Category: Psychology 2075

Introduction

Violent behavior among children and adolescents can be attributed to various things. Sarmini and Azizah (2018) argue that there is a link between childhood aggression and the father figure actions. In particular, they hold a study that looks into gambling and child aggression. Arguably, children will be more manageable if there is family harmony. This can be achieved through proper communication between parents, between guardians and their children, and between the children in the family. Henggeler and Sheidow (2012) go further to explain that treatments aiming to help avert disorderly behavior and delinquency among adolescents also include functional family theory. This goes to show the link between the structure and functionality of the family unit in determining the behavior of a child. It is critical to note that there are two factors to consider when discussing child delinquency and violence. The first is violence directed to parents, while the second is delinquency due to the behavior of the guardians.

The topic selected is relevant and interesting as it can be related to real-life situations. Additionally, the number of violent teenagers and children is steadily increasing, as stated by Li and Cheng (2017). Therefore, both parents and psychologists have to come up with different ways of dealing with unwanted behavior while still promoting the childs healthy growth. This essay will present a case study of a violent child and use theoretical frameworks to understand further why the child feels this behavior is crucial in his development. Indeed, this will be achieved through proper identification of aspects of the selected theories in the childs behavior. Additionally, a brief discussion that will offer a personal opinion on the matter will be shared.

Theoretical Part

As stated before, there are various reasons scholars use to explain aggressive behaviors in children and adolescents. Ibabe et al. (2013) explain that the bi-directionality of family violence can explain why child aggression occurs. The scholars add that children who are in violent families will most likely also resort to aggression as a way of expressing themselves. One theory that the scholars use to support their argument is the social learning theory (Ibabe et al., 2013). The theory states that people learn by imitating others. It is supported by numerous socialization arguments that add that the primary way offspring (either human or animal) develop is through imitating their parents (mothers specifically). One can argue that the theory puts significant relevance on the initial socialization. However, as the child grows, other influences come to play, such as peer pressure and the search for self-identity.

Importantly, using the theory of social learning, the child will react to these influences based on what they have learned at home. The premise can be unpacked to simply mean that the child will perceive all relationships through the scope of the violent at home. Therefore, the child will use violence to control other people, get what they want, or shape other peoples opinion of themselves. The same theory can be used to explain children who are aggressive towards their caregivers. According to Ibabe et al. (2013), children who have been abused will most likely also abuse older people who show any form of care towards them. This is an attempt to reverse the trauma that they have felt, and arguably, in their mind, they are also doing the same to their abuser.

At times, it is possible to predict if children will have behavioral problems later on in life. Somech and Elizur (2012) explain that aggressive teenagers and adolescents often portray early-onset conduct problems. These can be due to an exposure to a violent household or through aggressive patterns. The scholars rely on Hitkashrut theory to explain their study and findings. The principle is borrowed from Hebrew and suggests that there are common elements that can both identify aggression and be used to resolve attachment issues that cause violence in children. Two things have to be considered when discussing childhood aggression using this theory. The first is that violence in children can be identified early and resolved. The second is that attachment issues are the major contributing factor to child violence.

In the first instance, the theory explains that parents and psychologists can resolve issues related to early-onset conduct problems. When these behaviors are noted, a solution must be implemented to discourage negative actions. For example, if a child is in a violent family, he or she starts to bully children. The immediate solution would be to remove that child from the dysfunctional family setting. After the initial withdrawal, other interventions, such as counseling, can be done successfully. It is critical to note that the theory suggests that one has to inhibit at all cost all negative parent-child relationships (Somech & Elizur, 2012). If the reason for the aggression is not violent behavior at home, then the child might use the same to get attention from the parent. In such an instance, the parent has to provide an environment where the child does not feel like he or she is in competition for attention with other people or activities.

There have been debates that the increase in child aggression is also due to media exposure. The kind of programs that the affected children are exposed to often relate to their behavior. This goes back to the concept expanded by the social learning theory. Hasan et al. (2013) explain that the cognitive neoassociative-theory can also be used to further expand on the argument. The theory states that human memory is a combination of nodes and links where the nodes represent concepts. In contrast, the links represent the relations among the concepts. Therefore, a concept has to be stimulated for it to be linked to other concepts. Hasan et al. (2013) analyze the impact of violent video games in the development of near-similar behavior among the users. Towards this end, the act of playing the games and enjoying killing or beating each other becomes the primary stimuli. This then starts a process that includes the linking up of violent concepts in the childs mind. Therefore, the act of enjoyment of winning the violent game connects together with angry feelings towards a person, and this then leads to the feelings of desperation and end up in the child being violent.

These arguments are further enhanced by the fact that people who play violent games are more likely to also prefer other violent forms of media material. Gunter and Daly (2012) quote a study which showed that people who played non-violent games were less likely to resort to aggression to express themselves than those who played violent video games.

Further, there is a clear relationship between behavior and child-parent relations. As explained before, parents are the first contact of any human being. The term parent here also refers to guardians or an older figure that a child looks up to when growing up. These influential figures help the child understand the world around him or her, and at the same time, also shape how the child perceives him or herself. Klahr et al. (2011) state that child-parent conflict can lead to anti-social behavior later on. The scholars agree that Pattersons theory is critical in both understanding and resolving aggression among children. The theory suggests that one cannot treat behavioral problems in children without fully understanding, scrutinizing, and providing solutions for better parent-child relations.

On the same note, the mentioned family or parent-child methodologies can be used when an at-risk child is identified. As explained earlier, there are numerous ways an at-risk adolescent can be identified. Abrahams at al. (2016) look into community-based solutions to help at-risk teenagers avert violent reactions to situations. The scholars look into parent-child interaction therapy, family creative therapy, and training and treatment therapy to help a child stop the violent behavior (Abrahams at al., 2016). The authors also use the social learning theory to explain violence in children. They add that one of the key ways of helping teenagers with such aggressive tendencies is to reduce the coercive pattern in their relationship with their parent or parents.

Case Study

One requirement of my Perah scholarship was offering volunteer services for one year. My work was to work with children in an attempt to help them improve their grades in school. Therefore, I was tasked with teaching classroom-related subjects such as Math, English, and Science. One child, in particular, was of interest as he appeared timid at the beginning. However, after a few weeks, he became highly active and tried to seek attention at all times. The child was in fourth grade at the time and was highly intelligent. Interestingly, whenever attention was not given to the childs satisfaction, he would become highly violent. His violence was directed to other children, but never to other tutors or me. In one instance, he struck a child in order to take his ball. He then went ahead and played with the ball as if nothing had happened.

I could not understand why he was so violent all of a sudden. Upon investigation, I was informed that the child did portray aggressive behaviors prior to me becoming his tutor. His mother had been informed of his behavior, and she had promised to ensure he stops attacking other children. However, the management was not keen on knowing whether any form of intervention was taken first to understand the behavior and resolve it. I attempted to talk to the child about his behavior and notified him that it was wrong and that he was hurting the other children. The child appeared remorseful and, for a few days, was a team player. However, after a couple of days, he started hitting his fellow students again.

