Category: Psychology 2075

Introduction

The competence-environmental press model is a proposed framework for understanding how people cope with stress and adversity. This model is useful in predicting outcomes such as psychological well-being, depression, and anxiety. The term life review has come to be used in various ways. Generally, it refers to reflecting on ones life and reviewing the good, bad, and neutral experiences that have shaped a person today. This reflection can help identify areas where a person can improve life and make choices that will lead to a more fulfilling existence. Kübler-Rosss theory has been a cornerstone in studying death and dying for more than four decades (Tyrrell et al., 2022). The theory was first articulated by Swiss psychiatrist Elisabeth Kübler-Ross in a 1969 paper, On Death and Dying (Tyrrell et al., 2022). Her work has been widely recognized as an essential contribution to understanding the human experience of death. The competence-environmental press model is a proposed framework for understanding how people cope with stress and adversity.

The Competence-Environmental Press Approach

The competence-environment press approach posits that individuals are born with particular innate abilities and that the environment in which they are raised influences the development of those abilities. This approach suggests that people are not born with a blank slate but come into the world with certain tendencies shaped by their experiences (Administrator, 2018). This approach can help to explain why some people are more successful than others in life, as it suggests that some people are born with the necessary skills and talents and that the environment in which they grow up only helps to enhance those skills.

The competence-environmental press approach has been used to explain a variety of phenomena, including the rise and fall of civilizations, the success or failure of individual entrepreneurs, and the differences between groups of people in terms of their ability to succeed in life. This approach has also been used to explain why some groups of people have higher success rates than others, as it implies that some groups are born with particular innate advantages.

The zone of maximum comfort is a psychological concept that refers to the level of stress and tension that humans can tolerate before they become overwhelmed. The competence-environmental press approach relates to the zone of maximum comfort in that it states that individuals will be motivated to seek out environments where they feel competent and able to succeed. This means that individuals will be more likely to feel comfortable and motivated in environments where they feel they have the skills and abilities to succeed. Therefore, the zone of maximum comfort is expected to be where individuals feel competent and able to meet the demands of their environment. This approach can help to explain why some individuals are more likely to feel comfortable and successful in certain environments than others. It can also help to explain why some individuals may be more likely to experience stress in certain environments.

Life Review and Integrity

A life review is a process or an event in which a person reviews their life. It is often done with the help of a therapist, counselor, or coach. The life review can be a way to recover from the past, make peace with the present, and set a positive intention for the future (Boggatz, 2019). It can also be a tool for exploring ones identity, purpose, and values. Life reviews can be done at any age, but they are often thought of as a way to improve self-awareness and personal growth.

There are many different ways to structure a life review. The most common approach is to divide the review into three sections: past, present, and future. In the past section, what is focused on is all of the significant events in life up until this point. In the present section, there is a reflection on what is being experienced right now. In the future portion, consideration is given to the kind of life a person would like to lead and the steps necessary to get there. It is crucial, to be honest and forthcoming in a life evaluation. It can be helpful to write down any thoughts, feelings, or memories during the process.

A life review can be a way to achieve integrity by acknowledging and understanding the past, present, and future. It can also help a person develop a clearer vision of identity, purpose, and values. It is feasible to create trust and credibility with oneself by being honest and upfront throughout the process. This will help us live more authentically and effectively in the present moment. A life review is also associated with obtaining mental wellness since it enables closure with the past, appreciation of the present, and a focus on the future. When people face their challenges head-on, they can develop greater resilience and strength. Finally, a life review can be related to achieving physical health because it allows for increased self-awareness, improved decision-making, and better overall health habits.

Kübler-Ross Theory of Dying

The five stages of grief proposed by Kübler-Ross are denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance. Kübler-Rosss theory of dying, also known as the five stages of grief, posits that there are five stages of grief that people go through when they are faced with the prospect of death (Tyrrell et al., 2022). Kübler-Ross developed this theory based on her work with terminally ill patients, and it has since been applied more broadly to other situations in which people must come to terms with the loss. The strengths of the Kübler-Ross theory of dying are that it is a well-developed theory, has been used in research and clinical practice for many years, and is accurate in predicting how people will die (Corr, 2019). The theory has also been found to help people prepare for their death. However, the theory may not apply to all deaths, and some criticisms exist.

There are many weaknesses with the Kübler-Ross model of dying. First, it does not consider peoples individual preferences and needs (Avis et al., 2021). Second, the model is based on a limited number of stages that most people will go through, but some may skip or reverse these stages. Third, it does not guide how to deal with each stage or what to do if someone experiences a problem in a particular stage. Finally, the model is challenging to apply in clinical settings and can be subjective.

Kübler-Rosss theory of dying states identifies five precise stages of grief that people go through when they die, which is contrary to the contextual theories. Contextual Theories of dying state that many factors contribute to how a person dies. These factors can include a persons age, health, culture, and religion (Simmons, 2018). Kübler-Rosss theory of dying does not fit well with contextual theories because it does not consider all factors contributing to how a person dies. Instead, it focuses only on the individuals emotions. This can be limiting because it does not consider how people die.

The Four-Component and Dual-Process Models

The four-component coping model is based on the assumption that four individual factors need to be satisfied for individuals to cope effectively with bereavement. These factors are (1) feeling sad, (2) engaging in activities that make an individual feel better, (3) seeking support from others, and (4) expressing feelings. The dual-process model of coping with bereavement assumes that individuals generally process information in two ways: fast and slow. The fast process is used when information is required for immediate tasks, such as responding to a question or driving. The slow process is used when information needs to be processed more carefully, analyzed, and evaluated.

The four-component model of coping with bereavement focuses on the individuals feelings and how they are reacting to the death. The dual-process model of coping with bereavement focuses on how individuals process the death and their overall emotional state (Kail & Cavanaugh, 2004). The two models have different assumptions about how individuals process information. The four-component coping model assumes that individuals use the fast process when processing information about bereavement. In contrast, the dual-process model assumes that individuals use the slow process most of the time.

Conclusion

The competence-environmental press model is a proposed framework for understanding how people cope with stress and adversity. The competence-environmental press approach suggests that people are not born with a blank slate but come into the world with certain tendencies shaped by their experiences. This approach can help to explain why some people are more successful than others in life, as it suggests that some people are born with the necessary skills and talents and that the environment in which they grow up only helps to enhance those skills. A life review can be a way to achieve integrity by acknowledging and understanding the past, present, and future. When people face their challenges head-on, they can develop greater resilience and strength. Finally, a life review can be related to achieving physical health because it allows for increased self-awareness, improved decision-making, and better overall health habits. Kübler-Rosss dying theory does not fit well with contextual theories because they both focus on different aspects of death. They are complementary, but each has its strengths and weaknesses. Healthcare providers need to understand both theories to provide the best care for their patients.

References

Administrator. (2018). Home. Competence-environmental press theory. Web.

Avis, K. A., Stroebe, M., & Schut, H. (2021). Stages of grief portrayed on the internet: A systematic analysis and critical appraisal. Frontiers in Psychology, 12. Web.

Boggatz, T. (2019). Quality of life in the process of dying. Quality of Life and Person-Centered Care for Older People, 329-447. Web.

Corr, C. A. (2019). Should we incorporate the work of Elisabeth Kübler-Ross in our current teaching and practice and, if so, how? OMEGA  Journal of Death and Dying, 83(4), 706- 728. Web.

Simmons, K. (2018). Contextual theories of truth and paradox. Oxford Handbooks Online. Web.

Kail, R. V., & Cavanaugh, J. C. (2004). Human development: A life-span view. Thomson/Wadsworth.

Tyrrell, P., Siddiqui, W., Schoo, C., & Harberger, S. (2022). Kubler-Ross stages of dying and subsequent models of grief  StatPearls  NCBI bookshelf. National Center for Biotechnology Information. Web.

