Category: Psychology 2075

In modern conditions, the flows of contradictory information are significantly increasing. As a result, a person finds himself in a problematic cognitive situation when it is necessary to adequately assess and respond to messages coming from different social groups, including authorities. Personality increasingly finds itself in situations of cognitive dissonance and is not always able to find the right solution to the problem (Egan et al., 2007). Another factor determining the studys relevance is the increasing labor market competition. After receiving higher education, many specialists are unemployed or do not work in their primary specialty. Accordingly, in the labor market, the most in-demand are specialists who are able to respond quickly and adequately in critical situations and focus on productive behaviors in the case of cognitive dissonance. Thus, the problem of subjective determination of the choice of behavioral models in situations of cognitive dissonance in modern society is significant.

Research hypothesis: it is assumed that the predictors of choosing a behavior strategy in a situation of cognitive dissonance can be such subjective characteristics as anxiety, self-esteem, and locus of control.

In this study, participants will be selected based on voluntariness and anonymity. To achieve inclusiveness, age, gender, and racial groups will be allocated with a certain mandatory number of participants.

The independent variables: number of study participants, time of the test

The dependent variables: development and implementation of a correctional and developmental program aimed at changing unproductive patterns of behavior when solving contradictory cognitive tasks.

Several methods were used: theoretical analysis of scientific sources, methods of mathematical statistics (Pearson point-biserial correlation coefficient), and qualitative analysis of the data obtained based on the comparison and hierarchy of the severity of variables and their dominance. As part of the empirical research, specific methods were used in the dissertation: Locus of control by J. Rotter; methods of self-assessment diagnostics.

In the first step, methodological and theoretical approaches to studying the issue of cognitive dissonance were explored together with theoretical analyses of psychological, educational, and philosophical literature. The second stage involved the creation of a sample of respondents, a pilot stage of empirical research, statistical processing, and quantitative analysis of the findings. The subjective indicators of a cognitive dissonance-related behavior approach are a sufficient sense of self-worth, an internal locus of control, a low to moderate level of anxiety, rising cognitive activity, and resolving the cognitive dissonance.

Statistical Analysis: 2 points are assigned for the selected behavior model. The sum of points scored according to the specified number of behavior patterns indicates an inherent or non-inherent type of behavior in a situation of chronic failure. 10-12 points  this behavior model manifests itself steadily, 6-8 points  this behavior model is characteristic of the subject, 0-4 points  this behavior model is uncharacteristic of the subject.

Relevance: the results obtained during theoretical and empirical research can be successfully used in teaching psychological disciplines, in the development of special courses, as well as in the preparation and conduct of lectures and practical classes in general, personality, and pedagogical psychology.

Limitations: in the developed test for respondents, it is necessary to reflect on the correct questions and principles on which a complete and honest answer will be given. In case of contradictions, the results of the study may be subject to distortion.

Reference

Egan, L. C., Santos, L. R., & Bloom, P. (2007). The Origins of cognitive dissonance. Psychological Science, 18(11), 978983. Web.

Introduction

Personality traits reflect peoples characteristic patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. Personality is defined as the enduring characteristics and behaviors that constitute a persons unique adjustments to life, including traits, interests, drives, values, and many more. The definitions are diverse and have myths surrounding them (Bergner, 2020). The first pertains to the consistent differences between individuals, in which the study of personality focuses solely on explaining stable human psychological characteristics. The second definition emphasizes the qualities that make all people alike and that which separates psychological man from other living species. This duality helps one to understand and embrace the complexity of personalities.

Psychology categorizes diverse personalities into groups explained by theories researchers have tried to explain over the years. There are six major categories of theories; Psychodynamic theory, by Sigmund Freud, divides the brain into three parts the ID, the ego, and the superego. The Trait theory, where personalities vary according to the continuum of essential personality traits. The third category is the Humanistic theory, where personality is seen as not just behavior but also as what someone believes in.

It proposes that someones personality heavily depends on their thoughts. Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers (Purswell, 2019) are the fathers of these theories. Social cognitive theory; encompasses behaviorism, social learning theory (Rumjaun & Narod 2020), and expectancy-value theory. The fifth theory, biological theory, asserts that brain structures and neurophysiology determine a persons personality. Lastly, the Evolutionary theory by Charles Darwin explains that human personality is primarily the result of genes and most valuable traits (Maranges et al., 2020). In this paper, the trait theory, the most common theory, is described in depth concerning other theories; how similar and different they are.

Background of Trait Personality Theory

Trait theory in psychology is based on the idea that people differ based on the strength and concentration of simple trait dimensions and has been broadened to whole trait theory in some studies (Fleeson et al., 2019). There are three primary criteria for different personality traits (Prentice, 2019); consistency, the traits need to be different across different settings in their activities of daily living. Second is stability; a trait is to some extent stable over time as, at 20 years, if someone was a silent person, at 30, the trait will still be the same. Lastly, individual differences exist in behaviors related to a particular trait. For example, people vary in their levels of silence. All these three together describe what trait personality theory stands for.

Difference Between Trait Theory to Other Theories

As seen above, psychologists have developed various theories to explain the diverse personality types. However, they all focus on the trait theory, which explains how personality works. These traits are the building blocks of a particular personality. Unlike other personality theories like psychoanalytic or humanistic theory, the trait theory focuses on the differences between individuals (Fajkowska & Kreitler, 2018), whereby the combination and interaction of different traits build a distinctive personality in every person. Trait theory focuses on identifying and measuring these individual personality characteristics. It has recognized between-person differences and within-person variability (Lievens et al., 2018). This makes it easier to understand how people act within themselves and with others in society.

Traits are a variety of descriptions of human behavioral attributes. In 1936, Gordon Allport, a psychologist, researched to narrow down the millions of words that described different personality traits (Doremus, 2020). He came up with three categories; cardinal traits that develop later in life, central traits; which are usually general characteristics that form the foundation of a personality, for example, intelligent and lastly, secondary traits that are related to someones attitude and often manifest under certain situations such as impatient. Other psychologists, such as Raymond Cattell, adopted this categorization system but focused their research on the origins of personality formation (Edwards, 2020). The developments and studies described above have allowed science to make significant progress in studying human behavioral characteristics.

Differences and Similarities between Trait Theory and Humanistic Theory

In comparing the two, only a few similarities have been found by researchers in the past year, and on the other side, there are many differences. The only point where the two theories concur is where both agree that a persons personality is somewhat invented by the choices the person makes. Onto the differences, Humanistic theory allows a persons personality to be manipulated by external factors and viewed as a whole (Navy, 2020). These factors either positively or negatively alter someones personality, while trait theory does not.

Furthermore, the humanistic approach to personality highlights the subjective reality rather than the objective reality in the trait approach (Asare & Yeboah, 2021). It emphasizes how an individual sees themselves as Abraham Maslow, a Humanist put it in his hierarchy of needs, with psychological needs at the bottom and self-actualization at the top. He argues that a person acts according to where he finds himself to fulfill their needs is closely related to self-determination theory (Bland & DeRobertis, 2018). This contrasts sharply with the trait theory, where personality is seen as objective, and the person can manipulate the situation to suit their personality rather than their situation changing them.

Difference and Similarity Between Trait Theory and Psychoanalytic Theory

The psychoanalytical theory of personality by Freud focuses on three parts of the brain the ID, the ego, and the superego (Nagel, 2020). He argues that, in the end, human behavior is dictated by either their aggressive or sexual drive. This is an entirely different view from how the trait theory dictates the origin of personality, as described above. The psychoanalytical theory holds that control of traits is unconscious and that the unconscious part of the brain contributes to how people behave (Zhang, 2020). Another similarity is that they both oppose the idea that external factors control human behavior and personality. Trait and psychoanalyst theorists believe there is always a selfish motive behind an action. Lastly, Sigmund argues that a persons personality changes from infancy to adulthood.

