URL and date of visit

This website.

2. 2. Name of individual/corporation which created and ran the website

Volunteer board members maintain the FAIM website, and it depends upon public donations to pursue its objective.

3. 3. Appraisal of format

For beginners in this field, learning psychology from the FAIM site is a bit lacking in terms of quality information and ease of access.

4. 4. Three things I learned

Volunteers organize this website, and they focus on researching psychological issues. This website provides very detailed information. It is limited in terms of growth since it depends on public donations.

Psychological Research on the Net (PRN)

This website was accessed on February 2, 2015. The Hannover College Psychology Department is the main sponsor of this website. According to Hockenbury and Hockenbury, introducing psychology to students entails relating topics to the contemporary experiences of students (21). The website invites everyone to participate by sharing views or making queries on topics of interest. Anybody searching for current knowledge about autism should visit this website. It is well organized, and one can easily retrieve the intended details without having to go through the hectic search process, as is the case with the FAIM Website. In terms of topic accessibility, PRN offers the solution to laypersons and new students with minimal or zero experience with web materials. The topic is clearly presented with few but detailed sub-topics addressing many issues on developmental disabilities. Even though FAIM presents this topic with a broader reference from reviews across a wider scope, the presentation is broken down to so many sub-topics, thus making it hard for laypersons or even students of psychology to lose track of the key issues. On the PRN website, the scope might be limited, but the details are sufficient to make informed generalizations easily.

It would be advisable for students seeking information on autism to refer to PRN over the FAIM website. PRN defines autism as a range of conditions linked to impaired communication, restricted interests, and repetitive actions. Accessing this information is easy since most students retrieve information from the first page results, which appears after keying in certain keywords. If the system has several referrals to other links, they tend to focus on the conclusions, thus missing essential details of the text. Second, PRN introduces students to a global perspective on autism by giving them an opportunity to post their views, coupled with understanding psychology on a friendly platform. Third, the website is college-based as it provides a wider knowledge of psychological issues affecting young students coping with autism.

The information updated on the website undergoes a credibility test through reviews. One also learns that autism disorder is a very broad field, and the information offered is open to criticism and change when new evidence is obtained. Even though PRN has its flaws, after making a comparative analysis, one establishes that it is an informative site. For new students being introduced to the topic of autism, among others, it is a better option as opposed to FAIM. In addition, the studies posted are all dated and current. Since the problem of autism keeps on changing with respect to environments and other internal factors, it is necessary to review up to date sources (Slater 55). For example, FAIM indicates that autism has increased to high proportions. Currently, one in every 88 children in the US has autism as opposed to the past 3 decades, whereby the condition affected one out of every 2,500 children.

PRN is a friendly and informative site because after reading an ongoing study investigating autism, it has provided sources of support for each question in case the participants are stuck or distressed by the questions. At the end of every review, contact details are given, and one can use the same to get quick and sufficient help. Thirdly, the website focuses on the topic of autism by giving current issues with regard to culture, age, and gender. For a better review on this site, the majority of information needs to be condensed in a bid to create brief and precise guidelines that a student can follow easily in the quest to understand the topic.

Foundations for Alternative Medicine

This website was accessed on February 2, 2015. Volunteer board members maintain the FAIM website, and it depends upon public donations to pursue its objective.

Learning autism from FAIM and PRN  comparison

FAIM defines autism as a brain disorder associated with poor social relations, difficulties in communication, and unusual repetitive behaviors. This definition is consistent with the one given on the PRN website, thus implying that the two websites are useful. Both sites provide footnotes for the reviews as well as links to other sources showing that they provide reliable information. FAIMs information on autism fails to give the background of the issue. To students, it is normally difficult to understand autism, and this site does not give clear clues on what causes it. Therefore, it is advisable to familiarize oneself with learning psychology online with simple but consistent websites such as PRN. In both websites, theories have been developed to explain the causes like allergies, genetics, and environmental toxins. The sites also provide consistent information on the efforts being undertaken to research possible causes coupled with how to reverse the effects of autism. This information is essential for students of psychology since the basic knowledge of autism can be accessed from different sites by using the ones that offer detailed information.

PRN shows that some of the children suffering from autism are delivered normally, and they show no signs of the condition until they are exposed to certain vaccines, which leads to mental regression and lack of speech. This site indicates that speech therapy is the only reliable way to manage the impact of autism. On the other hand, FAIM argues that conventional medicine has offered no effective treatment for autism. Since it is not a hopeless situation, alternative medicine has been proved to work better. The use of ketone therapy is described as one way to manage autism. Ketones supply energy to the brain, and they induce brain cell maintenance. When blood ketone concentration is raised, they can generate fast healing effects on the brain cells and restore the brain to normal functioning.