In life, children must pass through several stages and they take specific steps on their way to becoming adults. Usually, there are four stages which people take towards becoming adults; there is infancy which if of the children at the age of two years, early childhood is the age between three to eight years, later childhood which ranges between eight and twelve years, and adolescent stage which ranges between thirteen and eighteen years.

The adolescent stage in life bridges childhood and adulthood and is the representation of the second phase or decade in life. It is usually a traditional stage of mental and physical development that usually occurs between the childhood of a person and his/her adulthood. The transition in adolescents usually involves biological changes which are referred to as pubertal, social, and physical changes in humans. Usually, the biological and physical changes of the person at this stage are the easiest to measure objectively. From the past, puberty has been heavily associated with teenagers as well as the onset of developments of adolescents. During the current times, however, the onset of puberty has been associated and seen as an increase in preadolescence and the extension beyond the teenage years which therefore make adolescence less simple to perceive.

The development of adolescents is characterized by discontinuity and continuity which are physical, social, and cognitive. Physically, adolescents are mostly influenced by the genes which they have inherited from their parents. The inheritance from the parents then interacts with the sew social surroundings and conditions which includes the immediate family, their peers, school, friendships, and dating. In their social lives, the adolescents are seen to have to spend a lot of their lives interacting with their parents, teachers, and friends, and therefore although there are new experiences that arise, their relationships take a different form, especially concerning their intimacy and dating. Lastly is their cognitive development of adolescents involves their thinking processes which are usually more idealistic and abstract.

There is a range of developmental issues which adolescents face. (Havighurst 1952) suggested two important areas in their lives which include relationships and work. (Levinson 1978) on the other side focused on the exploration and the changing relationships while (Erickson 1968) focused on the intimacy and the commitments which adolescents have on their goals in life. Exploring and crystallizing vocational choices are usually very important to older adolescents as well as young adults. Older adolescents and young adults usually enter into transitions with the main goal of becoming independent in their functioning as adults. They usually strive so that they can be able to meet their evolving career and personal related needs. The rapid and escalating changes in the post-secondary opportunities and the labor market mean that adolescents are confronted with the challenge which involves meeting their career and personal needs when neither of the needs can offer a sense of certainty of personal control in their lives (Super 1963).

In the transition of adolescents from high school, a longitudinal study which was conducted by (Amundson, Bogen & Tench) found that the young people left they high school without being prepared for theory current career realities and the career, as well as personal areas of their lives, were in an uncertainty changing state. In the study at the end of their final year, young people expressed optimism about entering the career area of their own choice and they also expected to be successful workers in jobs that are challenging and which offer them personal satisfaction. In the study, almost half of the students who were involved in the study showed concern about meeting the standards of their post-secondary entrance, depression, self-esteem, and anxiety in the nine and eighteen months following their graduation were correlated with a range of perceived problems which included money, internal attribution of the general transition problems, lack of support from friends and family lack of job satisfaction and external attribution of the employment and/or career difficulties.

The positive factors which were seen to help the post-high school transition of the adolescents included supportive family and friends, satisfying leisure activities, making money, educational success, and personal success and achievements. On the other hand, the negative factors which hindered the post-high school transition included problems in relationships, financial difficulties, career confusion, lack of satisfying work, difficulties in adjusting to the post-secondary educational demands, and lack of post-secondary opportunities. On the side f their development, the young people in the study were seen to try to meet their career and personal needs which were in a state of uncertainty and flux. It was clear that lack of progress in one area brought a negative influence on another area, for example, the inability to gain post-secondary admission or paid work drastically altered the adolescents ability from being a dependent adolescent to an adult who is independent.

The study, therefore, showed a clear need for an expanded view of career counseling which would recognize young peoples needs, the influences of social and economic changes as well as the importance of the basic strategies on the career and personal competence which are all in the context of changing and diminishing opportunities for choice. (Amundson, Bogen & Tench) developed a competence model which addressed eight broader areas and a range of issues. The areas included purpose, problem-solving, theoretical knowledge, applied knowledge, communication skills, human relation skills, and self-confidence, they also developed counseling strategies that would be used to facilitate a smoother transition for the adolescents.

According to (Gelatt 1989), one of the strategies is to develop multiple plans which require problem-solving skills, sense of purpose, and several plans while the helpful strategies included visualization, assessing options, lateral thinking, and decision making in an uncertain context. Second is self-advocacy and marketing so that they can be able to move towards further education and into a labor market. With the confusing bureaucracies and opportunities, there is an absolute need for adolescents to develop communication skills, organizational adaptability, self-confidence, and human relations effectiveness. Activities required for the achievement of all these are mentoring, ongoing economic, emotional, and informational support, and role-play practice.

The third one is managing the changing relationships where their parents are needed for emotional, information, and material support and still, give the adolescents a chance and room for developing their sense of identity. Facilitation of coping with the change in relationships can be done through communication, problem-solving which hinders most of the traditional distinction between personal and career counseling and human relationship training. Fourth is meeting basic needs by developing a sense of purpose and understanding how they meet with current and future needs, coping with stress include the use of relaxation techniques and using support systems. Coping with losses such as death and divorce involves the need for the development of competencies in the ability to handle grief and loss and lastly, bridging programs should be used to develop work experience.

Erickson talks about the adolescent stage of identity versus role confusion which shows that the teenage years are hard for everyone as they are aware that they will soon become contributors to their families and society. The stage task is to achieve ego identity and avoid role confusion. The ego identity according to Erickson means the adolescents knowing who they are and how they can fit in the society which requires the person to take what has been learning t about life and themselves and then molding it into a unified self-image so that the community may find it to be useful. Adolescents need to have good adult role models as well as open lines of communication and society is meant to provide clear right passage certain rituals and compliments which helps to differentiate the child from the adult.

In the traditional society, the boys and girls underwent certain tests of endurance, educational events, and symbolic ceremonies so that the childhood and adulthood of the person id distinguished. Without this, therefore, there would have been a likelihood of role confusion due to the uncertainty of a persons place in society, and a person suffering from role confusion is said to have an identity crisis. Erickson suggests a psychosocial moratorium where one needs to take some time out where he/she can take a vacation, quit school and get a job or quit the job and go to school so to know oneself. Erick refers to too much ego identity where a person may be so much involved in the society such that there is no room left for tore lance as fanaticism. Such kind of people promotes their beliefs only without the regard of others to disagree or agree.

Lack of identity is referred to as repudiation and is more difficult where adolescents may involve themselves in groups that provide details of their selves. These groups may be as religious cults, groups funded by hatred, militaristic organizations, and groups that separate themselves from the demands of the main society, and they, therefore, may be involved in destructive activities or even withdraw themselves in their psychotic fantasies. Successful adolescents according to Erickson have a fidelity virtue which means loyalty and the ability of the adolescent to live by the standards which are set by the society despite their incompleteness, inconsistencies, and imperfections. Fidelity virtue does not mean that the adolescent will accept blind loyalty and imperfections, but if they love their communities, they will therefore want to see it as being the best and it also means that the adolescent has found a place in the community which will allow them to contribute to its well being (Boeree, 1997).

There are various personality types of adolescents. These types are usually related to adjustments and parental control. These personality types are under controllers, over controllers, and resilient which are related to parenting and behavioral correlates and antecedents. There is usually a moderator effect of restrictive control in the under controllers (Association for Professionals 2002). They have a curvilinear nature, ego-resiliency which describes their tendency to respond with resourcefulness and flexibility rather than with rigidity to the changing situational demands such as conflict and stress. Ego control is the ability to contain rather than express motivational and emotional impulses. Adolescents with high resilience can adapt to optimal levels of impulse control flexibly to the changing demands in life while the individuals who have ego-brittle with low resilience lack the flexibility in life and depending on their habitual levels of ego-control, they either repress their impulses strongly or else let their impulse to prevail.