Reflective Activity

Description

The tool used to analyze ones personality, as provided, was the International Personality Item Pool- Neuroticism, Extraversion, and Openness (IPIP-NEO). The tool was tested and proven to be suitable for all ages, races ethnicity, where criteria for translation was developed for the diversity of languages. It is a self-reported questionnaire that assesses someones personality according to the big five models (Johnson, Kajonius, 2019). It is an online page developed by AidaForm service and uses Formula Fields to calculate the scoring of every personality automatically. The tools incorporate the use of the five major personality factors; Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Neuroticism, and Openness. These five factors show through research that it is a reliable tool to establish ones personality (Adani & Febriani2020). All these events can be described appropriately by following Gibbs reflective cycle.

To effectively fill a questionnaire, accessing it through to filling in the asked questions should be seamless and easy. For this particular tool, accessing it was a challenging task. More links were incorporated inside the webpage, thus making the recipient easily confused about which path to follow. The questions were asked in a simple, understandable way, and the a or b format of answering the questions made the process easier and more efficient. This format of answering questions enables one to concentrate more on which statement describes them more accurately than on ensuring their answer is well put for understanding. The experience of using the tool can be noted as successful since, with its help of it, all tasks were completed. After answering all the questions presented, the site gives the result corresponding to what answers the person gives. The experience of using the tool can be described as a new experience in the field of human characteristics analysis.

Feelings

Before undertaking the test, I felt excited to learn more and understand their personality better. It is important to know that after passing the test, people will see a result corresponding to their thoughts. After gaining access to the questionnaire, it was found that the questions were designed in such a way that, in some situations, they could be misleading. While answering the questions, I had mixed feelings about how they were asked. I would be confident that the questions were carefully structured to capture a particular trait and that each question was necessary. However, some questions were too similar, making them easier to answer.

Almost all questions except a few were clear and simple, especially for knowledgeable people. However, there is a possibility that an ignorant person will give answers in such a way that the results will be inaccurate. The system used to answer the questions was user-friendly as it only required me to click on the answer I agreed on. Despite the advantage of the criteria of answering questions, it could make uninterested candidates click without thinking through it, thus again making the quality of the results questionable.

Evaluation

The test results were categorized into five units; scores greater than 18, strong tendencies towards organism, and so on till the last, less than 14; with a relatively strong tendency towards a mechanism. The results about a personality type reflected my personality perfectly. It suggested leaning towards mechanism, which was explained as a group of people who view the world as a machine. These people have stable behavior that does not change over time, and physical progress is repeated until energy is exhausted. These characteristics explain my character, stable and repetitive behavior until something is done or energy is exhausted. In that case, I would agree with the findings of the assessment tool. The tool revealed that I am a more programmed person and work well with systems that are consistent throughout. That being in a system creates a better chance of me meeting my goals in anything than working in an environment with no particular system. On completion, what was good about it was the fact that it completely reflected the accurate personality, however, the only limitation was the process.

Some questions were in line with the theories of personality, for example, someones view on whether perspective on things and situations changes the outcomes. This is in line with the humanistic and, to some extent, trait theories. The two were very particular about the contribution of the external environment in influencing how one behaves and thus consequently dictates their personality (Eysenck, 2019). As seen in Maslows theory, stage one finds itself dictates how one behaves (Louca, Esmailinia & Thoma, 2021). Moreover, in trait theory, the external environment had little to do with the persons personality changes.

Conclusion

From the tool, a personality type could be the greatest blessing or obstacle in meeting goals. How one sees life is very important. This could be a motivator for one or the complete opposite. What aids in the perspective is the type of personality one has (Fickman, 2020). Under the five major personality types, as explained in a study published in the Journal of Vocational Behaviour, 2001, the personality dimension that one has determined the chances one has at success. This factor thus emphasizes the importance of personality assessment because it could make someone understand their actions and feelings more. If needed, change is incorporated to improve the quality of life.

In this case, the personality reflected could elevate one to achieve their goals in all spectrums. However, when a personality does not develop, changing it is a practical way to correct the situation. Personalities that show more significant degrees of conscientiousness and stability, as in this case, have shown more capability to thrive in careers over the years. This thus shows the predictive power of personality in dictating the quality of life one lives socially and career-wise.

Therefore, personality has been discussed in depth, and various theories have been explained. Various theorists and psychologists who have contributed immensely to understanding different personalities have been seen and appreciated. Personalities are still under research and have yet to be fully understood, even though they have been seen to influence how individuals, lives run significantly. Therefore, more studies must be done to enable a broader understanding of personalities and their theories to improve the quality of living, the perspective of persons, and overall quality of life.

References

Adeani. S., & Febriani. B. (2020). Using Gibbs Reflective Cycle in making reflections on literary analysis. Indonesian EFL Journal, 6(2), 139-148. Web.

Asare. O., & Yeboah. R. (2021). Maslows theory of needs is a spice in conceptual textile surface designing. International Design and Art Journal, 3(2), 234-245.

Bergner. M. (2020). What is personality? Two myths and a definition. New ideas in Psychology, 57, 100759. Web.

Bland. E. & DeRoberties. M. (2018). Tapping the humanistic potential of self-determination theory: Awakening to paradox. The humanistic psychologist, 46(2), 105.

Doremus, C. F. (2020). Trait Theory of Allport. The Wiley Encyclopedia of Personality and Individual Differences: Models and Theories, 413-416. Web.

Edwards, D. J. (2020). Psychology of Health and Illness. The Textbook of Health and Social Care, 20.

Eysenck. H. (2019). Trait theories of personality. Companion Encyclopedia of Psychology, 622640. Web.

Fickman. L. (2020). Personality changes predict early career outcomes. Making personality changes can promote success. ScienceDaily. Web.

Fleeson. W., Jayawickreme. E., Zachry. E. C (2019). Whole trait theory: An Integrative approach to examining personality structure and process. Personality and individual differences, 26(11), 136

Johnson, A., & Kajonius. J. (2019). Assessing the structure of the five factor model of personality (ipip-neo-120) in the public domain. Europes Journal of Psychology, 15(2), 260. Web.

Kreitler. S., & Fajkowska. M. (2018). Status of the trait concept in contemporary personality psychology: are the old questions still the burning questions? Journal of Personality, 511. Web.

Lievens. F., Lang. W. B., Fruyt. F., Corstiens. J., & Ronald. V. (2018). The Predictive power of peoples intraindividual variability across situations: Implementing the whole trait theory in assessment. Journal of Applied psychology, 103(7), 753. Web.

Louca. E., Esmailinia S., & Thoma. N. (2021). A critical review of Maslows Theory of Spirituality. Journal of Spirituality in Mental Health, 1-17. Web.

Maranges, H. M. (2020). Evolutionary theory of personality. Wiley Online Library. Web.

Nagel. E. (2020). Methodological issues in psychoanalytical theory. Psychoanalysis Scientific Method and Philosophy, 38-56. Web.

Navy. L. (2020). Theory of human motivation-Abraham Maslow. Science of Education in Theory and Practice, 1728. Web.

Prentice. M. (2019). Integrating whole trait theory and self-determination theory. Journal of Personality, 87(1), 56-69.

Rumjaun. A.& Narod. F. (2020). Social learning theory. Science Education in Theory and Practice.