On day, I got a deeper understanding of the childs behavior. It was 21st March, and everyone was celebrating Mothers Day. A few days before the day, I encouraged all the children to create pieces that they would present to their mothers on the day. We had agreed that the children would first present their pieces in class, to show other children why their mother was special. All the children had created beautiful arts and crafts for their mothers except this same boy. I did not want to embarrass him in class, so after the session was over, I went to speak briefly with him before he went home. Interestingly, when I asked him why he had not created something special for his mother, he said he did not want to do so. When I asked him why this was so, he stated that he hated his mother, and he felt like she did not deserve any gift as she had not been a good mother.

This was a shocking revelation, but it helped me chart a path for resolution for the child. I investigated further and realized that the childs parents were divorced. The household had significant emotional and physical abuse before the parents decided to get a divorce. The boy had experienced all this violence and, at times, had been the recipient of the same. The boy lived with his mother for a while after the divorce, but she then took him to her mother (the boys grandmother), and the boy had only seen her a few times after that. The boy had also seen the father a few times, but he insisted that he loved his grandmother and did not mind living with her.

Integration

Four theories were identified in the theoretical part of this essay. The four theories were social learning theory, cognitive neoassociative-theory, Hitkashrut theory, and Pattersons theory. The social learning theory can be used to explain the behaviors of the child. As mentioned, the theory suggests that children imitate others actions, especially their parents, who offer the foundation of socialization after the child is born (Ibabe et al., 2013). The argument seems persuasive as it ties with the fact that the boy in the case study had been exposed to violent behavior at home. Besides, the boy was also a victim of both the emotional and physical violence that was primarily between his parents. Thus, it can be argued that the removal of the child from the violent set-up helped the situation as the child was no longer exposed to the same.

Despite moving to his grandmothers, the child was still expressing himself in violent ways. This is supported by the second theory, the cognitive neoassociative-theory. As mentioned, the theory states that human memory is made up of nodes, which are the concepts, and the links, which are the relations between these concepts (Hasan et al., 2013). Arguably, the theory can be applied in understanding the boys reactions better. For instance, one can argue that the violence the boy experienced at home was the stimulus action. It was then connected to his feelings of anger, fear, rejection, abandonment, and even love for both his parents. The linkages then made the boy highly likely to resort to aggression to show/gain control or express his feeling. Thus, the argument is persuasive as it explains why the boy continued to be violent after he was removed from the toxic environment.

The third theory, Hitkashrut, suggests that early-onset behavioral problems have to be curbed to avoid complications later on in life. The principle can be linked to the case study successfully. As explained, upon investigation, it was confirmed that the child had been violent for a while. Therefore, both his parents and teachers were aware of his aggressive behavior. This is what the theory refers to as early-onset behavioral problems. It is arguable that if a solution had been sought early, the child would not have been experiencing the same problems in fourth grade. Debatably, the child has been mentally and emotionally unhealthy due to the behavioral problem. Indeed, the school should have felt obliged to investigate further why the child behaved in such a violent manner towards other children. It would have been clear that he suffered from attachment issues that stemmed from the fact that his parents were divorced. Additionally, his condition was made worse because he had witnessed and even been a victim of abuse.

The fourth theory, just like the discussed three, also matches the case study. The Patterson theory suggests that parent-child relationships are vital in understanding the behavior of teenagers and adolescents. The theory is persuasive as it denotes that the boy had a complicated relationship with his parents. Debatably, this was since his parents had problems of their own within their marriage. The child continued to be aggressive despite his parents divorce because he still had abandonment issues arising from the stated parent-child relationship.

Discussion

The case study shows how parent-children and even home environments can affect how children interact with other people. The boy in the case study felt the need to be aggressive as it is the only form of expression he had learned from his parents, who were always fighting and yelling. It is important to note that whereas the child did not yell, he was significantly aggressive. The fact that he did not yell could be due to the assumption that he was scared of raised voices due to the trauma he experienced. To him, a person with power could be violent as his parents were both powerful and aggressive. Arguably, during the fights, the most powerful parent would harm the less powerful one. The child perceived this as an essential part of communicating strength. All the theories used can be successfully applied in the case study. They appear to complement each other and offer a complete discussion of the childs behavior.

The issue of child aggression or violence is complicated due to the number of things that can influence the childs perception of other people and the world. For instance, a toxic environment, peer pressure and the need to find ones self-identity can all be attributed to behavior. At times, it can be difficult differentiating between a contributing factor or a resultant of poor behavior among teenagers (Frick, 2012). However, despite its complexity, one clear thing is that the home situation or parent-child relationship of an at-risk or even already violent teenager will play a role in understanding his or her behavior. In fact, it is arguable that a significant number of behavioral problems start at home. This can be related to poor parenting, lack of parenting due to the fact that there are some child-led households and toxic relationships between the two parents. Therefore, one can argue that the best way to initiate treatment for such behavior is to encourage a positive and healthy relationship between children and their parents or guardians.

References

Abrahams, E. M., Junger, M., Van Wouwe, M. M., Boer, F., Lindauer, L. R. (2016). Treating child disruptive behavior in high-risk families: A comparative effectiveness trial from a community-based implementation. Journal of Child Family Studies, 25, 16051622.

Frick, F. P. (2012). Developmental pathways to conduct disorder: Implications for future directions in research, assessment, and treatment. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 41(3), 378389.

Gunter, W. D., & Daly, K. (2012). Causal or spurious: Using propensity score matching to detangle the relationship between violent video games and violent behavior. Computers in Human Behavior, 28, 13481355.

Hasan, Y., Bègue, L., Scharkow, M., & Bushman, J. B. (2013). The more you play, the more aggressive you become: A long-term experimental study of cumulative violent video game effects on hostile expectations and aggressive behavior. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 49, 224227.

Henggeler, W. S., & Sheidow, J. A. (2012). Empirically supported family-based treatments for conduct disorder and delinquency in adolescents. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 38(1), 3058.

Ibabe, I., Jaureguizar, J., & Bentler, M. P. (2013). Risk factors for child-to-parent violence. Journal on Family Violence, 28, 523534.

Klahr, M. A., Rueter, A. M., McGue, M., Iacono, G. W., & Burt, S. A. (2011). The relationship between parent-child conflict and adolescent antisocial behavior: Confirming shared environmental mediation. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 39, 683694.

Li, Q., & Cheng, C. T. (2017). New evidence in physical violent behaviors among school-aged children: A multiple disadvantages model. Children and Youth Services Review 81, 301308.

Sarmini, & Azizah, Z. N. (2018). Children aggressive behavior: Child development implications due to fathers gambling. Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research, 226, 1601-1605.

Somech, Y. L., & Elizur, Y. (2012). Promoting self-regulation and cooperation in pre-kindergarten children with conduct problems: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 51(4), 412-422.

Introduction

It is human nature to never stop observing and analyzing others. Whenever an individual is confronted with something that is not easily explainable, he or she resorts to either internal (personal) or external attribution (Martinko & Mackey, 2019). A simple example would be the situation in the picture above. A man and a woman bump into each other on the street; one or both of them may trip over, fall, or drop their belongings. From the outside, the two people seem to be in a rush, not very attentive to their surroundings, and fairly inconsiderate of passers-by.

If their behavior is externally attributed, it is possible to speculate that the people might have had a busy day or been too much in their heads about something. All in all, situational factors made them act this way. If internal attribution is applied, each one of them might imply that the other person is simply rude and that it is their trait. It is easy to notice that these two types of attributions can lead to two different ways to perceive reality. People tend to make fundamental attribution errors when they underemphasize the situational and overemphasize personality and dispositional factors.