Overcontrollers score low on extraversion and emotional stability, moderate on agreeableness and openness and have a high level of conscientiousness. The three personality types differ significantly on their external correlatedness, this is because the resilient adjusts the best and also shows high levels of intelligence, social competence, and school achievement. Overcontrollers show a relatively high standard of academic competence but show a lack of social skills and they also exhibit emotional problems. Undercontrollers on the other hand score low on their academic performance, show behavioral problems, are less accepted by their peers, and are usually more involved in serious delinquencies ( Ron, Cornelis, Cees, and Marcel 2005).

The influence of media on behavior has been supported through psychological theories, models, and hypotheses, and the media sexuality-related messages behavior, and content over time act as a stimulus that changes their psychological, behavioral, and psychological functions. The media practice model explains media use in a comprehensive and contextual framework and also highlights the connection between media selection, interaction and application, and adolescents identities. It assumes that the youth choose media and interact with it based on who they want to be and who they are currently. The media messages have an important influence on the young peoples lives as they receive information which is important about the choices of life one wants to choose. The media has an impact on adolescents violence and aggression which shows that some of these behaviors from the youths are due to the media and the kind of materials that are shown or reported in them. a study done in America indicates that adolescents spend six to seven hours of their day with some form of media which includes videos, TVs, movies, and radios and due to this their behavior had changed considerably (Davis 1996).

Within the family, there is a greater transfer of control from the parents to the adolescents although there is a boundary of coregulation. In the families, the adolescents begin to push for autonomy and responsibility which usually anger and puzzle parents and it usually causes conflicts between the parents and the adolescents in the families. The push of autonomy by the adolescents is a process in which they continue to keep strong attachments with their parents and therefore, the best change is a gradual one where the parent relinquishes the control on a step by step basis and still secure a strong attachment or connectedness to the teenagers or the adolescents in the family. The connectedness, therefore, promotes a more competent relationship of the adolescent later in his or her life.

In conclusion. the adolescent stage in life is a very crucial stage where most of the persons mold their adult lives. There are many things that impact adolescents lives and therefore determine how they behave, these are such as schools, families, and the media. The schools mostly impact in the knowledge part of the young person where he/she can gain knowledged skills which will enable the adolescent to have a job later in life. Adolescents who excel in their academics get good jobs and therefore can help their families and their parents in their day-to-day endeavors. Families help the young persons to gain responsibility in life and be able to be competent in the society in the young persons later life. The media has also a great impact on adolescents life depending on what they watch or hear in the media. Media mostly impacts their sexuality, eating habits, and general behavior. Some become aggressive in life and want to become certain characters at that time in their lives and this impacts their lives.

According to Erickson, the adolescent stage in life is the stage where a person can identify their ego and avoid role confusion. The ability of the young person to know their role in the society and how they can fit in it requires him/her to learn about life and mold their self-image so that the community which they live in may accept them and themselves be of help to the society. Adolescents, therefore, need to have good adult role models as well as open lines of communication, and the society is meant to provide clear right passage certain rituals and compliments which helps to differentiate the child from the adult. These three types of personalities in adolescents are over controllers who score low on extraversion and emotional stability, moderate on agreeableness and openness and have a high level of conscientiousness. Undercontrollers have a curvilinear nature, ego-resiliency which describes their tendency to respond with resourcefulness and flexibility rather than with rigidity to the changing situational demands such as conflict and stress, and finally the high resilient can adapt to optimal levels of impulse control flexibly to the changing demands in life while the individuals who have ego-brittle with low resilience lack the flexibility in life and depending on their habitual levels of ego-control, they either repress their impulses strongly or else let their impulse to prevail.

Bibliography

Amundson, N. E.; Borgen, W. A., & Tench, E. Personality and intelligence in career education and vocational guidance counseling. International Handbook of Personality and Intelligence, Plenum, New York.

Boeree, George C, 1997, personality theories, Erick Erickson 1902-1994.

Davis J. K. 1996, survey on teens and sex: what they say teens today need to know, and who they listen to.

Erikson, E. H. 1968, Identity youth and crisis, W. W. Norton, New York.

Gelatt, H. B. 1989, Positive uncertainty: A new decision making framework for counseling: Journal of Counseling Psychology, 36, 252-256.

Havighurst, R. J. 1952 Developmental tasks and education , David McKay, New York.

Levinson, D. 1978. The seasons of a mans life, Ballantine, New York:.

Super, D. E. 1963, Career development: Essays in vocational development, College Entrance Examination Board, New York.

Ron H.J. S; Cornelis F.M. L; Cees A.M. D; Marcel A.G.A. 2005, adolescents personality types and subtypes and their psychosocial adjustment Merril-Palmer Quarterly.

The Association for Professionals in Services for Adolescents, 2002, Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Introduction

People see and perceive things differently depending on their cultural background and language. Peoples perceptions are often based on experiences and activities they are accustomed. Having lived in Andalusia, Spain, I have observed that the way of life is almost entirely different from that in countries. The eating habits, rites of passage, family life, and even the work-life are not the same.

Eating customs

When it comes to food, Spanish people love their food. The Spanish eat more food in a day compared to most people in Britain and even the United States. However, the Spanish take their time eating and hence practice mindful eating. They also spread their meals throughout the day and have little meals in between main meals; for instance, after breakfast, they can eat Tapas before the main meal at lunchtime. The snacks between main meals are essential since they keep up energy levels for more productivity, prevent overeating during the main meals, and eventually prevent health problems such as obesity. The Spanish eating habits prove to be healthier than those in most countries.

Work patterns

A working day in Spain begins mostly at 8.30 am to 1.30 pm and then from 4.30 pm or 5 pm to 8 pm. Siesta is a well-known component in a typical Spanish setting that gives workers a break from intense work. Most people use this time to spend some time at home or go for a lunch break. The practice is not in other countries like the US, where even getting enough time for lunch is difficult. The siesta plays a vital role in ensuring a work-life balance, which consequently leads to happier and more productive people.

Family life

Family relations in Spain are considered very important by Spaniards regardless of family arrangements. Most of the families in Andalusia, Spain, are nuclear families. However, in most homes, grandparents are also part of the family. As most parents go to work, the grandparents remain at home with the children, hence taking part in the childrens upbringing. This is not the situation in other cultures, such as those living in the US, where they will need to hire babysitters if they are at work. Having family members take care of children instead of strangers is more reasonable and safer, as in most Spanish families.

Marriage customs

Marriage customs in Andalusia are like most marriages in the whole of Spain. Weddings are big social occasions where a familys generosity and possibly wealth are shown off. In most cases, extended family members will be present. The wedding ceremony consists of bride maids and groomsmen, unlike in Britain where they prefer to have wedding godparents. The bridesmaids and groomsmen make the occasion more lively since more interaction among young people. Moreover, unlike in the US, where the newlyweds prefer a tiny gathering involving mainly parents and few friends, a wedding in Andalusia is a social occasion where many families and friends meet and interact.

Politeness patterns

The people of Andalusia can be said to be one of the most welcoming in the whole world. Most of the people are generous and hospitable. Perhaps that is why there are many immigrants living in Andalusia compared to other parts of Spain and other countries in general. Andalusians are more than willing to teach foreigners Spanish when they show interest. Those who are ready to accept their traditions are welcome with open arms. The hospitality in Andalusia is unlike any other in places such as Britain, where foreigners might be unwelcomed.

Conclusion

The Spanish way of life considers family and rites of passage such as weddings significant. Work-life balance is easy to achieve due to their work practices like the incorporating of a siesta. Moreover, they have healthier eating habits since they practice mindful eating and are more hospitable and polite than other cultures. In my opinion, the Spanish, specifically the Andalusian way of life, is more reasonable.