Zhang. S. (2020). Psychoanalysis: The influence of Freuds theory in personality psychology. International Conference of Mental Health and Humanities Education, 229232.

The psychodynamic theory, otherwise known as psychanalytical theory, describes that humans develop through phases where they encounter different challenges of bodily needs and societal demand standards. The ability to address these challenges as they grow describes a persons potential to acquire knowledge and interact with other people to control uneasiness. Transitioning from these phases and the capability to overcome every encounter determines an individuals personality; this defines the varying personalities of different people. Sigmund Freud, born in 1856, is the pioneer of psychodynamic theory. On the other hand, ecological systems theory describes how human development is influenced by various factors surrounding them. These factors, individually or collectively, have significant impacts on their development. Their effects reflect from the immediate surrounding, family, and friends to society in its entirety; interestingly, the impact of one level significantly influences the interrelationship of the other levels. Urie Bronfenbrenner, born in 1917, pioneered the ecological systems theory. There are differences between psychoanalytic and ecological systems theories; however, they are applicable in schools.

In psychoanalytic theory, the argument is based on the unconscious mind, unlike ecological system theory which is based on the environment. Psychoanalytic breaks down development into five stages: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital (Berk, 2018). In an oral stage, birth -1 year, the babies develop sucking desires toward the breast; if not met, they develop smoking as they grow. In the Anal stage, 1  3 years, children are excited to hold and release urine and feces; this determines childrens orderliness and disorderliness. In the phallic stage,3  6 years, children have genital stimulation and they feel guilty when they misuse it. In latency, 6  11 years, genital stimulation disappears, and children develop new social values from same-sex peers and adults. Finally, in adolescence, sexual impulse reappears, leading to marriage.

On the other hand, in ecological system theory, childrens general surroundings influence their development. Bronfenner divides it into four zones: microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and macrosystem (Berk, 2018). The microsystem, immediate family, school, and local playing ground, affect childrens and parents behavior; their relationship is bidirectional. Adults influence childrens behavior by guiding them, while on the other hand, children evoke adults reactions through their behavior; when it happens repeatedly, it impacts development. The mesosystem describes the interrelationship between different microsystems in the childs development, for instance, the effect of the interrelationships between the school, parents, and teachers on the childs development. The exosystem includes working places, religious institutions, and health facilities; the interactions and services offered in the places impact development. Finally, the macrosystem consists of factors that indirectly influence the development of dependents; it affects the other zones of their surroundings; for instance, the governments favorable parenting policies, the macrosystem positively impacts the parents, microsystem, and thus the development of the child.

Psychoanalytic theories have individual weaknesses based on their research backgrounds. For instance, in Freuds theory, research was based on adults who had problems with sexual repression in the nineteenth century, not children. This, therefore, does not give substantial evidence does not give verifiable evidence for its arguments. The research is limited and valid from birth to adolescence; it does not cover adulthood and old age (Berk, 2018). Furthermore, the research was only limited to Viennese society and made general assumptions about other cultures. On the other hand, ecological system theory is one of the most recent theories with up-to-date information, thus making it more valid than earlier research (Berk, 2018). It is based on the influence factors surrounding individuals and the effects on their development. The theory covers the development of all ages, from birth to old age. Ecological systems theory has a universal approach applicable in any cultural setting, making it more reliable and verifiable.

Psychoanalytic theory helps understand the reason or sources of certain behaviors in students. Educators can evaluate, identify possible reasons for specific performances, and initiate support if necessary. This will help create a proper and conducive environment to facilitate a smooth learning process. It emphasizes the importance of close teacher-student involvement in education, enhancing performance where the student can open up if there is any underlying affecting their performance or general well-being (Dimitrijevi, 2018). Psychoanalysis theory also informs appropriate disciplinary measures for students that may not evoke memories of the painful experiences they might have had in the past.

Ecological systems theory enables educators to provide a conducive environment for students considering that it influences their development. It plays a critical role in the education of children with special needs by guiding the development of suitable learning systems to cater to their learning needs effectively; it engages the educator, parent, and school administrators in deciding how best to offer personalized learning. In addition, it has been used to combine educational and psychological theory that enables educators to consider other social factors of the student, such as family relationships that might contribute to their changing behaviors or poor performance (Dobson & Douglas, 2018). The educator will initiate appropriate steps and engage relevant parties in addressing the issue for students psychological well-being and overall school performance.

In conclusion, psychoanalytic theorys argument is based on the unconscious, which breaks down development into oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital stages, while ecological systems theorys argument is based on the surroundings, including microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and macrosystem. Psychoanalytic theory has weaknesses compared to ecological systems theory since its research was conducted in adults around the 19^th century in Vienna and is valid from birth to adolescence, while ecological systems theory is the most recent, universally suitable for all cultures, and valid from birth to old age. Both psychoanalytic and ecological system theories are applied in schools.

References

Berk, L. E. (2018). Development through the lifespan (7th ed.). Pearson.

Dimitrijevi, A. (2018). A mixed-model for psychoanalytic education. International Forum of Psychoanalysis, 27(2), 121125.

Dobson, G. J., & Douglas, G. (2018). Who would do that role? Understanding why teachers become SENCos through an ecological systems theory. Educational Review, 72(3), 298318.

Many theorists have developed various developmental theories to explain the cognitive developmental stages. One of the famous theorists is Jean Piaget, a Swiss national born to Rebecca Jackson and Arthur Piaget. At age ten, he was interested in animals and wrote a scientific paper on an albino sparrow. He studied at the University of Neuchatel and later studied psychology at the University of Zurich (Sanghvi, 2020). He wrote Piagets theory based on direct observations of his children. Piaget proposed four developmental stages in his theory which include sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational (Marwaha, 2017). Each stage has distinct cognitive development, which can be seen in most children. According to Piagets theory, the development of children is the same despite being in different environmental and cultural contexts in the world (Marwaha, 2017). This paper will present my autobiography, integrate it with Piagets development theory and evaluate if the theorists ideas are fully developed or if he missed some of the points.

According to Piagets developmental stages, the concrete stage is between seven to eleven years. Children begin to have logical reasoning during this stage and drop their egocentric thoughts (Babakr et al., 2019). This is where they drop their egocentric logic of thinking that the world thinks like them and starts accommodating new ideas (Sanghvi, 2020). During this stage, my parents divorced; however, their divorce did not significantly impact me because I did not understand the logic of being brought up by a single parent. Although I could understand what was happening, I could not contemplate its effects on me. I think this divorce affected the later stage of my life because, according to Piaget, a child does not process information the way an adult does (Marwaha, 2017). Thus, my mum, whom we were left with, had to keep assuring me everything will be all right. Children need communication for them to understand different perceptions. This enables me to understand why my mum kept on asking me if I was fine to know if there was anything I wanted to talk about.

The next stage is the formal operational stage which spans from 12 years upwards. This is the last stage in Piagets theories, allowing individuals to think abstractly and understand ideas (Sanghvi, 2020). In this stage, children or adults can see solutions from multiple points. Having grown up in Chicago, I agree with Piaget that children can reason abstractly during the formal operational stage (Sanghvi, 2020). At this age, I understood several things in my life that I could not see in my previous stage. For instance, the impact of the divorce hit hard during this period when I could see other children being visited by their parents. I could see them interact with their dads, which got me thinking about my father and how life would be if we all lived together as a family. This implies that I could see things abstractly and make sense of life situations.