Personal Experience

Once I started noticing that my friend was withdrawing from me and neglecting our friendship. Whenever I wanted to meet her, she had an excuse not to come. My messages were left on reading for days to come, and sometimes she would even hang up on me when I tried to call her.

Given that we were very close before, the situation made me upset. At first, I was angry at my friend, and I attributed her new behavior to her changed personality. I knew she was changing jobs and meeting new people, so I figured that she no longer wanted me in her life. Yet, I was not ready to end this friendship, so I ended up confronting my friend and telling her everything I thought about her. To my surprise, she confessed that she was aloof and dismissive because her dad was seriously sick. The friend was not ready to tell me and, hence, preferred to keep a distance.

The Implications of the Fundamental Attribution Error

Committing fundamental attribution error (FAE) impacts our treatment of others. We make judgments about other people without considering the environmental and situational factors and, hence, evaluate their entire personalities based on one event. The mental stability of the judged person may be compromised as a result of FAE, especially if he or she is not yet ready to explain their behavior, as shown in my example. Furthermore, FAE affects our moral development and the ability to empathize with others. Making internal attribution leaves out the room for understanding a person who might be doing something, not to our liking. All in all, FAE poses a threat to effective communication and compassionate, trusting relationships.

Reference

Martinko, M. J., & Mackey, J. D. (2019). Attribution theory: An introduction to the special issue. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 40(5), 523-527.

It should be noted that conceptual blocks limit a person from the point of view of his or her thinking process. They encourage individuals to look at the problem more narrowly and do not give them the opportunity to reveal their creative potential when searching for a solution. Apart from that, the more often people find themselves in the same atmosphere or system, the more difficult it is for them to start thinking broadly. The purpose of this paper is to analyze one of the difficult problems in my work setting to be able to determine the conceptual blocks in my mind that automatically appear when solving complex issues.

Personal Blocks

One of the problems I experienced in my work setting was linked to my inability to propose creative solutions to the leadership. In my previous workplace, one of my responsibilities was to find new clients and to solve this problem I utilized the same methods and means throughout the year due to the fact that they produced positive results. Nevertheless, the leadership required finding new ways to attract a wider audience, which involved the use of innovative methods. Since I was following the same path for a long time, it was difficult for me to offer creative solutions, and I decided to employ a familiar method in the success of which I was particularly confident. Nonetheless, I was not able to find any fundamentally new approaches that were asked of me, which indicates that one of my conceptual blocks is constancy.

In addition, another block that is directly related to the first one is commitment. Due to the fact that my duties have not changed for a long time and my regular decisions brought immediate results, I used to consider the issues in a stereotypical way (Whetten and Cameron 141). However, the problems that had to be solved were different in their nature; therefore, they required new solutions, and my previous positive experience did not stimulate me to seek a creative approach.

In addition, the lack of curiosity at that time did not allow me to use my potential to a greater degree. I was reluctant to seek additional information to improve the quality of decisions. In such a situation, discussions and constructive communication with colleagues would allow me to look at the setting from a different perspective and comprehend that there were alternative solutions (Levy Shankman et al. 149). Nevertheless, I refused to take a joint decision with my colleagues but chose to rely on the common way of solving the issue. Therefore, complacency is the third conceptual block that hinders my creativity.

Concluding Points

Thus, it can be concluded that in my thinking process there are three conceptual blocks that allow me to speculate analytically but interfere with my creative perception of the setting. These conceptual blocks are constancy, commitment, and complacency. They have an individual nature, and my main goal is to develop certain skills to overcome these obstacles. Importantly, these patterns work at the subconscious level and do not allow a person to perceive certain types of information, which is critical for management at any level (Levy Shankman et al. 149). Therefore, it is necessary to strive for thinking about new ways of formulating both problems and solutions and resolve these issues in many different ways.

Works Cited

Levy Shankman, Marcy, et al. Emotionally Intelligent Leadership for Students: Facilitation and Activity Guide. 2nd ed., John Wiley & Sons, 2015.

Whetten, David, and Kim Cameron. Developing Management Skills. 9th ed., Pearson, 2012.

Natural and applied sciences, such as biology, chemistry, or medicine, are concerned with the research process to understand the physical world and environment. The lens of the sciences is characterized by the methods of observation, hypothesis verification, and experimentation conducted with the goal of obtaining reliable and practical data. Thus, the human body might be considered by natural/applied scientists as a set of interconnected and interdependent systems supporting the harmonious union of physical and mental health. The problem of psychological wellness can provide a social commentary through the natural and applied sciences. The researchers may focus their work on psychological anxiety or discuss the stress of social isolation and the effects of discrimination on mental and physical health (Qiu et al., 2020). The contextual approach of natural/applied scientists and the social commentary included in their work inform the general public on the issue. The topic of mental wellness is one of the current issues in the sciences because the disciplines aim to find effective ways of restoring mental well-being.

Researchers in medicine, chemistry, and biology are concerned with developing effective strategies for maintaining and improving mental well-being in two major ways. Firstly, natural and applied scientists examine a link between existing problems and potential solutions to develop actionable plans. For instance, Bratman et al. (2019) use an ecosystem perspective and suggest that the natural environment can improve a persons mental health and quality of life. The experts claim that practical measures, such as climate stabilization efforts, flood protection, and water purification, should become the priority of governmental decision-making for enhancing the psychological well-being of their citizens. The researchers examine the problem and conclude that mental wellness can alleviate the burden of cardiovascular and circulatory diseases, decreasing the quality of life, causing disability, and increasing mortality.

Secondly, science can enhance the understanding and raise awareness of the issue by investigating different institutions or social actors. For example, the research by Qiu et al. (2020) reveals that the COVID-19 pandemic negatively affects mental wellness and causes psychological anxiety. The medical experts address the issue of psychological health and recommend the measurement of mental state and online interventions (professional guidance, meditation, emotional self-regulation) to adequately respond to the emergency event. Furthermore, web- and community-based dissemination of evidence-based wellness content (posters, mobile messages, videos) can improve the social bond and inform people about emergency interventions (Qiu et al., 2020). Therefore, the discoveries made by natural and applied scientists provide practical measures to approach mental wellness and resolve associated issues.

References

Bratman, G. N., Anderson, C. B., Berman, M. G., Cochran, B., de Vries, S., Flanders, J., & Daily, G. C. (2019). Nature and mental health: An ecosystem service perspective. Science Advances, 5(7), 114.

Qiu, J. Y., Zhou, D. S., Liu, J., & Yuan, T. F. (2020). Mental wellness system for COVID-19. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 87, 5152.

Introduction

This paper aims to analyze a case study involving Francesca, a 50-year-old woman who presented to counseling upon the request of her employer, who believes that her frequent absences from work are concerned with alcohol or substance use. The client reveals that she has been taking Mersyndol Forte for the last 15 years, prescribed to her to manage migraines and insomnia. Mersyndol Forte contains codeine, an opioid drug that can cause dependence, which is why it is not recommended for long-term use, and the daily intake should not exceed eight tablets (Mersyndol Forte, 2020). Yet, the client used the drug for a very long period, and her daily dose has increased to about 30 tablets. In addition, the patient reports not being able to stop using the drug because it results in worsening migraines, nausea, and stomach cramps. According to Nielsen et al. (2018), these are the symptoms of codeine dependence, which requires pharmacological treatment and addressing underlying psychological issues. This paper will discuss key biological, social, and psychological factors involved in the case and propose a comprehensive treatment plan to address the identified factors.