In his book, Zimbardo identifies three psychological truths that emerge from Eschers Image. The first truth is that the world always has and will always be filled with good and evil people. Zimbardo states that the barrier between good and evil is permeable and nebulous in the second truth (3). The third truth states that angels can become devils and perhaps be more difficult to conceive for devils to become angels (Zimbardo 3). The first psychological truth explains the existence of evil and its influence on human behavior. As Zimbardo states, evil people will never cease to exist on earth since they have existed in the past, the present and will exist in the future (5). The second truth explains our ability to distinguish the barrier that distinguishes good and evil. According to Zimbardo, there is no defined measure that can help distinguish between evil and good (11). Lastly, the third psychological truth, suggests that it is easier for good people to become evil; on the other hand, it is difficult for evil people to transform into good people.

It can be argued that Zimbardos truths are depicted in Eschers image through the various elements within the image. The first truth is the existence of good and bad people in society. Eschers image shows two illustrations of good and evil angels distinguished by color. The good angels are colored white, and the evil angels are black, depicting that there will always be a coexistence of evil and good.

The second truth helps us determine or differentiate between good and evil. Eschers image depicts two representations of good and evil depicted by its painting. It is perceived that the black paintings are the evil angels while those painted in white are the good angels. The image challenges our perception of why we take sides and assume that the objects in white are good while those in black are evil. The third truth I depicted in Eschers image is that we have a limited capacity to change our behavior. Eschers image has two objects with different colors, black and white. However, human nature is accustomed to depicting that evil is represented by darkness; we develop rigidity and conclude that the black objects in the painting are evil.

Work Cited

Zimbardo, Philip. The Lucifer Effect: Understanding How Good People Turn Evil. Random House, 2007.

The most interesting sociological topic for me is group dynamics. The interactions that affect peoples behavior and attitudes when they are in groups are known as group dynamics. In the fields of sociology, psychology, and communication studies, this is crucial. Numerous studies and experiments with a focus on group behavior have been carried out. The results showed that attitudes, behavior, and perceptions are influenced by groups. Both in the workplace and in personal life, groups are crucial.

Making all members feel welcomed despite differences is a crucial component in fostering healthy group dynamics. A groups ability to trust one another is crucial to its existence. More crucially, with maximal trust and confidence, goals are more likely to be achieved. However, it could be difficult to resolve problems or come to a compromise when there are many diverse personalities and backgrounds present. The members of the group may experience stress and tension as a result of these difficult circumstances, but when they are overcome, the relationships become stronger, and a more cohesive group emerges.

There are several things to take into account while examining a group and its evolution. The likelihood of a cohesive group increases with the degree of attitude and value similarity among its members. When organizations succeed in attaining their objectives, there are fewer needed external contacts, and there are enough resources available, group cohesiveness will rise. In order to maintain a group working as a unit or system rather than a collection of individuals, group norms are crucial (Bion, 2018). Identifying and defining the working groups standards are essential steps in the process. Getting the group to acknowledge their significance and presence is crucial. This may be done in a variety of ways, including by asking the group questions, monitoring how they behave or letting the group members identify their own norms.

Reference

Bion, W. R. (2018). Group dynamics: A re-view. In New directions in psycho-analysis (pp. 440-477). Routledge.

Human beings have been set apart as the only species capable of literacy. Just what is literacy, and how does it develop in an individual? Venezky, et al (1990) provides an elaborate explanation, emphasizing writing as well as reading:

Literacy is minimal ability to read and write in a designated language, as well as a mindset or way of thinking about the use of reading and writing in everyday life. Literacy, therefore, requires active, autonomous engagement with print and stresses the role of the individual in generating as well as receiving and assigning independent interpretations to messages. (p. 142)

Schools have been built to nurture and develop literacy and use a variety of methods to inculcate it in, students. Students go through different stages in their reading and writing development. The following illustrates the beginning stages of literacy development for the age levels of early childhood (preschool, 3-5-year-olds) and middle childhood (first grade, 6-8-year-olds). I have chosen these two age groups to show the progression of literacy development from the time a child begins to discover the wonders of reading and writing (early childhood), and the time when he realizes he can do many things in acquiring reading and writing skills not only for academic purposes but also for self-expression (middle childhood):

Considering these developmental milestones in reading and writing, just what may be done to help these children progress in their literacy development?

Emergent literacy is the term used to refer to the earliest period of a childs literacy development, specifically the time between birth and when the child can read and write (Sulzby and Teale, 1991). According to emergent literacy theories, the child is the central figure in the construction of learning. His life experiences directly affect his literacy. One theoretical perspective in the area of emergent literacy is that children are innately predisposed to becoming literate especially if they live in a literary-rich environment  lots of books, pictures, films, software, educational posters, etc. Piaget (1959) claims that literacy is actively constructed with a childs interaction with the environment. Such interaction brings about learning, as concepts are constructed or changed, usually, differing from adult concepts. Vygotsky (1962 theorized that a child learns literacy through conversation and involvement in literacy acts with an adult. This interaction between adult and child is called scaffolding. This occurs when a knowledgeable adult gently guides a child through successive literacy activities while relinquishing autonomy little by little to the child until such time he can do it on his own.

Children at the early childhood stage are just awed with storybooks. Parents and teachers should take time out to read their stories, with engaging storytelling techniques such as using facial expressions, exaggerated gestures, and voice changes. This not only makes the story more captivating but enlivens the listeners imaginations. Comprehension is honed when the story is discussed at length, encouraging children to give their own opinions and insights. It also helps them organize their thoughts as the sequence of the story is discussed. Follow-up activities such as drawing scenes from the story or writing part of it in the childs own version will strengthen the concept that words may be expressed in print too. Teachers may talk about letters by name and sounds while matching them to pictures. It is important for children to be provided with lots of opportunities for literacy-related play activities such as role-playing, book-making, filling out story charts, and experimentation with writing on their own. The teacher can help a child recognize how print works by demonstrating directionality and discussing the differences between the information that can be obtained from the pictures in books and the printed words (Brewer, 2001).

Teachers of middle childhood-staged children can support them by reading daily to them, transcribing their language, and selecting materials that expand childrens knowledge and language development. They need plenty of opportunities for independent reading and writing practice, as they have already acquired the necessary skills for more meaningful and relevant literacy skills. Modeling strategies for identifying unknown words, spelling new words, comprehension cues, etc. is something that may guide them in the right path. Of course, exposure to a range of different text types (poems, informational books, etc.) would help them build their vocabulary and use these to their advantage in everyday language.

Reading and writing activities planned for older children are not only meant to stimulate the readers critical and creative thinking skills but also encourage socialization with their peers. Team spirit is fostered in the games, as well as a sense of cooperation and competition. The element of fun is also incorporated in the activities, as it helps the learners retain the concepts better when associated with positive feelings.

Children in the middle childhood years are in the process of acquiring mastery skills in reading printed words. In exposing them to literature, they go beyond such skill.

Reading is about creating worlds with words. The only way to read with fluency and expressiveness is to read closely hooked into the unfolding meaning of the text. It is very important, therefore, that we do everything possible to support the mind work of reading. (Calkins, 1997, p. 159)

In classrooms, storytelling and shared reading sessions must be encouraged. This is when a group of children comes together with a teacher to read a story from a big storybook, with a teacher facilitating it and guiding them through the print. This way, reading text and comprehending the story are jointly done by the group. Shared reading provides many opportunities for incidental learning about the way written language works. Fountas & Pinnell, (1996) lists several benefits of Shared reading, among them, are building previous experiences with books, providing language models, expanding vocabulary, laying a foundation for guided and independent reading, supporting children who are on the verge of reading so that they can enjoy participating in reading whole stories, providing an opportunity for the teacher to demonstrate phrased, fluent reading and to draw attention to critical concepts about print, providing a context for learning specific words and features of words, and helping children become familiar with texts that they can use independently as resources for writing and reading.

Shared reading provides readers a good support system. Readers can help each other work and read as a group or team to solve problems that they may encounter as they read the text. They can work on the meaning of words that they cannot understand and even share their opinion with concepts found in the book. A lot of conversation may take place as they read and they can share their thoughts and experience. As in read-aloud, the teacher draws the children into the text and asks questions about the story, and begins conversations for children to become active participants.