In addition, during the formal operational stage, I could solve problems. During this age, I was in my 12^th grade and was performing very well in school. I could solve non-complex numerical problems using different methods and was very good at science. According to Piaget, adolescents begin to have inductive and deductive reasoning in solving problems during this stage (Sanghvi, 2020). Some common problems I could solve at this age include the pendulum and the testing of different hypotheses. For instance, I understood the different forces responsible for the pendulums movement. In addition, I could formulate a hypothesis and test them, which shows that Piaget was correct that a person can think abstractly during this stage.

Piagets developmental stages capture most of the cognitive developments that happen during a childs growth. The four stages, sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational, have distinct differences which are notable in any child across different cultures. This implies that although the study was conducted on western children only, they are equally applicable to children in other parts of the world (Sanghvi, 2020). For instance, although my parents had divorced during the concrete operational stage, I could not contemplate the effects of the event on my life as I could during my formal operational stage. This shows that between these two periods, several cognitive changes have occurred. In the formal concrete stage, I had more understanding of the things surrounding me than when I was in the concrete stage.

However, Piagets development theory does not come without its drawbacks. According to Piaget, children who could not meet the definition of various cognitive stages had missed the previous stages (Marwaha, 2017). This may not be right for every child because underlying factors may cause some changes. For instance, after the divorce of my parents, I was not doing well in class because of the social difficulties facing me. Although I could not notice it, the divorce impacted my development and may have delayed the transition from the concrete operational stage to the formal operational stage. This implies that not all children unable to perform various tasks are affected by their previous stage (Marwaha, 2017). Some may be affected by other social, cultural, or educational issues within them. After some while, I recovered my studies and continued performing well, which shows that having delays in some cognitive stages does not necessarily mean that a child missed the previous stage.

The other main issue in Piagets theories is that his theories ignored culture and diversity. For Piaget to develop his developmental stages, he had to ignore the social, educational, and cultural background of a child (Sanghvi, 2020). Instead of examining children from diverse backgrounds, Piaget only investigated children in western society. Childrens life patterns and cultural context significantly shape their future lives (Babakr et al., 2019). For instance, children in nomadic life find more difficulty in dealing with numbers than children from western countries. My parents divorced when I was young, which has impacted my cognitive development. I do not expect to behave like a child with both parents because of the social differences. Children raised by single parents are likely to have more developmental challenges than those brought up by both parents (Babakr et al., 2019). Thus, Piaget should have considered the cultural aspect in formulating his theories because people live in diverse cultural places.

The other criticism of Piagets theory is the distinct stages he classifies development. Many people question whether the developmental stages in children take place in sequential stages. Although Piagets developmental stages are common in most students, it does not imply that they have to take place sequentially (Babakr et al., 2019). For instance, due to the diversity, I overstayed the concrete stage elaborated in Piagets developmental stages. According to the formal operational stage definition and distinctions, I started to think abstractly when I was fifteen (Marwaha, 2017). Some children in school were in lower grades but could conduct arithmetic problems better than I. This implies that the stages do not have to be sequential, as Paiget put them, because some children are more talented than others and may have more understanding of some phenomena before they reach the age described in the stages (Babakr et al., 2019). For instance, I was good at science and could easily formulate a hypothesis and test them before I was the age of 12 years. However, during the same time, I could not solve arithmetic problems which show that the stages do not have to follow a specific sequence.

I have learned various things from his theories, such as not all children undergo the said stages. Some children are talented and may have specific skills earlier than others. However, I have learned that the theory has various drawbacks such as Piagets theory does not factor different cultures and social factors in his theories. He standardizes all children in his theory which is why the theory may not apply to some children, such as the nomads. In addition, Piagets theory assumes that if a child does not meet the explanations of a certain stage, they must have missed the previous stages, which is incorrect because sometimes they may miss them to societal and social factors. Finally, Piagets theory relies on childrens sequential development, which is incorrect because some children may have talents in some activities and develop them before others. This study has not focused on the sensorimotor and preoperational stages because they are at a time when a person cannot observe and note changes within themselves because they are too young.

References

Babakr, Z. H., Mohamedamin, P., & Kakamad, K. (2019). Piagets cognitive developmental theory: Critical review. Education Quarterly Reviews, 2(3), 517524. Web.

Marwaha, S. (2017). Prevalence of principles of Piagets theory among 4-7-year-old children and their correlation with IQ. Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research, 11(8). Web.

Sanghvi, P. (2020). Piagets theory of cognitive development: A review. Indian Journal of Mental Health, 7(2), 9096. Web.

Music plays an essential role in many peoples lives. Plenty of people enjoy listening to music while doing chores, going on walks, and exercising. Some of them do not want the predictability of knowing what song comes next, which is why the iPods shuffle feature is such a convenience. It creates a playlist in which songs are arranged randomly, and each song plays only once. With the benefit of this innovation comes the question of whether the arrangement of songs is truly random. Various examples showcase that randomness is not exactly random in the shuffle feature, with the iPod seemingly giving preference to the same artists or completely ignoring others (Newsweek staff par. 2). The ways this innovation has been applied shows that the nature of the concept of randomness is much more complex and intricate than one might think.

In order to answer the question of whether the shuffle really plays users songs randomly, one must attempt to define randomness. When I hear the word random, a notion of unexpected comes to mind, for example, not being able to tell which side a coin lands. While considering the peoples experiences with the shuffle, that is, them being frustrated with the shuffles arrangement, I found that I was not surprised by this outcome. The idea of random as unexpected is exhibited in these examples: people expected a playlist with songs that would vary from each other.

On the contrary, the feature simply strings titles with no regard for how they relate to each other. Therefore, I am of the opinion that the shuffle feature is truly random. It shows no consideration for the songs coherence with one another or whether they are new to the music library. As John Allen Paulos explained, people tend to find patterns in random ministrations of life (Newsweek staff par. 7). Because of this quirk of human nature, even a random string of songs can be open to predictability. In addition, a person cannot say with absolute certainty whether a sequence of songs is arranged randomly or not, with the human mind trying to catch onto possible patterns.

In conclusion, the nature of randomness in the shuffle feature of the iPod has been put under scrutiny. Users of this innovation report a seeming lack of randomness with the generated song sequences when some artists play constantly, and others are neglected. Despite this evidence, the human tendency to search for patterns can be the answer to the problem. This is supported by the fact that the very notion of randomness includes disregard for the songs coherence with each other.

Work Cited

Newsweek Staff. Does Your iPod Play Favorites? Newsweek.

The first article is about integrating machine learning into the behavioral sciences. The biological, biomedical, and behavioral sciences are currently gathering more data than ever before, driven by ground-breaking technological advancements. To improve human health, it is imperative to develop time- and money-effective ways for analyzing and interpreting these data. A unique opportunity in this regard is provided by the recent development of machine learning as a potent method for integrating multimodality, and multi-fidelity data, and exposing connections between related events. Machine learning alone, however, disregards the fundamental rules of physics and may provide ill-posed issues or illogical answers. Finding processes that explain the genesis of function through the use of multiscale modeling is an effective method for integrating multiscale data (Alber et al., 2019). Multiscale modeling, however, frequently falls short of effectively combining huge datasets from many sources and resolution levels. In this instance, the study shows how machine learning and multiscale modeling can naturally complement one another to provide reliable prediction models that incorporate the underlying physics to handle poorly-posed issues and explore vast design spaces. Ordinary differential equations, partial differential equations, data-driven approaches, and theory-driven approaches are four overarching topical areas where authors review the current literature, highlight applications, and opportunities, address open questions, and talk about potential challenges and limitations.

