Various Feelings Related to Cheating

When an individual wants to write a good essay, it is important for him/her come up with a pre-write. It simply means to state the main points or ideas that an individual intends to write about. This helps to maintain the flow of ideas in an essay or any other work that is being written down. Sometimes the word pre-write generally means anything that is written down before the final draft is written. It is on this basis that this piece of work tries to explore various feelings related to cheating and also answer some questions.

Cheating can be described as a way of making people to believe that a certain thing (idea) is true while in the real sense the thing is false (Stuart, p.19). A person may cheat others for her/his personal benefits. For example, a shopkeeper may cheat his/her customers that he/she sells to them the right quantities of the items they purchase while in the real sense he/she uses a weighing machine which has been adjusted to the disadvantage of the customers. In such a case, the shopkeeper is usually not satisfied with the profits which come out of the business and therefore wants to gain more profit by cheating the customers. In the context of a family, one spouse may cheat on the other by pretending to be faithful while in the real sense the spouse has other extra-marital affairs. In such a case, a person may cheat because of dissatisfaction in one way or the other. A person who has been cheated feels that unfairness has been done to him/her (Callahan, 89). However, cheating is not the same as stealing because stealing simply means taking something that belongs to someone else without the knowledge of the owner and without any intention of returning it back.

To cheat means to act in a dishonest manner (Stuart, p. 23). For example, in the case of the shopkeeper described above, the shopkeeper is not honest when he sells items which have less weight but pretending to be the right quantities. The shopkeeper is receiving money from the customers in a dishonest way for his personal benefits. Cheating is therefore considered to be a vice in a society because one party benefits while the other party is disadvantaged. When people find out that they have been cheated, they definitely feel bad.

In a family context, one spouse, for example a wife may have other emotional affairs outside the marriage but cheat the husband that she is faithful to him. If two parties are involved in a deal and one of them wants to gain more from the deal than the other without the knowledge of both of them, it amounts to cheating. In this case, one party has to hide some truth for personal gain. However, some people may mistakenly think that they have been cheated. Therefore, people need to be careful when differentiating truth from false.

I once had an experience with a doctor that made me to think that some doctors do not care for patients. It was a day when I took my brother to hospital when he was involved in a bicycle accident. The boy was seriously injured but the doctor did not seem to be in a hurry to attend to him until I asked him what the matter was. He told me that the boys condition was not all that bad and that a certain nurse was just finishing up some work before attending to him. I was becoming impatient and when he realized it, he left what he was doing and started attending to the boy.

The characters of the doctor I met were similar to the characters of the male intern that is described by Zuger in his article. For example, the male intern is described as someone who strictly defined his role and did not want to do work which belonged to others such as nurses. I think the doctor I met in the hospital also had the same characters because he told me that a certain nurse was finishing up some work before attending to my brother. This implied that he did not want to do the nurses work. Another notable similarity between the man (male intern) and the doctor is that both of them seemed to care but not bothered by conditions of their patients. This is because the man is described as a person who was interested in his patients but could not keep him up at night and the doctor I met seemed to have the same trait.

There are some notable differences between the behaviors of the doctor and the female intern described by Zuger in his article. The female intern is described as someone who could easily cry when a patient died but the doctor did not appear as one who could cry in such a situation. The female intern (referred to as woman by Zuger) could do all kinds of work in the hospital while the doctor strictly defined his role.

In conclusion, I think that the behaviors of the two interns should be changed. This is because medical practitioners should not overwork themselves as the woman was doing since this may lead to errors. On the other hand they should not appear to be avoiding work as the man was doing but they should work appropriately with enough rest.

Works Cited

  1. Callahan, David. The Cheating Culture: Cause of Cheating and How to Detect a Cheating partner. New York: New York Times, 2004.
  2. Stuart, Paul. Lying, Cheating, and Stealing: A Moral Theory of White Collar Crime. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006.

Perception Is the Root of All Evil: Video Reaction

Awareness and perception have a great impact on human behavior. Awareness is ones knowledge of a fact or situation or concern about the situation while perception is the way through which a person understands or regards something. These two nouns are similar because they represent human flaws, being not the absolute truth but the perspectives of different people on the same object or event. If a human perceives something as truth, this perception will influence their behavior, either stimulating them to grow or leading to self-condemnation.

Having watched the video, I confirmed my beliefs about perception. I agree with the speaker that perception is the fundamental flaw in the human design (TEDx Talks, 2017). One can associate perception with discrimination because it involves only one standpoint, and all other perspectives are ignored or underestimated. As Akingbade said, if someones truth has perception, it cannot be the absolute truth because if it were the absolute truth, no one would doubt it (TEDx Talks, 2017). At the same time, I agree that people need perceptions since they help us to grow awareness and better comprehend the absolute truth.