Being able to appreciate and experience literature is one of the best gifts we can give children. In doing so, we help propel their imaginations to soar and their creativity to flourish.

References

Brewer, J. (2001) Introduction to early childhood education. Allyn & Bacon.

Calkins, L. (1997) Raising Lifelong Learners, A Parents Guide. MA: Perseus Books.

Fountas, I. C. and Pinnell, G. S. (1996). Guided Reading, Good First Teaching for All Children. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann

International Reading Association/ National Association of Educators of Young Children (IRA/ NAEYC) (1998). Joint Position Statement. Learning to Read and Write: Developmentally Appropriate Practices for Young Children, Reading Teacher 52.

Piaget, J. (1959) The Language and Thought of the Child. London: Routledge & Kegen Paul.

Sulzby, E. & Teale, W.H. (1991) Emergent Literacy. In R. Barr, M.L. Kamil, P. Mosenthal & P.D. Pearson (Eds.), Handbook of Reading Research Volume II. New York: Longman.

Venezky, R., Wagner, D. & Ciliberti, B. (Eds.) (1990) Toward Defining Literacy, Newark, DE; International Reading Association.

Vygotsky, L.S. (1962) Thought and Language (E. Hanfmann and G. Vaker, Eds & Trans.) Cambridge, M.A.: MIT Press.

Introduction

Burrhus Frederick Skinner is renowned figure in the field of psychology for his theory of operant conditioning. Indeed, this theory constitute a major contribution to the school of Behaviorism. Operant Conditionning puts forth that the environment shapes significantly the lives of people and the way they behave through reinforcement. In what follows an exposition of Skinners theory and some of its applications.

Operant Conditioning: A Behaviorist Theory with Reinforcement as a Key Concept

Operant Conditioning is a behavioral learning theory in which a stimulus (e.g., food for the pigeon or rat) and a reinforcer (e.g., a light) are used by the experimenter to generate a specific response (e.g., pressing a lever) (Leonard, 2002, p789). The theory posits that the behavior, human and animal, can be modeled and modified by the environment. Indeed, in the example enclosed in the definition, the response/behavior is conditioned by giving food only when the correct response is provided; with time, the subject of the conditioning, in this case the pigeon or r rat, provides the adequate response, pressing the lever, when it needs food.

One can say that in a way, Skinners theory (sometimes called also instrumental conditioning), is an evolvement of the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlovs classical conditionning whereby he contends that people predict relationships between events by giving them associations (Magill, 1998, p 438). The famous lab exemple on this behavior is the dogs salivating upon hearing a bell ring when accustomed to be given food immediately after ringing a bell (Magill, 1998, p 438). The conditiong comes after as a result of stimulus (the bell)-reponse (food).

The stimulus response mechanism is also upheld by Skinner. However, Skinners addition is that the reinforcement of the behavior is important. Reinforcement refers to the consequences, reinforcers, that an animal/man incurs for a given action which conditions him into adopting a given reponse or operant (Magill, 1998, p 62). Reinforcement can be either negative (punishment) or positive (reward) (Catwright, 2002, p 122).

Skinners reinforcement is not neutral, unlike Pavlovs bell. In Skinners counterpart experiment, a rat put in a box is given food only when it does a correct response, such as pressing a lever (Catwright, 2002, p 62-63).Here, in what has been dubbed the Skinner Box (Catwright, 2002, p 62), the reward is linked to an appropriate action.

Skinner Box is an apparatus that Skinner devised. A rat had been placed in the box and was administered food when it provided the right response (Catwright, 2002, p 62-63). The box contained a food dispenser for rewarding the rat (positive reinforcement); an illuminated green/red panel to display stimuli; a grid on the surface to issue electric charges when the wrong response is delivered (negative reinforcement); and a lever to be pressed by the rat (Catwright, 2002, p 63).. The device and its mechanisms have the clues into the foundation of Skinners operant conditioning.

The Practical Application of the Theory

By virtue of the potential to modify behavior, operant conditioning has been used in the field of psychology, among others. Skinner is first and foremost a psychologist. The therapy directly based on it is called behavior therapy (Flanagan, 2004, p 218). Indeed, Skinner and some of his colleagues applied behavior therapy to treat psychopathic patients (Flanagan, 2004, p 218). The focus in such a therapy is the environment because it is built on the assumption of environmental manipulation. Accordingly, it is the environment of the patient which is studied in order to put the finger on what is wrong.

Always within the same rationale, operant conditioning seems helpful in such fields as education, notably childrens upbringing. An effective means of raising children would be through the mechanism of reward/punishment. An appropriate usage would educate children to good behaving by rewarding them when they behave well and punishing them when they misbehave. There are a number of steps to be followed while doing so: the parents should set behavioral objectives, adopt the appropriate reinforcement method to get the desired response from the children and eventually modify the environment of the child when it is established that it causes behavioral disorder (Flanagan, 2004, p229-230).

There is a case whereby such educational steps have been indeed applied by a therapist onto a fifteen years old female adolescent who demonstrated behavioral disorders, namely disobedience and disrespect to the parents (Flanagan, 2004, p229-230). The parents have set as a major objective to remedy to their childs abusive language. The therapist detected the environmental contingencies that were encouraging the child in adopting her rude attitude and it happened to be her parents inadequate responses to the behavior. Once locating the problems in the girls environment (parents inadequate response), the therapist recommended a reinforcement mechanism to modify the adolescent, alternating rewards (money allowance) and punishment (deducting from money allowance). After eight weeks, the parents noticed gladly that they had got a new daughter (Flanagan, 2004, p 230).

Conclusion

From all the above, it appears that operant conditioning opened the door onto a passionate subject- human behavior and the possibility to model it. This theory has put Skinner in the front stage of the behaviorist school. Indeed the theory has been applied in such important fields as psychology and education, giving tools to modify human behavior.

Reference List

Cartwright, Jo-Anne (2002). Determinants of Animal Behaviour. New York: Routledge.

Magill, Frank Northen (1998). Psychology Basics. Pasadena, Calif: Salem Press.

Leonard, David C (2002). Learning Theories, A to Z .Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Publishing Group.

Sommers-Flanagan, John.; Sommers-Flanagan, Rita (2004). Counseling and Psychotherapy Theories in Context and Practice: Skills, Strategies, and Techniques. Hoboken, N.J : John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Although peer pressure is seen as a negative expression of human interactions, it can have positive effects provided that promoted behavior is helpful to society or people individually.

Peer pressure is a natural phenomenon occurring in any social context.

People are prone to comparing themselves to others, particularly those of their age group.

Group behavior is a powerful motivator because acting differently makes people feel like outcasts.

The more people are engaging in an activity, the stronger is the belief that it should encompass everyone.

However, a group can also pursue toxic habits or promote negative ideas and actions.

Therefore, peer pressure can lead to damaging repercussions for both the group and the individuals.

Peer pressure is generally associated with a negative influence on individuals.

A person is pressured to comply with the majoritys opinions and behaviors, disregarding their actual value.

The personal choice or lack of agreement is discredited in favor of a group because of the belief that group thinking is correct.

The pressure can be external when people verbally persuade peers to comply, and internal, when a person is psychologically drawn to the examples of group behavior.

Peer pressure can force people to conform to unlawful conduct or damaging habits.

Children and adolescents are especially susceptible to social influence from peers due to the inexperience and absence of adequate judgment.

As a result, peer pressure is condemned and discouraged in society as a primarily disruptive factor in intrapersonal relationships.

Peer pressure is not necessarily a negative expression of social influence.

Negativity is not a prerequisite for group pressure to occur.

People are driven to numerous examples rather than their moral connotations (Georganas et al. 9).

If enough helpful actions and behavior are evident, peer pressure can be formed, which drives people to engage in positive activities.

Peer pressure can highlight the aspects of life, which appear to be normal, but are in reality, harmful.

People choose whether to adhere to the specific example or follow their own set of principles unaffected by collective decision-making.