Researchers use their knowledge of applied math, computer science, computational biology, biophysics, biomechanics, engineering mechanics, experiments, and medicine to achieve these objectives. Understanding systems for which the underlying data are insufficient and the physics are not yet fully known is a significant difficulty in the biological, biomedical, and behavioral sciences. In other words, scientists could use machine learning to explore design spaces and find correlations with a full collection of high-resolution data. Researchers could use multiscale modeling to forecast system dynamics and find causality with a validated and calibrated set of physics equations and material characteristics (Alber et al., 2019). They can maximize the potential of both machine learning and multiscale modeling by combining them, with the ultimate aim of offering quantitative predictive insight into biological systems. The biological, medicinal, and behavioral sciences frequently use standard differential equations in time. This is largely because observations and data collection are relatively simple at the molecular, cellular, organ, or population scales without taking into consideration geographical heterogeneity, which is frequently more challenging to obtain.

The second article, which was retrieved from the Bellevue University Library, is about behavioral science related to personality in the context of machine learning and big data. I was able to identify this article by using the search system in the online library. I have typed the relevant keywords and looked for the articles that suited my topic. I used Bellevue Universitys online library to search for the article. If I was expected to write a 10-page paper on the topic that is covered in this article, some university resources like libraries, professors assistance, and study places would be available for me to complete the paper. If a peer in one of my courses was having difficulty identifying a research topic, I would go for a consultation with the professor of the course.

The chosen article is based on the analysis of fourteen empirical studies. In summary, those articles offer a preview of what our discipline could be able to do in the future when researchers want to use multimodal behavioral sensing, big data, machine learning, or artificial intelligence approaches. They also contain several cautions and warnings, and they inform us of the best ways to take advantage of the numerous chances while also navigating the numerous difficulties scientists can encounter. In the years to come, algorithm-based approaches to personality research and assessment will probably continue to grow in popularity and attract more attention and applications. A more behavioral science of personality in the era of multimodal sensing methods, big data, machine learning, and artificial intelligence is explored in the current special issue (Rauthmann, 2020). The paper emphasizes that despite the value of multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary study and collaboration, researchers must never lose sight of our interest in or use of psychological variables when concluding.

Among the observations made by the article, it was stated that its crucial to use strict guidelines for rigorous psychometric testing (such as evaluating various types of reliability and validity) when extracting algorithm-based trait or state scores from observed behavioral and large data. For instance, when analyzing convergences between self-reported trait scores and algorithm-based trait scores (e.g., retrieved from digital footprints), less focus was previously given on also demonstrating discriminant validity. Even though some types of reliability might be simpler to get due to ever-more-accurate measurements (such as via sensing signals and wearables), validity is a major challenge. Next, it was observed that the three main objectives of psychology in generaldescription, explanation, and predictionare sometimes conflated or not clearly distinguished from one another. According to the author, some types of personality psychology may be prone to some confusion, but they become even more pressing when using sensed behavioral and big data approaches. (Rauthmann, 2020, p. 595). It may be debatable whether scientists can identify these three in psychology at all, given that they may meld together and even serve as one another.

References

Alber, M., Buganza Tepole, A., Cannon, W. R., De, S., Dura-Bernal, S., Garikipati, K., Karniadakis, G., Lytton, W. W., Perdikaris, P., Petzold, L. & Kuhl, E. (2019). Integrating machine learning and multiscale modelingperspectives, challenges, and opportunities in the biological, biomedical, and behavioral sciences. NPJ digital medicine, 2(1), 1-11.

Rauthmann, J. F. (2020). A (more) behavioural science of personality in the age of multimodal sensing, big data, machine learning, and artificial intelligence. European Journal of Personality, 34(5), 593-598.

Abstract

Natural language processing (NLP) technologies have been widely acknowledged in clinical informatics research and have led to transformational improvements in recent years. Annotations at the different morphological levels require model-specific attributes and features, such as document content regarding patient status and report type. Document types include medical histories, named entities, and concepts diagnoses, symptoms, and treatments. Semantic attributes are typically used to develop and evaluate clinical NLP systems such as negation, severity, and temporality. In hypnotherapy, hypnosis is used as a therapeutic tool to help patients make reasonable changes in their lives. Understanding hypnosis is necessary to answer the question about hypnotherapy. Several medical disorders may be treated using hypnotherapy. Pain alleviation, emotional problems, and psychological changes have been documented as examples of hypnosis usefulness.

Introduction

The concept of hypnotherapy might be challenging to grasp for those who have never had the process themselves. When someone is in a hypnotic trance, they know their environment but are not fully conscious of their thoughts or feelings. Hypnotherapy is the process of applying the hypnosis concept in statuses of intensified and heightened suggestibility and awareness to find therapeutic solutions to mental dilemmas. Neurolinguistic programming is the set of skills that help to reveal the state of the brain and mind that affects communication behavior. Hypnotherapy and NLP have become essential players in the healthcare sectors in the world today. They are both employed to enhance the healing process and promote patients conscious and subconscious levels of the healing and the world.

Medical practice has revealed the existence of a beneficial relationship between the levels of a hypnotherapist, education, and NLP technologies knowledge. The relationship is significant in helping to achieve maximum care required by patients. NLP studies and hypnotherapy are broad fields gain popularity among medical scholars. Various literature reviews by several authors have been written, and this research will base its findings and conclusion on credible sources within the field of hypnotherapy and NLP studies. Currently, a significant relationship plays an essential role between hypnotherapists, education level, and individuals who know NLP. These levels of knowledge are studied separately in the literature; the clear effect of their connected action was not yet established. Thus, the topic is studied to establish the nature of the relationship between levels for further promotion of positive patient outcomes. A thorough literature review is done to explore the topic, and an analysis of multiple data about the separate relevant topics to deliver an evidence-based answer.

Literature Review

Hypnotherapy is the application of hypnosis, the state of heightened and intensified awareness to achieve solutions to various mental dilemmas through therapy. Both patients and professional psychologists can practice this technique to prevent distressing symptoms or disorders, relieve stress, or change behavior. This method is specifically beneficial for influencing others who endure these mental afflictions.

The history of hypnotherapy has been traced back to the Egyptians, Greeks, Romans, Indians, Persians, and Sumerians, who studied the altered state of mind and parapsychology. The development of hypnotherapy was earlier stagnant but started developing in the middle ages, where the Islamic scientists further studied to expand this branch of psychology. This revival arose simultaneously with the cultural and economic growth of the Mediterranean and the Middle East in the 18th century. For example, Dr. Frantz Anton Mesmer, a German doctor, created a technique to rid people of diseases in questionable demonstrations and was ridiculed for his orthodox method. Despite the criticism, he continued to conduct these performances and became successful. His colleague Armand De Puysegur worked on his research and showed that direct spoken commands attribute to hypnosis.

Further, Dr. James Braid, a Scottish optometrist, discovered that a person fixed on an object was more susceptible to the state of mesmerism. Additionally, Dr. Emily Coue, a psychologist initialized auto suggestions, a technique widely used today in self-treatment (Rahmanzadeh, 2017). Hence, she created this technique to help those with trouble doing an activity.

Modern hypnotherapy has evolved into a more applicable and flexible technique. Recently the study of hypnotherapy has been split into intrinsic and instrumental studies. Intrinsic studies are based on learning basic hypnosis and how it works. In contrast, instrumental studies are based on suggestions used in hypnosis and bring in new people outside the investigation into the picture. Significant results were achieved to understand the neuropsychological correlations of hypnotic practices for treating multiple clinical conditions. Based As such, one research was focused on treating psychological disorders (Jensen et al., 2017). This research has enhanced our understanding of the connection between hypnosis and neurological reactions, leading to the research of hypnotherapy and the flexibility of the treatments possible with this type of therapy (Crane, 2016). Hypnotherapy is a well-known alternative treatment that can elevate anxiety, stress, and pain relief. It has diminished pain during childbirth, cancer treatment, and even surgery. Moreover, it has been discovered to minimize undesired behavior such as bedwetting and smoking. However, this practice is not entirely accepted by the medical community.