Key Biological Factors

One biological factor involved in the case is structural and functional changes in the brain resulting in opioid craving. Since Francesca has not been able to abstain from using Mersyndol Forte for more than two weeks, one may conclude that she craves the drug. The client states that she takes the drug to manage her chronic pain caused by migraines, back pain that emerged after a recent accident, and pain from developing stomach ulcers. One might assume that the clients opioid craving is related to the intensity of her pain. However, according to Bruneau et al. (2021), in opioid-dependent patients with chronic pain, opioid craving results from neuroadaptations in the prefrontal cortex, insula, and amygdala rather than from high pain levels. In particular, opioid use causes changes in the reward circuit, resulting in opioid craving and decreased responsiveness to non-opioid stimuli (Martel et al., 2021). Since the client has been taking the drug for years and developed tolerance, evidenced by the need to increase the dose because of decreasing drug effectiveness, she is likely to have undergone neuroadaptations that result in her opioid craving.

Another biological factor contributing to the clients maintenance of codeine-containing drug use is opioid withdrawal symptoms. Francescas withdrawal symptoms include headaches, nausea, vomiting, muscular pain, and restlessness, and their emergence after attempts to quit using the drug prevented the client from stopping taking the medication. Bruneau et al. (2021) state that opioid withdrawal symptoms are linked to opioid craving and stem from dysregulations in the neurohormonal system, particularly the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Changes in the neurohormonal system also increase individuals autonomic responses to opioid cues, such as prescription bottles, which raise their craving for drugs (Martel et al., 2021). Thus, withdrawal symptoms and simultaneous opioid craving lead the client to maintain her drug use.

Key Social Factors

Among key social factors contributing to the clients maintained drug use is the widespread acceptance of using opioids for pain management. As the client noted, she believed that her drug use was well-managed because her GP always complied with her requests to return prescriptions. In part, Francescas codeine dependence is maintained due to the so-called opioid crisis that stems from physicians overprescribing of opioid drugs for pain management and the abundance of such medications on the supply side (Wiss, 2019). The popularity of opioid treatments has increased in recent decades because of the scientific evidence of their effectiveness for short-term pain management (Marshall et al., 2019). At the same time, evidence shows that opioids are ineffective for chronic pain management, but, despite that, many physicians and patients believe in these drugs ability to reduce pain and improve quality of life (Marshall et al., 2019). Living in a society where opioid use for pain management is commonly accepted among patients and physicians, Francesca may see her use of the codeine-containing drug as justified.

Another important factor influencing the clients drug use is stigma and a lack of social support. The client reports concealing her drug use from her family and feeling ashamed of her past when she used to consume heroin. As Cooper et al. (2018) state, high levels of perceived stigma are common among opioid users and act as a barrier to seeking treatment. In the given client, the level of experienced stigma is so high that she would rather quit her job than let the information about her drug dependence come out. Since her family members are unaware of her drug use problem, she does not have enough social support to help her cope. Moreover, the client reports not having time for much of a social life, implying that she does not get enough social support from outside of her family either. Research shows that low levels of support are associated with opioid dependence and mental health conditions, and high levels, on the contrary, improve opioid users treatment outcomes (Cooper et al., 2018). Thus, addressing the clients stigma and insufficient social support is vital for treatment effectiveness.

Key Psychological Factors

Several psychological factors contribute to the clients maintenance of drug use, including the clients perception of pain. Patients with chronic pain use opioid drugs not simply because they experience pain of high-level intensity but because of the involvement of psychological factors as well (Bruneau et al., 2021; Martel et al., 2021). Evidence shows that negative affect and pain catastrophizing contribute to individuals opioid cravings with little connection to the experienced pain intensity (Bruneau et al., 2021; Martel et al., 2021). It means that opioid-dependent patients tend to crave drugs whenever they feel negative emotions, such as nervousness, fear, or distress, and exaggerate their pain experiences. In Francescas case, negative affect and pain catastrophizing may have contributed to her opioid dependence since she stated she used the drug for different types of pain (headaches, back pain, ulcers), and the medication helped her cope with stress.

Another key psychological factor present in the case is the clients lack of effective coping skills. Coping skills are conscious efforts to minimize or deal with stress (Lewis et al., 2018). As Wiss (2019) notes, individuals may use opioid drugs not only for physical but also for psychological pain, and, in this case, drug misuse serves as a coping mechanism to handle emotional pain. In the clients words, the codeine-containing drug helped her cope with stressful life situations: It made me feel like I could cope with the work and family balance. The stresses were still there, but I could cope with them much better. It implies that the client lacks effective coping skills to deal with stress in more adaptive ways than taking drugs. Furthermore, Martel et al. (2021) report that patients with chronic pain who limit their pain coping skills to chemical coping and do not use cognitive coping, such as pain reappraisals, often have increased negative affect and catastrophic thinking and develop opioid dependence. Thus, the clients codeine dependence is maintained because she lacks effective skills for dealing with stress and pain.

Finally, the clients expectations and beliefs regarding drug use and pain influence her opioid use. In terms of attitudes toward pain, patients with chronic pain may have misconceptions about their experiences, believing that their pain should be completely gone before they can proceed with their daily activities (Gilbert, 2021). Regarding drug use, individuals expectations about the drug effect, which are based on their previous experiences with the substance, professional descriptions, and mass media accounts, can shape their response to drugs (Lewis et al., 2018). In the given case, the client seems to believe that she has to be free from pain to perform her everyday activities since she does not tolerate unpleasant experiences and takes sick leaves whenever she feels bad. Further, her expectations regarding Mersyndol Forte appear to be positive based on her past experiences with the drug that made her sleep like a baby and helped her cope with migraines. Thus, because of her attitudes toward the medication and pain, the client has been maintaining her drug use for a long time.

Intervention Plan

An intervention plan for opioid-dependent individuals should be developed concerning the biological, psychological, and social factors involved in each case. Opioid dependence is a complex biopsychosocial disorder affecting an individuals physical and mental health and social well-being (NSW Ministry of Health [NSW], 2018). As such, it requires addressing multiple needs of the client, not only his or her substance use (Lewis et al., 2018). Therefore, the treatment plan discussed further will include interventions addressing the identified biological, psychological, and social factors influencing the clients use of the codeine-containing drug.

First, there is a need to address the clients biological factors of opioid craving and withdrawal symptoms. The first-line treatment for opioid dependence is opioid agonist treatment (OAT) with methadone or buprenorphine (NSW, 2018). It leads to psychological stability, increased control over substance use, and subsequent abstinence (NSW, 2018). Buprenorphine, in particular, is also effective for managing opioid withdrawal symptoms (Nielsen et al., 2018). Yet, OAT is a long-term treatment, showing significant positive effects after three months and bringing major benefits after one year (NSW, 2018). It can be considered a weakness since efforts to retain the client in treatment will be required. Additionally, some physicians may be reluctant to prescribe these medications, assuming that they replace one addiction with another (Patel et al., 2021). Despite these weaknesses, this intervention has an undeniable strength of proven effectiveness, and it is likely to decrease the clients opioid craving and withdrawal symptoms, eventually leading to complete abstinence. Therefore, it is necessary to refer the client to a GP for getting OAT and managing concurrent health problems such as ulcers.