When an individual feels pressured to accomplish something against their will, they resist mentally and verbally to the propagated values.

Thus, a person who does not conform to social influence has the capability to distinguish group disillusionment and pinpoint the destructive aspects of collective behavior.

Individuals should be educated to spot inappropriate conduct and provide normative feedback (Studer et al. 17).

Overall, peer pressure benefits society by encouraging civil diligence and moral responsibility.

There are numerous examples of the positive effects of peer behavior.

The more people live a healthy lifestyle, the stronger is health promotion and health in general.

The more productive employees are at work, the more their colleagues are motivated to increase their own efficiency.

The more people are encouraged to speak up about societal issues, the more feedback the authorities will receive.

Subsequently, it is evident that peer pressure can influence people to engage in helpful behavior.

Conclusion

Peer pressure can have positive effects not only because both helpful and damaging behaviors can be promoted but also due to the fact that group disillusionments shows blind spots in societal actions and beliefs.

Works Cited

Georganas, Sotiris, Mirco Tonin, and Michael Vlassopoulos. Peer Pressure and Productivity: The Role of Observing and Being Observed. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, no. 7523, 2015, pp. 1-18.

Studer, Joseph, et al. Risky Substance Use and Peer Pressure in Swiss Young Men: Test of Moderation Effects. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, vol. 168, 2016, pp. 89-98.

Introduction

Childhood development has a remarkable impact on further personal development. Of course, no strict rules and dependencies, like in biology or chemistry. But still, based on the social and psychological theories, scholars, childcare, healthcare, and educational service providers can predict the future problems or benefits the particular child will receive from interactions with other people. Emily is a two year and 11 months old toddler whose development is observed in terms of her interactions with her mother at home, in the grocery store, and the nursery when her mum leaves and comes back. This paper aims to analyze how Emilys psychosocial development is average in terms of three popular childhood developmental theories Banduras Social Learning Theory, Bowlbys Attachments Theory, Bronfenbrenners Ecological Systems Theory, and Ericksons Adolescent Theory.

Banduras Social Learning Theory

The observational journal provides plenty of evidence of Emilys normal psychosocial development. Interestingly, there are a lot of situations that demonstrate how she effectively learns from her environment. Banduras Social Learning Theory (SLT) implies that children learn from their environments by imitating others (Bandura, 1977). The scholar notes that children learn from live models, demonstrating an observable behavior, symbolic models characters of books and movies, based on oral requirements, descriptions, and explanations.

According to the SLT, learning does not necessarily lead to copying the observed behavior, and the decision whether to reproduce the behavior or not is made through the particular individual meditational process (Bandura, 1977). The decision entail external stimulation and internal motivation. The meditational process includes five steps: attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation. Attention means the initial involvement, retention is an ability to withhold and store the information for some time, reproduction is performing the observed behavior, and motivation is reinforcement or punishment for reproducing the observed behavior.

In this case, Emily demonstrates successful stages of behavioral learning, like learning from her mum how to play farm and what to do with the plastic animals or behave in the grocery store. Emily also observes other children in the nursery and shows the signs of reproduced behavior when playing with peers. For instance, she was interested in the pink plastic knife when playing with artificial dough since her peer was using the pink knife. Emily also could handle the tiredness and frustration from it and remained calm in the grocery store when her mum demonstrated calm behavior.

Most likely, Emily is a healthy child that demonstrates successful psychosocial development. Regarding the SLT, she interacts with others, observes, and makes her own decisions, whether to copy or not the observed behavior. Emily must experience distinct interactions, including mum, peers, children, and a caregiver.

Understanding the process of behavior formation through social learning allows for thoughtful and sensible interventions. Parents and educators can encourage or forbid particular behaviors, depending on their understanding of such behaviors as desired or undesired. Interestingly, social learning can be based on the biological phenomenon or mirror neurons that allow people to see themselves in other peoples actions, relationships, and feelings.

Bowlbys Attachments Theory

John Bowlbys Attachments Theory seems to be the most exciting and fruitful in understanding childhood development. In the case scenario, most episodes focus on Emilys attachment to her primary caregiver  her mother. According to Bowlby, all branches are formed based on the external and internal signals that cause fear, anger, pain, or other unpleasant emotions (Bowlby, 1969). The scholar claims that the baby has the highest chances of survival when it stays near its parents, which proves that the theory is based on the evolutional processes of human development.

Most importantly, he emphasizes that attachment was critical to their survival in mammals. Scholars say that when lacking devotion and love from their primary caregiver, children can develop psychopathic behaviors in the future and become incapable of building affectionate relations (Bowlby, 1969). However, critics also notice that when a child that is deprived of its caregivers attention and affection is put in a healthy environment, where humans show self-respect and respect to others in their interactions, such a child will be able to build healthy relations in future (Parrish, 2014). Still, the child will likely show avoidance behavior regarding the unsuccessful primary caregiver.

The scholars say that the child demonstrates aggressive, impulsive, and unaffectionate behavior because such behavior becomes a new norm for it, and the child thinks that all other children live in a similar unaffectionate environment and have the same problems. When the mother or other key caregiver leaves, the child may cry and show anger to stop her from leaving, become restrained, depressed, inwardly oriented and lose interest in other children, or show detachment by gradually joining other children but showing anger and avoidance when the caregiver returns (Bowlby, 1969). The critics admit that tears are a normal reaction of a child with a healthy attachment, and when the caregiver returns, the child easily lets them back in.

Interestingly, Emily demonstrates different types of behavior when her mother leaves and comes, and there was no record of her crying or demanding that the mother stay. On the one hand, the theoretical perspective may be wrong in this instance since, in practical situations, Emily and her mother show strong bonds and affection for each other. On the other hand, there were episodes when Emily was a bit reluctant to let her mother in, which can speak of some problems with affection.

Maybe Emily would prefer her mother to spend more time with her and is feeling offense or grievance when her mother leaves and Emily has to spend her days in the nursery. Her mother could take some additional vacation days, and this could make Emily happy since, for now, she is showing signs of disturbance. As for Emilys projected life course, she generally shows all the signs of healthy psychosocial development. She feels comfortable among other children, is active in playing games, has a vast vocabulary, and is highly responsive in conversations with her mother. These skills will likely form into the personal traits of communicativeness, openness, ability to concentrate, and effectively cooperate with other people.

Bronfenbrenners Ecological Systems Theory

This theory determines the environmental-social circles of every person and child regarding their influence on the childs life and development. According to Bronfenbrenner, every child lives in five ecological systems or social circles that extend from the center to the outer boundaries of social life. The child is in the center, and the first circle is named microsystem, which includes family, school, healthcare services, peers, playground, daycare facilities, and religious organizations (Bronfenbrenner, 1977). This circle is the most important one, as it impacts the childs wellbeing.

The second circle is a no mans land called mesosystem, and it is activated when the first circle interacts with the third, named exosystem. The exosystem includes extended family and neighbors, school board, social services, mass media, and parents economic situation. Teachers and parents cooperate effectively in the childs best interests (Bronfenbrenner, 1977). At the same time, when the parent has problems at work, they may show temper toward their child, and this is an example of an adverse impact.

The fourth circle is called the macrosystem and includes widespread attitudes in a particular culture. These may be religious beliefs, national identity, political views, and democratic values. These macro-phenomena can also have positive and negative impacts. For example, children who lived in the Islamic State faced severe adverse effects of the macro system. The fifth circle is called the chronosystem and represents life-changing events in a childs environment, such as wars, floods, or families moving from one state to another.

In Emilys case, she must feel support from her ecological circles, although the reader cannot have enough information for generalized conclusions. Emily has a caring mother who can pay for healthy products and interacts successfully with Emilys educators at the nursery. Emily communicates well with her peers, lives in a developed economy and democratic society, and does not face environmental impacts. Therefore, in terms of Bronfenbrenners Ecological Systems Theory, Emily will have a successful and happy life when she becomes an adult.