Professional hypnotherapists in Australia have documented the statistical results of hypnotherapy for varying totals of consecutive patients. In one poll, 90.6% of the patients who desired to quit smoking successfully quit the act (Grace Space, 2019). Additionally, 71% of the patients were smoke-free after two years (Grace Space, 2019). In comparison with other treatments, hypnosis assists in quitting smoking 5% of smokers want to quit, the practice is victorious (Grace Space, 2019). The overall outcomes have shown that hypnotherapy is better than the rest. Another study shows the effect of hypnotherapy on chronic pain and alleviates the symptoms of depression of some workers in which 300 sewers and 50 cutters participated in the survey and experiment (Jensen et al., 2017). Moreover, 30 to 54% of the workers reported chronic pain and depression, reported a better outlook of life, and improved self-confidence (Jensen et al., 2017). This proves that hypnotherapy is quite effective. It can further be supported by the research on childrens response and relief supplied by self-hypnosis at a pulmonary pediatrics center. Of the 81 children, 75% returned for follow-up lessons, and of that amount of children, there was an improvement of 95% on resolution and psychological symptoms they initially had (Holt, 2019). These researches results point out that hypnotherapy might be helpful for physical and emotional support.

Ultimately, hypnotherapy is a functional technique with various degrees of success. For instance, it can enhance peoples morale under stress, elevate painful symptoms or disorders and even improve behavior. It seemingly benefits many people suffering from various mental ailments. Its future development is bound to change the world for the better. As a result of healthcare professionals concerns about patients health literacy, specific national initiatives like Open Notes have had low traction or adoption among patients. Rather than weighing in on the advantages of patient data access, healthcare providers are concerned that their patients may not grasp the jargon used in clinical notes. According to the researchers, NLP systems can recognize and associate sophisticated medical terminology with layman explanations. However, researchers like Rijk et al. (2019) criticize the practice due to insufficient evidence. Thus, NLP remains a controversial topic among scholars and medical workers.

Methods

The proper use of enormous data sources like EHR databases might primarily influence health care research and delivery. Because EHRs now includes so much free text, there has been a rise in research into clinical NLP methodologies and applications. The field has evolved in recent years, resolving many issues and implementing many suggestions. For example, de-identification, recognition, and categorization of medical concepts, semantic modifiers, and temporal information are recommended. Several everyday tasks have solved these issues. These include the CLEF eHealth challenges and the Semantic Evaluation (SemEval) challenges. These initiatives have created a worldwide NLP technique development platform.

Furthermore, open-source NLP software targeted to clinical literature has increasing use. A few examples of NLP software include cTAKES1 and CLAMP2, information extraction and retrieval infrastructure solutions like SemEHR, and general-purpose tools like GATE3 and Stanford CoreNLP. Like the Health NLP Center 5, new efforts attempt to improve resource sharing, allowing further advancement in NLP methodology availability, transparency, and repeatability. In recent years, behavioral, emotional, and cognitive markers and clues on how patients deal with various illnesses and therapies have been more available. Examples of text sources include social media, online doctor-patient interactions, and online therapy. Despite several similar objectives relating to mental health, the discipline is still smaller than biological or general clinical NLP.

A rise in NLP solutions for complicated clinical outcomes research is due to the maturity of NLP technique development and findings. NLP evaluation and appraisal procedures vary from clinical research methods, albeit both employ NLP for data preparation and extraction. These disparities must be clarified, and new techniques and methods developed to overcome the gap. However, the approach used in the research is somewhat not sufficient for giving a significant answer for the topic. Namely, the reviews of the scholars and articles used in work might be prejudiced; thus, the work results are also discriminatory. Yet, it is possible to overcome this problem by applying critical analysis to the data.

Results

Researchers may benefit from NLP techniques. To move this profession forward, more rigorous assessment procedures are needed. To overcome the issue of data access, synthetic data and new governance structures might be used. Extrinsic and thorough assessment workbenches are required. The use of structured protocols may improve reporting standards. One of the most important aspects of hypnosis is that it may be used with various therapeutic modalities, such as cognitive-behavioral therapy (Crane 2016). Learn to hypnotize yourself at home to lessen chronic pain, enhance sleep, or relieve some of the symptoms of despair or anxiety. Before amputations, soldiers were hypnotized by Army doctors, who utilized the technique for decades to alleviate agony. It has helped reduce pain in recent trials.

Discussion

Hence, it can be elaborated about the study results in a more critical manner. According to the studys findings, patients benefit from NLP-enabled systems because they bundle associated individuals health information with EHR notes, making it easier for patients to understand their EHRs (Grand Space, 2019, para. 8). NoteAid, an NLP tool developed by this research team to improve patient portal utilization was the subject of previous investigations. Using the CoDeMed and MedLink algorithms, NoteAid was shown to be most successful at identifying and connecting patients to medical jargon meanings. The doctors evaluations were mixed, with both favorable and negative comments.

Researchers have made a few changes after the study ended, they said. New lay definitions have been introduced to CoDeMed by researchers, enhancing the tools usability and patient access to definitions on their portal. The researchers will need to test this technology with patients in the future to confirm that it is usable by the general public. The researchers determined that the next step would be to conduct a study in which patients would test the system. In conjunction with patient portals like the VAs MyHealtheVet, tools like NoteAid may increase patient EHR understanding, leading to better patient experiences, engagement, and health knowledge. The healthcare business needs to account for patient education and health literacy gaps. Patients with a high degree of patient comprehension are more likely than those who do not become actively engaged in their treatment.

Thus, it can be said that the study has limitations in data unavailability at the moment. The critics and pro-articles about the discussed topics do not reach a certain conclusion, making it difficult to provide a certain answer. It was not expected that the researches and articles would show such a positive mark for the practices of NLP and hypnosis. Moreover, there are still questions about the relationship between the risks and benefits of the mentioned practices.

Conclusion

NLP is a feasible option for patient portal utilization, a procedure often impeded by a lack of health literacy on the part of the patient population. Recently published studies in medicine, NLP should be used with caution because of the potential for poor term linkage and algorithmic mistakes. In the interest of patient portals, NLP is a new and promising method. Medical data and clinician notes may be accessed via patient portals, which attempt to improve patient engagement by providing an adequate update about their health. However, these technologies become disadvantageous when patients are subjected to a barrage of medical jargon they cannot comprehend.

References

Crane, E., & A. (2016). Married Ohio lawyer Michael Fine jailed for hypnotizing women for sexual pleasure. Mail Online.

Grace Space. (2019). Does hypnosis work? Understanding the science of hypnotherapy. Grace Space Hypnosis.

Holt, R. (n.d.). Brief history of hypnosis. Clevedon Hypnotherapy. Web.

Jensen, M. P., Jamieson, G. A., Lutz, A., Mazzoni, G., McGeown, W. J., Santarcangelo, E. L., Demertzi, A., de Pascalis, V., Bányai, V. I., Rominger, C., Vuilleumier, P., Faymonville, M. E., & Terhune, D. B. (2017). New directions in hypnosis research: Strategies for advancing the cognitive and clinical neuroscience of hypnosis. Neuroscience of Consciousness, 2017(1).

Rahmanzadeh, S. (2017). Victim speaks out about lawyer convicted of hypnotizing his clients. ABC News.