Psychological interventions are also required to address the clients psychological factors and ensure retention in treatment. The patient may benefit from cognitive-behavior therapy (CBT) interventions as they have demonstrated effectiveness in treating opioid dependence and chronic pain (Marshall et al., 2019; Patel et al., 2021). Among CBT interventions, several proven effective options can be considered for the given client: patient education, motivational interviewing, coping skills training, and contingency management (Martel et al., 2021). Patient education is necessary to raise the clients awareness about the harm of opioid misuse, while motivational interviewing should enhance the clients motivation to pursue behavior change. Coping skills training is essential for the given client to help her develop effective ways of dealing with stress and pain. Coping skills training will help the client build self-efficacy which has a critical significance in relapse prevention (Sureshkumar et al., 2021). Finally, contingency management involves rewarding patients for remaining in treatment.

There are several strengths and limitations to the use of the proposed interventions in managing opioid dependence. In particular, although contingency management is one of the most effective interventions in substance use disorders, it is rarely practiced because there is a question of who should be responsible for funding it (Patel et al., 2021). Regarding CBT, when combined with OAT, it shows significantly greater effectiveness in the form of group therapy rather than as an individual intervention (Gregory & Ellis, 2020). Group CBT not only reduces opioid use and improves coping skills and reduces perceived stigma (Gregory & Ellis, 2020). Therefore, one may conclude that group CBT can be more appropriate for the client because of its high effectiveness and the possibility of addressing social factors present in the case, including stigma and a lack of social support.

Other interventions to deal with the clients social factors include couples therapy and the referral to leisure activities. Couples therapy has been shown to increase individuals rates of abstinence, reduce substance use problems, and improve relationships (Klostermann & OFarrell, 2021). However, despite its potential benefits for decreasing the clients drug use and increasing social support, the client or their partner may refuse to participate. Therefore, another way of addressing the clients social factors is to refer her to participate in leisure activities of her choice or engage in self-help groups (Torrens et al., 2021). These interventions are likely to benefit the clients psychological state by increasing her emotional support and life satisfaction.

Conclusion

This paper aims to analyze the biopsychosocial factors involved in the case of Francesca, who appears to have codeine dependence and propose a comprehensive intervention plan addressing these factors. The identified factors include opioid craving, withdrawal symptoms, stigma, a lack of social support, pain catastrophizing, the deficit of effective coping skills, and positive expectations of drug use. OAT is recommended for the client as the first-line treatment to reduce her drug use, opioid craving, and withdrawal symptoms. Since this treatment is long-term and the client has underlying psychological issues, CBT interventions have been suggested to reduce the clients stigma and improve coping skills. Group CBT can be particularly effective for the client because it can also address the social factors involved in the case. Overall, the case shows that substance use is a complex problem involving multiple aspects of the patients life. It requires a comprehensive approach dealing with different biopsychosocial dimensions.

References

Bruneau, A., Frimerman, L., Verner, M., Sirois, A., Fournier, C., Scott, K., Perez, J., Shir, Y., & Martel, M. O. (2021). Day-to-day opioid withdrawal symptoms, psychological distress, and opioid craving in patients with chronic pain prescribed opioid therapy. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 225(108787), 1-9. Web.

Cooper, S., Campbell, G., Larance, B., Murnion, B., & Nielsen, S. (2018). Perceived stigma and social support in treatment for pharmaceutical opioid dependence. Drug and Alcohol Review, 37(2), 262-272.

Gilbert, S. (2021). Chronic pain and dependence. In N. el-Guebaly et al. (Eds.), Textbook of addiction treatment (pp. 1255-1267). Springer.

Gregory, V. L., & Ellis, R. J. B. (2020). Cognitive-behavioral therapy and buprenorphine for opioid use disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 46(5), 520-530.

Klostermann, K., & OFarrell, T. J. (2021). Couple and family therapy in treatment of alcoholism and drug abuse. In N. el-Guebaly et al. (Eds.), Textbook of addiction treatment (pp. 447-458). Springer.

Lewis, J. A., Dana, R. Q., & Blevins, G. A. (2018). Substance abuse counseling (6^th ed.). Cengage Learning.

Marshall, B., Bland, M. K., Hulla, R., & Gatchel, R. J. (2019). Considerations in addressing the opioid epidemic and chronic pain within the USA. Pain Management, 9(2), 131-138. Web.

Martel, M. O., Bruneau, A., & Edwards, R. R. (2021). Mind-body approaches targeting the psychological aspects of opioid use problems in patients with chronic pain: Evidence and opportunities. Translational Research, 234, 114-128. Web.

Mersyndol Forte. (2020). NPS MedicineWise. Web.

Nielsen, S., Reynolds, A., Wilson, H., & Clark, N. (2018). Codeine rescheduling and the GP. Medicine Today, 19(3), 17-26.

NSW Ministry of Health. NSW clinical guidelines: Treatment of opioid dependence  2018. Web.

Patel, K., Bunachita, S., Agarwal, A. A., Lyon, A., & Patel, U. K. (2021). Opioid use disorder: Treatments and barriers. Cureus, 13(2), e13173. Web.

Sureshkumar, K., Dalal, P. K., Kailash, S. Z., & Rudhran, V. (2021). Relapse in opioid dependence: Role of psychosocial factors. Indian Journal of Psychiatry, 63(4), 372-376. Web.

Torrens, M., Fonseca, F., Dinamarca, F., Papaseit, E., & Farré, M. (2021). Opioid addiction and treatment. In N. el-Guebaly et al. (Eds.), Textbook of addiction treatment (pp. 241-258). Springer.

Wiss, D. A. (2019). A biopsychosocial overview of the opioid crisis: Considering nutrition and gastrointestinal health. Frontiers in Public Health, 7(193), 1-16.

Stefan is a 33-year-old man experiencing a difficult period: his own business does not improve, he has little time to relax, receives no support from his wife, and struggles to find a connection with his toddler son. He deals with this pressure by having at least one beer daily and sometimes getting out of control by drinking until he passes out. Indeed, Waddell et al. (2021) state that people develop such mechanisms because of the beliefs about alcohols ability to reduce tension, and explicit motivations to drink to cope with negative mood states (p. 48). Alcohol has always been a part of life, and both his and his wifes families perceive it as a cultural and socialization attribute. Stefan describes himself as an anxious person who cannot think clearly under stressful circumstances, sweats a lot, and has headaches. Drinking helps him remain calm; however, the habit has become severe, making the client feel that his life is out of control.

Assessment tools to identify if the substance abuse or addiction is appropriate for the given case revealed that alcohol is not the cause of the clients problems but the outcome of current life difficulties. Stefan scored two out of ten in his impression of the issue, meaning that he knows that changes beyond the drinking habit are necessary. He experiences problems in his work regardless of the long hours he devotes to it, and getting new customers forces him into uncomfortable situations where drinks help him socialize. Furthermore, he receives little support from his wife, whose expectations regarding living and wealth are hard to achieve now, putting an additional burden on mans mental health.