Ericksons Adolescent Theory

Similar to Bronfenbrenner, Erikson put out a distinctive theoretical framework for linking the various stages of human development, the maturation of an adult, and the interaction between the self and society. Erikson based his thesis on his work with children and families and Sigmund Freuds notion of psychosexual development. According to Erikson, social factors that affect human development play a more significant role in determining the identity of the human personality (Erikson, 1963). The circular concept served as the studys central idea. The maturity of the developing personality is based on the adaptive strength or virtue that emerges in response to each circles imminent crisis. A new stages vigorous development is founded on the strengths attained due to how the previous stage is handled and how the self is controlled.

Finding and adopting a sense of regulation that protects the ego is the first significant difficulty for the child aged 2-4. The natural joy of learning and mastering a new skill, which would lead to a new way of being, is thus accompanied by the unavoidable compulsion to fit inside socially acceptable boundaries (Erikson, 1963). In Ericksons research, the radius of closest relations consists of parental figures and is the primary strength that forms personality.

Analyzing Emilys data, we can see that she has a stable close relationship with her mother, which is one of the critical factors of the study. The autonomy can be seen in the second scene, Getting dressed, when child A receives freedom to fulfill her urges and independence to dress herself. Her will is also evident in the episodes when Emily plays with toys alone, exploring her imagination. However, mild cases of compulsion are observed during shopping, when the mum restricts the childs urges of independency and teaches proper behavior in a social setting. Nevertheless, it may be seen as means of regulation to establish interactive norms and behaviors in different social environments (Parrish, 2014). Thus, according to adolescent theory, Emily perceives typical for her age lessons through interactions that will help to form an adult personality. However, there is a risk of developing doubt in self-regulation as an adult.

Conclusion

Thus, it was discussed how Emily is going through social development in the framework of various theories. Given the analysis presented above, Emily will become a successful adult since she mostly has a healthy psychosocial development. She has some problems with attachment since her mother spends much time at work. However, the positive impacts of ecological systems and the potential of learning through observing the behavior of other children and adults positively impact Emilys development.

Reference List

Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Bowlby J. (1969). Attachment. Attachment and loss: Vol. 1. Loss. New York: Basic Books.

Bronfenbrenner, U. (1977). Toward an experimental ecology of human development. American Psychologist, 32(7), 513-531.

Erikson, E.H. (1963). Childhood and society. New York: W.W. Norton and Company.

Parrish, M. (2014) Social Work Perspectives on Human Behaviour. UK: McGraw-Hill Education.

The word disenfranchised refers to an individual or group of people who have been deprived of their rights and privileges, for instant, substance abuse. Gay men with depression and people living with disability and substance abuse. Human rights are fundamental privileges that all people have regardless of race, language, ethnicity, religion, or nationality. Freedom of speech, expression and thought, right to life and personal liberty, freedom from oppression and suffering, and the right to live and work and education are all examples of human rights. These rights are available to everyone, regardless of race or gender. The main goal of this research paper is to demonstrate the understanding of a theoretically informed planned changes process in work with a disenfranchised family or individual.

Disenfranchised Population

Mental diseases can be described as ailments that affect ones feelings, mood, behavior, and thinking. Psychological disorders have been diagnosed in the majority of African American women (Butler & Heimberg, 2020). Lower-income, poor health, dual role strain, and the double minority status of race and gender are also risk factors facing depressed black women. Because of the high incidence of chronic disease in this community and the established links between long-lasting sickness and mental health concerns like depression, older African American women may be at an increased risk. The primary disorder discussed in this paper is depression in older black women. Challenges such as economic regression lead to a high standard of life. Most unemployed people, especially women, develop depression, which eventually leads them to more challenging issues.

Psychoanalytic Theory

Psychoanalytic therapy is a mental theory based on a psychologist known as Sigmund Freud. The main basis is investigating how the conscious mind affects our actions, thoughts, and present feeling. The experiences that one went through in their childhood always influence their current feeling and behavior. The preconscious memory stores information that we can recall or retrieve. The unconscious memory drives a persons daily conduct and reactions toward particular events. For example, how does one react toward anger and people who intact with them in a rude manner?

Cognitive Theory

Albert Ellis, a psychologist, and Aaron Beck, a psychiatrist, separately developed two similar theories. Their hypotheses guided the evolution of thriving cognitive therapy, and these remedies are still being used today. While the behavioral knowledge hypothesis stresses the surroundings involvement in determining behavior, cognitive theory stresses the minds cognition. Thoughts, feelings, beliefs, and perceptions are aspects of an individuals awareness. A persons disordered thinking, according to cognitive science, leads to extreme emotions, and because of these intense feelings, maladaptive actions emerge. The two individuals believed that peoples erroneous underlying beliefs were to condemn their extreme suffering from bad feelings.

Humanistic Theory

Humanistic therapy is a type of psychotherapy that emphasizes accepting one to be real to live a stress-free life. It is founded on the presumption that everybody has a unique view of life and its struggles. Humanistic treatment also postulates that individuals are good-hearted and can make sound decisions for themselves. It is more challenging to reach ones maximum possibility if one does not hold themselves in high respect. Humanistic treatment entails comprehending better regarding oneself and setting genuine self-acceptance. This is partly achieved by developing total favorable consideration from others. It is easy to feel like one is not good enough when they believe that others will admire them only if they act in a specific way. This feeling of meaninglessness, in favor, can negatively affect how a person sees themselves and the world. Humanism therapy can help people acquire identity and endure rejection or disapproval by equipping a secure space to aim toward individual improvement.

Literature Review

The theory that has more support is Cognitive, as it emphasizes the origin of depressionan individuals thoughts about day-to-day life influence how they react to certain life events. Specific thoughts lead to the arousal of emotions, resulting in depression and other behaviorsseveral pieces of literature support this theory and its application in dealing with depression among black women. Through miserable symptoms and disengagement coping, racism based on gender indicates that women are vulnerable and can be easily mistreated either sexually or in regular assaults. The study emphasizes the necessity of considering experiences intrinsically tied to social positioning within neuropsychology. The findings show that psychosocial stress, notably gendered racism, negatively influences older Black womens perceived mental working and points to medical interventions and social fairness advocacy areas.

The article shows that prior proof of racial and ethnic disparities causes dejection among black women. Most importantly, unequal treatment of pregnant women with depression leads to high death cases. Cognitive theory gives knowledge and skills essential in dealing with such mothers. When provided with mental disorder therapy before giving birth, most women are likely to have safe deliveries. The articles goal is to study if adding clinical case management to focus on cognitive therapy for depression would reduce dropout rates and improve outcomes for patients. The report compares intellectual group treatment alone with the same medication with clinical case management in a randomized trial (Dagher et al., 2021). Patients who got extra care attention were less likely to stop the medication than those who only received cognitive-behavioral group therapy (Wallace & Ohrt, 2020). Cognitive therapy is critical and applicable in ensuring that women suffering from depression are correctly handled.

The article provides a framework for examining mental analysis applied in black women undergoing depression. It also offers interventions that promote communication and social interaction with other members of society and the surrounding. Black women need social, economic, and emotional support to live normal lives (Jidon et al., 2021). Skills emphasized in this article are problem-solving, communication, and interaction. These themes are addressed to make the article a good source of information on handling depression cases.

Moreover, the concept of culture has been addressed in this article. It entails the accepted norms and practices each person believes in, and skills acquired in this scenario include problem-solving. The critical discussion indicates a unique culture and norm in each person. Their cultural therapy should be flexible in evolving, and clinicians should be mindful of their preferences and disposition to discrimination when working with people from juvenile groups (Rathod & Naeem, 2019). Black women have been marginalized, which has oppressed their emotions and feelings, leading to disorders.