Rijk, L., Derks, L., Grimley, B., & Hollander, J. (2019). The Evidence for NLP. International Coaching Psychology Review, 14(1).

Interpersonal relations are a complex process involving several people, each of whom has their own interests. When an individual engaged in the conversation feels as if they were threatened, a possibility of a defensive reaction emerges. As a result, interpersonal conflicts may occur, damaging the relationship. Jack Gibb describes opposition between the categories of defensive and supportive environments. The first group concerns potentially damaging reactions, which entail particular complications in the context of personal relationships. Simultaneously, the second set of categories ensures effective communication between people, which is indispensable in society. Nevertheless, the occurrences of defensive behaviors remain frequent, even though they often remain unnoticed by those who exhibit them. The purpose of this paper is to describe the nature and consequences of such defensive behaviors based on personal observations.

The framework described by Jack Gibb provides a comprehensive understanding of the difference between defensive and supportive environments. Overall, it divides peoples behavioral patterns into two major categories, and each of them comprises six specific points, as presented in Table 1. Each characteristic of a defensive climate has an opposing concept in the category of supportive behaviors. Accordingly, Gibb does not simply describe unhealthy patterns but proposes alternative approaches, which can counteract them. In fact, personal observations suggest that instances of defensive behavior happen often, and, in most cases, individuals do not realize the nature of their actions. An in-depth analysis of potentially unhealthy communication patterns allows for a better understanding of the issues, which may exist in relationships with other people. Gibbs comprehensive framework can be used in the process of self-reflexiveness both as an analysis model and as a reference point for self-enhancement. An in-depth examination of ones behavior helps to eradicate profound interpersonal issues and enables stronger ties with others.

Table 1. Jack Gibbs Categories of Defensive and Supportive Behaviors (Jenkinson).

Having become acquainted with Jack Gibbs framework, I was able to conduct a self-assessment in order to determine whether I am prone to defensive behaviors. As I analyzed my recent interactions with people who play important roles in my life, I managed to discern a particular pattern. In fact, I am prone to unhealthy behaviors, which fit the Evaluation category, according to Gibbs paradigm. This issue becomes apparent in the relationship with my best friend, including one of the recent instances. This person is highly important to me, and I enjoy spending time together with them. However, they are often late, which makes me pronounce phrases, which are both evaluating and condescending. One week ago, as I had to wait for my friend for twenty-five minutes, I felt frustrated because it was a cold, rainy day. I felt like that person was responsible for my frustration and remarked that they were always late and disrespectful. In addition, I said that my friend would have arrived more quickly if they had actually been organized and disciplined.

Such situations happen quite often, and we do not usually allow them to worsen our relationship. Moreover, I usually refrain from evaluating commentaries unless I allow external factors to influence my judgment. In the described scenario, the rain contributed to my frustration, which is why it translated into a tense conversation, as I felt like my friend had come on purpose and had not cared about my feelings. Accordingly, that person reacted poorly, as my unjustified evaluation caused a defensive response. They subconsciously utilized the fleeing pattern instead of direct confrontation and attempted to counter my behavior by being distant. This development damaged the nature of our interaction for the remainder of the evening. As a result, a potentially entertaining meeting of the best friends ultimately was sub-optimal.

Accordingly, it is possible to say that my behavior created a defensive environment, which also had an immediate short-term effect. Furthermore, I did not notice the toxicity of such actions due to the overall level of frustration, of which my friend became an unnecessary victim. Fortunately, the long-term effect of this interaction was not substantial, as our relationship has been strong for several years. Nevertheless, the situation could have different with the people I know less, thus preventing potentially strong bonds from developing. Additionally, unless I take measures to avoid such defensive environment occurrences in the future, my relationship with this person may also deteriorate. Gibbs describes an opposition between evaluation and description, and our interactions can benefit from it. In this case, instead of channeling my frustration into personal, evaluating comments, I could have objectively discussed the situation. This way, my friend would have been aware of their lateness, and the lack of additional pressure would help them reflect on the situation instead of being under pressure. I should have mentioned that I had spent twenty-five minutes waiting for them without unnecessary comments regarding the alleged reasons for it.

Conclusion

In conclusion, particular behavioral patterns can create defensive climates in the relationships between people. If one of the parties cannot handle the situation objectively, the interaction acquires a certain level of toxicity, and the quality of the relationship may deteriorate. Jack Gibbs describes a model according to which defensive behaviors can be opposed by particular supportive actions. This model has the potential to ensure positive, mutually beneficial relationships. Therefore, it is important to remain self-aware in order to assess ones actions correctly and preserve meaningful relationships in modern society.

References

Gibbs Communication Climates. YouTube, 2014, Web.

Introduction

Social Cognitive Theory is one of the models that are used to explain the behavioral patterns of an individual. Developed in 1931 by Harold Brown and Edwin Holt, the relevance of the theory has increasingly become evident in our current society. According to Flower (2009), modern psychologists have been interested in explaining the relevance of the observed experience vis-à-vis the experience that a person went through. The scholar says that many people are quick to learn from the experiences of others. Instead of waiting to go through the same experience, they prefer seeing what happened to others and the outcome of such events in order to define their behavior. People will always avoid events that led to sad outcomes. They prefer following the footsteps of others who were successful in life. In this paper, the researcher will look at the relevance of social cognitive theory in defining ones behavior.

Explanation of how we were Born Based on the Social Cognitive Theory

According to Nooteboom (2010), many scholars are always interested in determining how different sociological theories explain the way in which we were born. Social Cognitive Theory does not explain the processes involved in creation. This is the major thing that the researcher considers to be missing in the theory. It does not mention anything to do with how we were born, and neither does it focus on human origin. It only focuses on behavioral.

Personality Development

Social Cognitive Theory holds that personality development is influenced by the environmental factors such as experiences, media influences, and social interactions. Contrary to many beliefs that people learn through what they experience in life, this theory holds that personality development is affected by what people observe. As Flower (2009) notes, human beings naturally fear pain and suffering. People are always keen to observe what others go through when they decide to take a given path in life. When people realize that the path taken by others results into pain then they will be keen to avoid it.

This means that personality development depends a lot on what people observe. Media influences also play a major role in ones personality development. This theory explains that when a person cannot learn from the immediate environment, he will try to learn from the available media instead. It is at this stage that the media plays an important role in ones personality development. This may come in different contexts. It is at this stage that factors such as films that people are exposed to start influencing their behavioral patterns. The last option is always the need to go through a given experience in order to determine the possible outcome. This is taken when a person realizes that the existing experiences of others that can be emulated cannot lead him to what he seeks to achieve. As Nooteboom (2010) says, when this path is taken, one would be keen to learn very first in order to avoid being subjected to pain. These three factors define personality development.

Why the Researcher Chose Social Cognitive Theory

The researcher chose this theory because of the need to understand the role of the observed experiences in the development of personalities. Human beings are quick to learn from the mistakes and successes of others. As Bandura (2008) puts it, many people always avoid following the path that is completely unexplored. This is so because of the fear of uncertainty. Many people like to have a clear knowledge of what their actions or behavioral patterns may result into under various contexts. They are keen to avoid getting involved in things that may lead to their downfall. That is why they prefer observing what happens to others before following the same path. This theory explains personality development in the context of what people learn in the society through observation.