Stefans family history of alcohol use also demonstrates that drinking is a central attribute of every gathering and a normal part of everyday life. The assessment tool included an analysis of the patients current situation: he is satisfied with the accommodation, has no legal issues, and his educational background allowed him to start his own business as a structural engineer. However, Stefan reported health concerns such as inability to relax, financial anxiety, feeling lonely and depressed, difficulty developing meaningful connections, and fears about the future. Assessment displayed no signs of crisis, violent tendencies in the clients behavior, and no history of mental health treatment.

Assessment scores selected for Stefans issue analysis were Michigan Alcohol Screening Test (MAST) and Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT) because of their reliability in identifying early signs of addictive behaviors. In MAST, the client scored six points because of the positive responses to several signs of addictive behavior in alcohol consumption; this result indicates a moderate probability of substance abuse (Pavkovic et al., 2018). Indeed, Stefan reported occasions of not remembering what happened during the night of drinking, engaging in drunk fights, severe hangovers, and experiencing difficulty stopping after a couple of beverages. The AUDIT score displayed that the client is at the risk of developing severe alcohol dependence. The tests responses revealed the abnormal frequency of drinking and the increasing number of cases when patients failed to deliver their responsibilities because of being drunk or having a severe hangover. The results recommended Stefan seek medical or mental health advice and address the issue while it is in the preventable stage.

Stefan demonstrated several strengths and positive characteristics helpful for further treatment. Firstly, Stefan admits his behavior is abnormal and is willing to make positive changes. The self-motivational factor is crucial for dealing with habitual activities, modifying which is commonly difficult, especially for adults (Stevenson et al., 2019). Secondly, Stefan demonstrated well-developed self-reflection as he can recognize anxiety symptoms and identify how his actions influence his relationship with his wife. Lastly, the clients strength is awareness of the consequences of drinking and understanding that it will not help improve life.

Treatment Plan

Treatment strategy and recommendations for Stefan should be based on changing his coping mechanisms in stressful situations and helping him deal with anxiety. Norm referencing, such as re-taking MAST and AUDIT assessments, should be performed each month throughout the therapy to check the progress and adjust the initial plan. Considering the latest AUDIT results, Stefan is recommended to get medical counseling and treatment to prevent worsening conditions (Pavkovic et al., 2018). The pharmacological approach is excluded from options to avoid physical health harm or switching addictive behavior from alcohol to medication. Thus, two main treatment recommendations and related SMART goals were developed: cognitive-behavioral therapy and social skills training. The initial duration of the program is 12 weeks, as this period is optimal to measure progress and adjust the strategy effectively.

Treatment Recommendation: Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy

Cognitive-behavioral treatment is appropriate for Stefan because it is based on developing actionable tactics to deal with anxiety without involving alcohol. Furthermore, counseling as a part of therapy will enable the patient to re-evaluate their current approaches to address stress and select practical alternatives (Magill et al., 2019). Cognitive-behavioral treatment recommendations include weekly sessions with a specialist, implementation of self-assessment frameworks, and logging the cases when drinking goes out of control to identify the negative triggers. A SMART goal would be to have at least two weekly situations when Stefan managed to locate and reduce anxiety without alcohol. The patient is encouraged to try various techniques, such as breathing, meditation, or journaling, and select the most effective based on self-assessment. If they fail to achieve the goal for three weeks, their treatment should be modified, and objectives should become more concrete. Cognitive-behavioral therapy is beneficial for Stefan because it aims to work with the causes of alcohol abuse rather than simply forcing the patient to change their drinking habits.

Treatment Recommendation: Social Skills Training

Another treatment recommendation effective for Stefan is social skills training because assessment and conversations revealed that communication with others or performing in uncomfortable conditions trigger them to engage in uncontrolled drinking. Helping the patient to become more confident at socializing is necessary to reduce the risk of difficult situations and increase the odds of successful behavioral changes. A SMART goal for this treatment recommendation is to initiate at least three new conversations with unknown individuals every week without involving alcohol. Therapy will include group workshops to help Stefan develop better social skills and apply them in practice at work and daily life. While learning to socialize comfortably is necessary for dealing with alcohol abuse, emotional intelligence and the ability to communicate feelings are also essential for a patients success (Le Berre, 2019). Family sessions would be helpful to train interconnection, integrity, and trust to be workable for the clients confidence improvement. Furthermore, Stefans wife may be involved in the treatment as the closest person who can actively listen and help decrease the anxiety and pressure her husband experiences due to the current uncertainty.

References

Le Berre, A. P. (2019). Emotional processing and social cognition in alcohol use disorder. Neuropsychology, 33(6), 808.

Magill, M., Ray, L., Kiluk, B., Hoadley, A., Bernstein, M., Tonigan, J. S., & Carroll, K. (2019). A meta-analysis of cognitive-behavioral therapy for alcohol or other drug use disorders: Treatment efficacy by contrast condition. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 87(12), 1093.

Pavkovic, B., Zaric, M., Markovic, M., Klacar, M., Huljic, A., & Caricic, A. (2018). Double screening for dual disorder, alcoholism and depression. Psychiatry Research, 270, 483-489.

Stevenson, B. L., Dvorak, R. D., Kramer, M. P., Peterson, R. S., Dunn, M. E., Leary, A. V., & Pinto, D. (2019). Within-and between-person associations from mood to alcohol consequences: The mediating role of enhancement and coping drinking motives. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 128(8), 813.

Waddell, J. T., Corbin, W. R., & Marohnic, S. D. (2021). Putting things in context: Longitudinal relations between drinking contexts, drinking motives, and negative alcohol consequences. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 35(2), 148.

The early years of childrens lives are associated with intense brain development and acquisition of new skills, with perception maturity being one of the essential tasks. Although infants study is related to certain theoretical, practical, and methodological difficulties, there is a significant body of knowledge that attempts to explain which sensational and perceptual skills newborns possess. Moreover, robust conceptual models have also been presented. Among them, three theories, namely predictive processing, habituation, and information processing models, are highly important.

The predictive processing model states that successful orientation in physical and social surroundings depends on the brains ability to make and revise predictions about ones own behavior based on incoming sensory information (Köster et al., 2020). Within the framework of that theory, it is argued that the human body strives to make the most accurate forecasts about the future. Therefore, the incoming data is constantly analyzed and reconsidered. Although that process may seem difficult for infants organisms at first glance, the studies found that newborns can construct causal links for their actions at least since they are one month old. For instance, the experiment conducted with 2-month newborns revealed that infants could logically connect the movement of the phone attached to their feet with the movement of their legs (Köster et al., 2020).

Acquiring new knowledge for predictive processing may take a lot of brain activity when the information is fresh or contradictory. However, habituation theory asserts that each time sensory data aligns with the previous experience, the body reacts less to a similar stimulus. Indeed, due to the limited abilities of a person to focus and maintain attention on various objects, as the information processing framework suggests, the habituation process seems to be a crucial part of survival. It helps to distinguish important information from non-important and allows reacting fast in various life situations.

Reference

Köster, M., Kayhan, E., Langeloh, M., & Hoehl, S. (2020). Making sense of the world: infant learning from a predictive processing perspective. Perspectives on psychological science, 15(3), 562-571.