Learnt Knowledge

Since the above theory focuses on the thoughts as the origin of mental disorders, I have learned how to use the concept in therapies among black women with depression. While interacting with the patient, I will ask questions targeting possible causes of depression. I will pay attention to what they have to say as this may reveal what they believe and think. This will enable me to detect some beliefs that are not essential but trouble creators. This areas overall state of knowledge is adequate since I have obtained essential information. I have learned that peoples attitudes and thoughts can lead to depression issues, especially negative thoughts.

Utilize Theory

Knowledge and skills learned about cognitive theory can be applied in the change process. I will take the following steps in ensuring that the depressed black women are mentally liberated from their situation during cognitive behavioral therapy; I will urge the client to explain or express their feelings and thoughts about whatever is bothering them. It is critical to ask them to recognize any challenging scenarios or circumstances in their life that might have led to depression. A possible cause can be a lack of job due to discrimination issues, making it difficult to satisfy their daily wants. I can give some suggestions and explanations to the concerned individuals for better outcomes. Some people may be depressed and fail to identify the root cause.

I will then pay keen attention to access whether the reasons for the patients condition could be possible stressors and ask them to give their views and narrations of events that might have been stressful. I will assure the client that these conversations will be kept private unless there are highly particular circumstances. In the engagement process, I can explain some of the past events that may have contributed to the depression among the reported cases to access similarity. Openness with the client will make the therapy session accessible and successful. I will therefore be friendly and non-judgmental to ease the interactive session.

Precepts, Knowledge, and Strategies to Engage a Client: Reframing or Mental Restructuring

Mental Restructuring involves closely looking into unappealing thought sequences since a general assumption is likely to be made over little things. This thinking can impact ones activities, even evolving such an identity sign. In this case, when dealing with depressed women, negative feelings should be examined as they can give a clue of what they are going through.

The Use of Exposure Therapy

To handle anxieties and phobias, openness therapy might be employed. The therapist will slowly disclose the patient to things that make them feel afraid or nervous while also giving them recommendations on how to handle the situations in the present. This can be accomplished in modest steps to ensure the main aim of the therapy is realized (Butler & Heimberg, 2020). Exposure can ultimately drive someone to feel less susceptible and more secure in their ability to cope. The main aim of exposure therapy is to examine if what the client says corresponds to a real-life situation.

Stress-reduction and Relaxation Approaches

Some evolved relaxation techniques may be taught in CBT, including exercising in-depth breathing, muscle unwinding, and imagery. Essential techniques for releasing tension and boosting the feeling of control can be learned. This can help with phobias, social worries, and other anxieties. Having a positive social relationship with friends, family, and workmates eliminates pressure, thus, minimizing stress. Engaging in conflicts, gossip, and other time-wasting activities harms depression.

Role of Theory in Social Work

Sociological theories help companionable employees in their efforts to comprehend better complex human behavior in public backgrounds that impact the lives and issues of their clients. Solid knowledge of theory assists social workers in their careers by giving them a sense of direction, intention, and authority via research-based scientific data. Collective units such as families need to relate to each other to promote peace positively. Knowing these theories is essential to health care providers, especially when dealing with black women with depression. Perceiving these individuals as part of a family is crucial as there can be no plan of harm by doing this.

Planned Change Process

Helen Harris Perlman introduced the intentional change approach to social work. She developed The Planned Change Model in 1957 (Wallace & Ohrt, 2020). It refers to the preparation and execution of plans or approaches to change a pattern of behaviors, a situation, or a situation to enhance a clients well-being or position. Engagement, assessment, planning, implementation, evaluation, and cessation are part of the Planned Change Models process.

Follow-up

The initial contact between the case manager and the customer occurs during the engagement phase. The meeting stage has no limited duration, and it can operate anywhere from a few minutes to several hours, dependent on the client and the situation. The social worker must utilize practical listening skills, physical contact, empathy, and empathetic replies during the arrangement phase. They may reflect on what has been said to the client by applying questioning skills.

The inspection step applies to gathering, analyzing, and synthesizing information between the social worker and the victim to reflect the individuals demands and talents. The specialist and the client work jointly in the planning stage to identify areas of strength and weaknesses discovered during the assessment phase. The client and social worker begin to develop a long-lasting plan to deal with issues of accomplishing the set goals and objectives in the implementation stage. The action phase, in which the two parties work together, is also considered a joint period. Plans on the working procedure begin after the strategies have been examined and implemented.

Continuous worker assessment should be done to keep them motivated and driven. The goals and objectives should be examined whether they are being achieved. In the case of dormancy, new strategies should be put in place by making a better modification plan. In some circumstances, the worker may be demoralized due to many factors, such as low job morale. Lack of motivation is a significant contributing influence to the failure to meet set purposes. Wage increment can encourage personnel leading to an increase in the quality of goods and services. Job promotion strategies can be employed to avoid stagnation and improve skill acquisition.

Important Skills Learnt

The importance of communication skills in dealing with depressed patients is immeasurable since the interaction is key to success. Verbal instructions are done through collaboration, and the nurse should ensure the patient is paying attention to them. Similarly, guidance and counseling services, appointments on next clinic checkup, and how to take medication should be communicated verbally as well. Creating awareness to the patients on techniques they should apply to curb depression is critical. Consequently, illiteracy and ignorance is the leading factor to most illnesses.

Health care providers should use straightforward language to avoid ambiguity and misunderstanding. A higher level of honesty must be maintained, and the provided information should be kept confidential. This can be done by ensuring that the hospital has the technology for storing this data online. This will facilitate easy retrieval by both parties during and after the treatment plan. Strong passwords should be set to protect the records and, thus, the history of illnesses to avoid possible information leakage to malicious people who may desire to hack the systems. The circumstances one faces may dictate the tone while communicating with the sick. For instance, commanding language must be applied when administering medications, and the patients become reluctant.

Another form of interaction among mentally challenged patients is body language. Therefore, a doctor should be conversant with common gestures and know their meanings. This is because they may encounter people with disabilities who need special attention. During the treatment process, a health care provider should pay close attention to the patients choice of body language as they may be communicating something crucial. The nature in which a person is groomed also matters as it helps create the first impression of the personality. For instance, cases of depressed women indicate that most of them walk half-naked not because of their wish but due to situations. The patients movements should also be kept in mind as they may be indicating something unknown. A well-kept record of the tracks of a clients nonverbal cues enables nurses to predict the health status. The clinicians keep eye contact while communicating, eliminating panic in the patients while giving the patients the needed information. Most importantly, the sitting position is of great use in the treatment process. The nurse can adjust their positions by, for instance, leaning forward-facing the patient.

Problem-Solving Skills Make a Difference

Problem-solving skill is needed as one interact with others to avoid causing unnecessary tension and fear. Patients can be unpredictable in how they react to situations in the hospital and places of residence. In many cases, the sick individuals encounter allow them to learn more and acquire skills and understanding. For example, suppose a mentally challenged person visits the hospital and says she needs to commit suicide because of hard economic life. In that case, the healthcare providers should give this woman more alternatives and importance of life. The clinicians should be creative in coming up with problems encountered at every interaction session with a client.

Mental Knowledge Learnt

Mental health awareness is an essential factor of psychological health and can improve the well-being of a person and the health of entire populations. The evidence suggests that increased information concerning psychological problems and other emotional disorders reduces issues of suicide and death. Patients develop better alternatives in their minds and decide to go for those that solve their difficulties. Issue of stereotyping due to lack of awareness common due to deficiency of knowledge and skills to tackle them.

The four domains of mental health literacy that should be proposed include gaining an awareness of how to achieve and sustain excellent mental health and understanding mental diseases and their treatments. Reducing the stigma associated with emotional conditions and increasing help-seeking efficacy is critical. Therefore, mental health literacy focuses on three related concepts: information (comprising awareness of the mental disease and emotional well-being), attitudes, and treatment efficacy. The knowledge attained from theories that can be used to intervene and treat patients with mental disorders is also of great importance. Self-acceptance and satisfaction eliminated overthinking, which eased the disorders.

References

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