What the Researcher Likes About the Theory

The researcher likes the detailed approach of explaining personality development as given in this theory. The theory has taken a more practical approach in explaining the factors that influence the behavior of individuals in our society. Ayotte (2011) says that many scholars have insisted that the best approach to learn about something is to go through an experience. However, this theory explains that one must not necessarily be subjected to a given experience in order to learn. In fact, people learn better by observing the experiences that others go through. This is one of the best theories that explain how children develop their personality as they grow. They are keen to observe what is going on in the environment. They get to know what the society considers good and what should be avoided.

What the Researcher Dislikes About the Theory

This theory has not received serious criticism among the scholars because of its practical approach in explaining personality development. The researcher did not like the fact that the theory does not explain why some people would want to follow a path that brought harm to others. The theory explains that people are keen to follow actions that helped others succeed in life. However, Zhang (2005) notes that the statistics from World Health Organization shows that the number of smokers is on the rise. It would be interesting to know how this theory would justify this trend given that people know that smoking is harmful to their health. These abnormal trends are not clearly explained in this theory.

Summary of Journal Articles and How the Theory Improved Some Aspects of Mental Health

Social Cognitive Theory has attracted the attention of many scholars in the contemporary world. The article by Wood and Bandura (2008), focused on the role of this theory on mental development of children. During this important stage of development, children are keen to observe what the society considers as normal and acceptable. Their mental development will depend on the environment in which they are subjected to, as explained in the Social Cognitive Theory.

Children who are parented by drunkards may have problems in their life. They are forced to emulate individuals whose mental capacity is constantly influenced by intake of substances like alcohol and drugs. This means that what they consider normal, based on their observed experiences from these people, may be unacceptable in the society. To change that behavioral pattern, such a person will need to be subjected to a new experience that will help him unlearn the negatives.

The article by Flower (2005) focused on communication skills as an aspect of mental health development. The scholar states that communication plays an important role in mental health. People suffering from psychological problems can only be given the necessary support if they have the capacity to interact with their psychologists through effective communication. It is only through this that the psychologists will get to know what the mental problem could be and how it can be addressed in order to improve the patients condition. The scholar holds that the personality of an individual, which is based on the observed experiences, will influence his communication skills.

The article by Compeau and Higgins (2005) focuses on the perception of an individual towards various social factors that may influence their mental health. Consumption of hard drugs such as Cocaine and Marijuana may affect the mental capacity of an individual. When such an individual believes that the only way to succeed is to consume these drugs based on what he saw on others, then convincing him that the drug can be harmful may not be easy. Understanding these facts make it easy for a psychologist to find alternative ways of improving their mental health.

Conclusion

Social Cognitive Theory has widely been used in the contemporary world to help explain the factors that shape a persons personality. The theory explains that personality of an individual is largely based on what is observed. Through observation, an individual is able to know the actions that may have painful outcomes and those that will have happy endings.

References

Ayotte, B. (2011). Using the Social Cognitive Theory to Investigate Physical Activity in Middle Aged and Older Married Couples. New York: Cengage. Web.

Compeau, D. & Higgins, C. (2005). Application of Social Cognitive Theory to Training for Computer Skills. Information Systems Research, 6(2), 118-143. Web.

Flower, L. (2005). The Construction of Negotiated Meaning: A Social Cognitive Theory of Writing. College Composition and Communication, 46 (1), 124-130. Web.

Flower, L. (2009). The construction of negotiated meaning: A social cognitive theory of writing. Carbondale: Southern Illinois Univ. Press. Web.

Nooteboom, B. (2010). A cognitive theory of the firm: Learning, governance and dynamic capabilities. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar. Web.

Wood, R. & Bandura, A. (2008). Social Cognitive Theory of Organizational Management. The Academy of Management Review, 14 (3), 361-384. Web.

Zhang, Y. (2005). Using social cognitive theory to model health behaviors among Chinese children. New Jersey: Wiley. Web.

For an accurate diagnosis, the practitioner must have extensive background information. Theoretical and methodological developments can considerably aid curriculum and teaching in biomedicine and education programs in biomedical informatics in the learning and cognition sciences. This is achieved through discussing topics like the methods used to understand medical data and technologys significance in clinical real concern and decision-making. The study examined medical students ability to diagnose illnesses by applying some learning techniques taken from cognitive science.

The study elucidates how, for more than three decades, researchers in the cognitive sciences have uncovered various insights that could be leveraged to build the most effective evidence-based strategy for training in differential diagnosis. Educators in the medical field have not yet standardized DDX instructions based on findings from cognitive science. It has been noted that when contrasted to expert instructor instruction by a reputable educator, a codified, behavioral science-based strategy can boost medical students capacities (Papa et al., 2007). A tutoring program built on the back of AI. This article has made significant progress in examining the topic by acknowledging the existence of evidentiary gaps and providing an explanation for them. The article is reliable because its approaches are well-outlined and discussed. That makes it easy for anyone to be able to understand the results. The KBIT, a commonly-applied method, was specifically named, and its application was clearly outlined.

Consequently, the article becomes more trustworthy because of its explained procedures and methods used in analyzing the data. The article also considered the findings of previous research on the same topic. Assumptions and limitations were discussed in the paper as well which strengthens the validity of the study. However, the article indicates that there is scant experimental information on how best to train for differential diagnosis (Papa et al., 2007). But this is not clearly stated or explained. The preceding assertion is, therefore, inadequate and poorly justified. The study had some limitations, chief among them being that it examined only two distinct approaches to teaching medical students in their second year (McGann, 2022). According to the results, once students were randomly assigned to either group, they received only 75 minutes of training before taking a 40-item exam consisting of examples that varied along a normal gradient from the simplest to the most complex. In addition, the strengths and disadvantages of the various approaches used in this study are not discussed. The text did not clarify what criteria were used to select the students for this study. In addition, the IQs of the students randomly selected for the study were not specified (He et al., 2021). It is common knowledge that peoples Intelligent Quotients are not the same. The methods utilized to choose the students involved in the experiment were not made entirely clear in the paper.

Instructional interventions can enhance the aforementioned cognitive processes, which naturally outline what the mind does during learning. Some interventions work to improve how new information fits in with established knowledge (Papa, 2021). Many others make an effort to simplify the information-gathering process. The third type is designed to improve long-term memory. After discussing these interventions, the study discussed how they relate to some of the most popular teaching strategies for medical education that have emerged since the 1970s (Syawaludin et al., 2022). More study is needed to determine the best way to combine principles from the cognitive sciences with computer-based tutorials and in-person teaching. Practical challenges in designing and delivering training programs can be enlightened by insights from the cognitive and learning sciences, which I believe are an essential part of the basic scientific component of biomedical informatics education.

References

He, X., Wang, H., Chang, F., Dill, S. E., Liu, H., Tang, B., & Shi, Y. (2021). IQ, grit, and academic achievement: Evidence from rural China. International Journal of Educational Development, 80, 102306.

McGann, M. (2022). Connecting with the subject of our science: Course-of-experience research supports valid theory building in cognitive science. Adaptive Behavior, 10597123221094360.

Papa, F. J. (2021). Learning Sciences Theories, Principles, and Practices Comprising a Framework for Designing a New Approach to Health Professions Education. Medical Science Educator, 31(1), 241-247.

Papa, F. J., Oglesby, M. W., Aldrich, D. G., Schaller, F., & Cipher, D. J. (2007). Improving diagnostic capabilities of medical students via application of cognitive sciencesderived learning principles. Medical Education, 41(4), 419-425.

Syawaludin, A., Prasetyo, Z. K., Jabar, C. S. A., & Retnawati, H. (2022). The effect of project-based learning model and online learning setting on analytical skills of discovery learning, interactive demonstrations, and inquiry lessons on the pre-service elementary teachers. Journal of Turkish Science Education, 19(2).