Introduction

Video games are one of the most modern ways of storytelling and a channel for media communication. Given this fact, several discourses on young peoples harms and benefits from immersion in these virtual spaces exist. Moreover, some studies cite factors such as uncontrolled aggression, loss of interest in life, and dissociative personality disorder as possible consequences of video game addiction. Those discoveries indicate that video games are harmful to children, their psychological well-being, and their behavior in real life. The increased tendency for gun violence and aggression are the main factors that contribute to the negative perception of this type of entertainment (Dowsett & Jackson, 2019). Therefore, the aim of the paper is to identify the negative consequences of video games on adolescents mental health, supported by research and journal articles.

Arguments

One of the concerns that parents might have regarding this hobby for their children is the possible negative effect that it might have on them. Such worries have a solid foundation underneath them since many video games are based on the concept of war, shootings, physical fighting, and murders. According to a scientific study, adolescents who prefer violent video games may consequently struggle with aggressive tendencies and emotions, with the following decrease in prosocial helping (Dowsett & Jackson, 2019). Multiple international studies have shown that children who are fond of gaming become physically violent in real life.

Another significant issue is the possibility of growing tolerance toward any kind of weapons, specifically guns, among children. In the virtual sphere, children can feel less empathy due to the competition, and such behavioral patterns may expand outside the game (Chang & Bushman, 2019). Thus, adolescents who regularly spend time playing war simulations are exposed to the decrease in prosocial behavior in real life and tend to show a more aggressive attitude.

Counterarguments

Nevertheless, there are as well certain benefits for the children besides the previously mentioned disadvantages. Some people view video games purely as a hobby or harmless entertainment that is useful for particular skills. Playing video games also enlarges and improves the regions of the brain liable for visuospatial skills, which is the capacity to recognize visuospatial relationships between objects (Coyne et al., 2018). For instance, the protagonist can simultaneously run and shoot in action games which requires decent concentration and the ability to comply with several activities simultaneously. This necessitates the real player to take care of the characters position, direction, and speed, in which the gun is aimed, and whether or not the gunshots are trying to hit the enemy.

Completing this task requires a high level of spatial awareness and visual-spatial ability. Additionally, research indicates that people can acquire recognizable, temporal, and selective processing skills by playing video games (Chang & Bushman, 2019). The right hippocampus was expanded in long-term gamers and people who pledged to follow a computer game training program. In gaming, neurological remuneration  a group of frameworks associated with pleasure, studying, and motivation  is altered functionally and structurally.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the analysis presented has confirmed the factual basis for the theory that video games cause psychological harm the children, stimulate aggression in real life, and decrease prosocial behavior. However, video games can be perceived as entertainment only and beneficial for developing spatial awareness and visual-spatial ability. By using academic research and information verified by actual surveys and interviews with young people around the world, it was possible to provide the facts. Moreover, discussing such topics is a crucial aspect of facilitating action on the existing problem of gambling addiction as a whole part of the functioning of the global health system.

References

Chang, J. H., & Bushman, B. J. (2019). Effect of exposure to gun violence in video games on childrens dangerous behavior with real guns. JAMA Network Open, 2(5). Web.

Coyne, S. M., Warburton, W. A., Essig, L. W., & Stockdale, L. A. (2018). Violent video games, externalizing behavior, and prosocial behavior: A five-year longitudinal study during adolescence. Developmental Psychology, 54(10), 18681880. Web.

Dowsett, A., & Jackson, M. (2019). The effect of violence and competition within video games on aggression. Computers in Human Behavior, 99, 2227. Web.

Introduction

This model was developed by Joseph Luft and Harry Ingham in 1955 to describe human interaction. It tries to define personal awareness in a quadrants manner. It has four quadrants which each illustrate a different view of personality in terms of communication and relationships. Each window represents a kind of personality as described below.

The first window is the open quadrant. This describes things that am very aware of about me and which others know about me as well. Take an example of a name. I know my name and others know it as well. This quadrant goes further to include all the emotions i.e. feelings and behaviors that define who I am. Understanding others is a vital part of the quadrant since it represents things that are open to us about others and which they are also aware of. (Luft and Ingram, 1955)

Main body

To the right in the window, there is the blind quadrant. This window defines things that other people see or know about me and which I dont know about. As described by the name, these things are blind to me as I cannot see them. Take the example of a stained shirt or blouse that am wearing which I cannot see but others can see. This part of the quadrant may sometimes be misleading to us while trying to understand others since we may misjudge others depending on what they are portraying out of their conscious. At the same time, it is important in understanding the other side of an individual.

Moving down the window, there is a hidden quadrant. This defines what I know about myself that others do not know about. This represents personal emotions and feelings for example personal likings, dislikes, and others. Take for example if I love a person and I have disclosed to him/her about my feelings. This quadrant represents an important step in opening up to others since we tend to open the hidden information about ourselves and others. Once we disclose our information to others, they are likely to disclose their information as well which will to more understanding of others.

The fourth quadrant which is the unknown quadrant defines what I dont know about myself and others dont know about it either. This represents the unknowns about us and about others. For example, most of us do not know our potential, and others do to know about it either. It is only after discovering that we tend to become aware of it. Take an example of a person who does jogging every day. Then one day he/she decides to participate in a competition and emerges winner beating the rest. Then he/she realizes the potential within of competing in athletics. At the same time, we become aware of the abilities of the person to compete. This shows that we have realized something hidden inside that person and at the same time the person has realized the talent within. This is a process of self-actualization.

Conclusion

As we have described above, the Johari window mainly tries to define the way we relate with others. Relating with others requires that we have to understand them and at the same time they have to understand us. This starts with the open quadrant. We first start relating through the things we know about ourselves and what we know about others. As we continue relating we tend to understand others more through the blind quadrant as we become aware of what others and what they dont know about themselves. This forms this base of understanding them well. Then the closeness grows and we move information from our blind quadrant to the open and we share it with others.

We disclose ourselves to one another including our secrets and the bond grows stronger. The last step is the process of interaction which helps us to discover what is hidden within us and others realize it as well.

References

Luft, J. and Ingram, H. (1955). The Johari window: A Graphical Model for Interpersonal Relations. University of Calif: Western Training Lab.

Outline

Personality is a word that originates from persona, a Latin word referring to a mask. Therefore personalitys study is related to the study that analyses masks worn by human beings. These masks are characters displayed and projected by human beings including their psychological experiences otherwise known as self. Personality is analyzed by the use of several different perspectives that include trait perspective, behavioral, psychological perspectives as well as humanistic perspective. These perspectives have areas in which they are strong as well as weaknesses.

Introduction

According to (Hjelle, 1992), personality is defined as the realization of ones idiosyncrasy which affirms the constituents of an individual. It is also a very successful way of adapting to the condition of universal existence as well as the freedom to determine ones self. Personality is highly influenced by intelligence which makes intelligence to be considered as a part and parcel of personality though they are very different. Personality constitutes various perspectives that include trait perspective, psychodynamic perspective, behavioral perspective, and learning perspective.