The two sites provide detailed information on autism, which gives students some knowledge on the field of developmental disabilities coupled with how such disorders can be managed. The PRN website offers an in-depth introduction with a historical background of autism as well as the current situation of the condition in the United States. Nevertheless, the two sites are very useful to students since they have different ideas and possibilities for dealing with autism. Such information can be put together to bring a better understanding of the topic since the information is valid and supported by current sources.

Conclusion

The two websites are credible since publications are not reproduced, and links for the original sources are given. The links provided in PRN and FAIM acknowledge other opinions on the topic on top of being open for further additions. This aspect eliminates all possible biases, thus increasing the viability of the information. New students can use these two websites as an additional learning platform for all matters pertaining to psychology. As observed, PRN provides a better online learning platform due to its accessibility and richness of information as compared to the FAIM website.

Works Cited

Hockenbury, Don, and Sandra Hockenbury. Psychology. 6th ed. 2013. New York: Worth Publishers. Print.

Ritchhart, Ron, Mark Church, and Karin Morrison. Making Thinking Visible: How to Promote Engagement, Understanding, and Independence for All Learners, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2011. Print.

Slater, Lauren. Opening Skinners Box: Great Psychological Experiments of the Twentieth Century, New York: W.W. Norton, 2004. Print.

Introduction

The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association outlines the guidelines for APA referencing style. The manual offers a valuable aid for writing with ease, power, and conciseness. The APA style has been accepted by various disciplines and is commonly used by writers around the globe. An APA formatted paper is comprised of various sections and sub-sections. Analyzing these sections would be an effective way of understanding the citation style.

General Paper Guidelines

APA style commences with the general rules that must be followed in formatting an APA-style paper. These guidelines are: the margins of the paper are set at one inch at the sides of the paper, the whole paper is double spaced, single space should be used after all punctuations within a sentence while a double space should be left for punctuation marks used at the end of a sentence, the entire paper is aligned to the left and all the paragraphs indented, page numbers are inserted at the first line of the paper on the right edge of the page, the Running Head; a short title of the paper is inserted at the top of the paper and is flush with the left top of all pages, and as a general rule APA requires that paper be written in an active voice. APA style requires that all papers be ordered as follows: Title Page, Abstract, Body, References, Footnotes, Tables, Figures, and lastly Appendixes (American Psychological Association, 2009).

Title Page

The title page should always fall on page one. The components of the title page include the Running Head, papers title, author or authors names, institutional affiliation, and the authors note. All the components of the title page except the Running Head should use both small case and upper case letters and should be centered; the Running Head is flush with the left margin and utilizes the upper case letters only. The authors note is an optional requirement in APA style and is only used to acknowledge any form of support, provide correspondence address, or the authors departmental affiliation.

Abstract

This is an entirely optional section of an APA style paper; however, the guidelines for writing an abstract are provided in the APA style manual. The abstract should be a one-paragraph summary outlining the most significant sections of the paper. The abstract starts from a new page from the title i.e. page two of the paper. The title Abstract is centered just a single line after the Running Head and the abstract commences on the line that falls below the Abstract title. Though specific journals set the limits for the number of words in the Abstract, the limit should an average of 150 to 250 words (American Psychological Association, 2009). Additionally, every number that is contained in the Abstract is written in digits apart from those that are used to begin a sentence.

Main Body

The main body starts on a new page i.e. page 3; however, the subsections do not start on new pages. The title utilizes both upper and lower case letters and should be centered on the first line below the running head. The introduction is not labeled and commences on the first line below the title of the paper. The Main Body is structured in headings that utilize both upper and lower case letters and are centered on the paper; nevertheless, the types of headings that are included in a paper are reliant on the respective papers. The sub-headings in this section are flush to the left and use the upper and lower case letters.

Text Citations

APA style states that the ideas and works of other people must be formally acknowledged in the paper; the source of information that has been used in writing the paper must be documented by citing the author or authors and the date of publication (American Psychological Association, 2009). The inclusion of references in a paper is critical in enabling the reader to acquire complete information on the sources that are included in the reference list at the last part of the paper. Inciting any direct quotations that are included in the paper, they must comprise the author, year, and page number.

APA style demands that all the sources that are included in the paper must be included in the references and vise versa. The references page starts on a new page and the heading References appears just below the Running Head and is centered. Furthermore, APA style requires that all the references that are included in the reference page be arranged alphabetically by the last names of the first author, and the second line of every reference entry be formatted with a hanging indent. A significant number of all references comprises the author or authors, the year of publication, reference source, and the electronic retrieval information.

Reference

American Psychological Association. (2009). Mastering APA Style: Students Workbook and Training Guide. (6^th ed.). New York, NY: American Psychological Association.