Trait Perspective

According to (Abend,1983), this is the classic view of the psychology of personality as its study concludes that since Greek civilization, people have been found to possess different physical as well as psychological characters. This perspective forms systems that describe and classify psychological characteristics showing differences existing between people in various situations. Traits approach emphasizes the perspective of dispositional but it also studies different types and /or dispositions of people considering their characteristics. However, traits, types, and dispositional terms are interchanged in this particular perspective, though personality types and traits are just constituents of personalitys dispositional perspective. Personalitys dispositional perspective emphasizes peoples qualities that describe them, qualities of their character as well as mind. Personality traits describe consistent dimensions of how different people think, feel, and behave over time. Traits on personality also allow classification of individuals according to their different character which may include extraversion, introversion, and emotional stability among others. Personality types describe categories of an individuals behavior, thoughts, as well as feelings patterns which include personalities of type A while others are classified in type B. (Hogan, 1998)

Strengths and Weaknesses

(Leary, 1983), argues that, personalitys dispositional perspective has several strengths as well as weaknesses. Its strengths include the provision of practical tools that are used in the process of assessing as well as describing personality. Traits perspective is of great importance in research and several scholars who have carried out researches on this perspective have come up with similar views. Traits perspective enables comparison of differences among individuals as well as provision of a scientific approach through which personality is objectively studied.

Weaknesses of trait perspective are that it fails to explain ways in which personality works but only names the phenomenon. This perspective does not give a full explanation of traits origins but goes straight to giving their descriptions as well as categorizing them. Behaviors inconsistence nature has been a great challenge to those theorists studying this perspective as they view traits as being consistent which fails to coincide with behavior that form part of its study. Factor analysis has been used to make arbitrary decisions on the existence of traits resulting to different theories that show different ways of similar results and there is therefore no clear definition of traits constituents. Another of its weaknesses is that its ability to predict is limited and does not explain reasons as to why people portray different behaviors in various situations. (Buss, 1984)

Learning Perspective

The perspective of learning has been involved in a debate between nature and nurture where it sides with nurture. In another debate between situation and person, the perspective of learning sides with the situation. In this case, personality is seen as learned tendencies that have been accumulated over a long period. This perspective of learning portrays a relationship with the aspects of social psychology and behaviorism. However, it has its group of concepts on which it operates which includes reinforcement, modeling, and social norms, among others. According to this perspective, personality can be molded, polished, and ground by aspects forming ones history and uniqueness. The perspective of learning is based on an assumption that human beings learn behavior through interaction and experiences with ones surrounding environment. It views human beings as a blank slate but agrees with the existence of stimuli responses, instincts, and avoidance of painful instances. (Parsons, 1964)

Strengths and Weaknesses

The perspective of learning has several strengths including its possession of impressive evidence based on experiments that are testable, scientific, and backed by findings of the research. It recognizes the environments importance, where it explains the different situations of behavior with complex patterns being explained through the building of blocks. Its also important in the understanding of tendencies of actions and emotional reactions which can be applied in therapeutic situations of behavior. There are also some weaknesses associated with the perspective of learning which includes its tendency to give explanations of behavior and its changes, instead of focusing on personality. Personhood is found to be missing in this particular perspective, and it also ignores biologys role by not taking into account the differences existing in an individual. There are no case studies in arguments of learning perspective due to lack of comprehensive assessments of personality. (Direnzo, 1974)

Psychodynamic Perspective

(Endleman, 1967) states that, psychodynamic perspective focuses on the effects of ones early life in a family on his/her sexual drives as well as how those drives are unconsciously influenced and their impact on an individuals nonsexual aspects of development. Neoanalytic perspective was developed from a psychoanalytic perspective and it concerns itself with ego which is taken to be the core of ones uniqueness in personality. It focuses on ways in which ego copes with external as well as internal drives of an individual.

Strengths and Weaknesses

This perspectives strengths include that, its very complete in its explanation of behavior emphasizing the unconscious minds role as well as that of experiences in early childhood. Egos defense mechanisms are also emphasized on as well as how behavior is susceptible to change. The study of this particular perspective resulted in interests where psychology is applied in mental disorder treatment. However, there exist weaknesses that are related to the psychoanalytic perspective which include the fact that concepts applied in its study are poorly designed. For example, there is no clear description of the concept of psychic energy as well as units that measure it. This perspective does not give scientific proof of its study and overlooks the environments role in human behavior. Another of its weaknesses is that it puts a lot of emphasis on how an individuals sexual drive affects his/her behavior. (Crowne, 1979)

Humanistic Perspective

This perspective and especially the humanistic part of it refer to human beings as self-perfecting as well as intrinsically good. It relates human beings with health, growth, maturity, and self-sufficiency. The humanistic perspective also portrays optimism in its focus on human beings potential to evolve as well as grow naturally towards completeness and beauty. There are various assumptions on which this perspective is based, including that there exists a self with a very unique as well as beautiful form. This self is susceptible to growth as well as change, making each persons self unique. (Benet, 2005)

Strengths and Weaknesses

(Ozer, 1986), argues that, this perspective emphasizes validity as well as the uniqueness of each individuals experiences. As a result of its optimistic nature, this perspective gives positive suggestions for handling problems that occur to human beings. The humanistic approach can be applied widely and exceeds therapy when it refers to how one can live with authenticity as well as meaning. It also helps human beings to appreciate their reality and to be closely connected with their feelings. However, it has several weaknesses including failure to take into account other aspects that determine the behavior, thoughts, and feelings of individuals, like dispositions, genetics, unconsciousness, and learning among others. This approach does not have scientific precision which makes its study a nonscientific one, giving the difference between a persons mind and atoms as well as molecules.

Comparisons and Differences

The learning perspective arguments contrast with that of trait perspective, psychodynamic and biological perspectives on the possession of a personality structure. These other perspectives argue that human beings possess personality structure from birth where is referred to as dispositions in trait perspective, instincts in psychodynamic, drives in humanistic, and temperament in biological perspective. The psychodynamic perspective has a close connection with the evolutionary approach as Freud accepts that the evolution of human beings consisted of instincts that are very useful in their survival.

Conclusion

Personality perspectives are related to each other as they all base their studies on the same subject that is perspective. However, their different approaches, arguments as well as justifications bring differences among them, which results in their various theories. In most of their studies, room for more research is left as portrayed by their weaknesses. Some scholars carry out researches on the various perspectives separately while others combine those that are related to come up with four to five different perspectives which have developed into theories. For example, dispositional perspective is related to traits perspective as the latter is part and parcel of the broad perspective of disposition. (Bouchard, 2001)

References

ABEND S. (1983): Psychoanalytic perspectives: Intl Universities Press Inc pp3-8.

Benet V. (2005): Personality and the prediction of consequential outcomes: Annual Reviews pp30-34.

Bouchard T. (2001): Genes, evolution, and personality: Springer pp 20-26.

Buss A. (1984): Early developing personality traits: Lawrence Erlbaum pp 16-18.

Crowne D. (1979): The experimental study of personality: Halsted Press pp25-29.

Direnzo G. (1974): Personality and politics: Anchor pp 19-24.

Endleman R. (1967): Personality and Social Life: Random House pp10-16.

Hjelle L. (1992): Personality Theories: Mc Graw-Hill Humanities pp23-26.

Hogan J. (1998): Relations between contextual performance and personality: Lawrence Erlbaum pp17-22.

Leary M. (1983): social, personality and clinical perspectives: Sage Publications pp 33-36.

Ozer D. (1986): Consistency in personality: Springer pp18-25.

Parsons T. (1964): Social Structure and Personality: Free Press pp15-20.