From the standpoint of a student and an employee, respect and cooperation are critical because they engage both students and employees in a productive mindset. When a student receives a task from their teacher, they will complete the task more efficiently if they feel that their opinions are valued and respected. Similarly, one can apply the same approach to an employee. Moreover, working in cooperation with other people will also bring better results than working alone because if people support each other, they will perform better and attain success faster. Therefore, respect and cooperation are crucial for students and employees.

Reference

TEDx Talks. (2017). Perception is the root of all evil | Deji Akingbade | TEDxMHK [Video]. Web.

Maslows Hierarchy of Needs and Its Importance

Introduction

The Hierarchy is a psychological theory describing how humans transition from one level to another in terms of self-actualization. It is a pyramid model that describes the psychological motivation towards ones basic needs, with individuals at the base and society at the top (Fallatah & Syed, 2018). Underneath each levels are sub-categories and characteristics that further define what occurs there (Fallatah & Syed, 2018). It explains that people can be categorized into certain groups to find their true meaning in life and bring them closer to happiness. The lowest level and most basic needs are physiological and safety.

Higher up on this pyramid, there are psychological and social needs. Self-esteem includes love and esteem; finally, the highest level is self-actualization or being fulfilled (Fallatah & Syed, 2018). These higher-level needs are associated with more complicated versions of human necessities but do not end up as complex or advanced. Overall, every person has psychological needs. The body provides physiological conditions, safety needs are provided by the police and military, physiological security is provided by the family, social security is provided by organizations, and esteem is provided by parents. It is a hierarchy of needs that has been researched extensively.

However, the Hierarchy identifies five ways in which people can go wrong at each level: it refers to them as deficiency needs. Deficiency needs are things like love or kindness; theyre not needed for survival, but they are important for growth because they help us grow into the kind of person we want to be. It is believed that humans progress through these levels of development according to their timetablesit suggests that some people develop at different rates than others.

Maslows Hierarchy of Needs Provides a Basic Path for Self-Improvement

Understanding the Hierarchy of Needs is important because it offers a framework for achieving personal and professional success. The first level in the Hierarchy is the physiological level. It is the most basic, and it pertains to survival. It includes the needs for food, water, and shelter. These are all things humans need to survive as a species (Fallatah & Syed, 2018). At this level, people can see that these are all important for survival. A person without these needs would be dead in a matter of days. The next level is the safety level which includes the need for security, which helps people feel safe from harm or danger. At this point, one begins to move away from purely physical needs and consider issues such as relationships with others and freedom from fear of punishment or failure.

The third level in Maslows Hierarchy is esteemthe need for self-esteem or recognition from others. It includes friendship and love from family members or even getting good grades at school or work so that you can feel like an important member of society and not just another face in the crowd. This level is where people start talking about things like self-actualization, which means living their life uniquely and truthfully according to their values.

Influences of the Hierarchy on Growth and Personal Development

The Hierarchy is a set of human needs organized from most important to least important. It is a model for human development and well-being, helping us understand how our needs change throughout our lives and how we can meet those changing needs. It begins with physiological needs like food and sleep before moving on to safety and security needs like protection from harm. Next comes esteem needs like self-respect or being recognized by others. Finally, at the pinnacle of Maslows Hierarchy is self-actualizationthe desire to fulfil ones potential (Fallatah & Syed, 2018). It is an important framework for human development and well-being (Fallatah & Syed, 2018).

The Hierarchy offers a way to understand how people progress in their life and provides them with a way to identify their areas of self-development. It offers a general framework people can use to understand themselves and their needs, particularly if one is trying to improve their personal development or well-being.

Maslows Hierarchy is the most widely used model for human development and well-being, but there are some limitations to using this model. It does not address certain human experiences, such as emotion or spirituality. Maslows model is also limited by its focus on individual psychology, which leaves out other factors, such as family dynamics. The Hierarchy has many applications beyond the realm of religion; it provides help for people who are struggling with their personal development by offering a way for them to better themselves through faith in God or another higher power such as science.

Application of the Hierarchy

The Hierarchy of needs is an important psychological concept that relates to the American economic, social, and cultural systems. People can see how this Hierarchy applies in several ways: firstly, one can see how it affects ones financial system by showing how the economy depends on people having enough money to afford basic needs such as housing, food, and clothing (Fallatah & Syed, 2018).

This argument means that if one person in America does not have enough money for these things, their economy will suffer. Secondly, one can see how it affects their social system by showing how different groups are affected by this Hierarchy and how they may need special treatment to receive what they need from society at large that is, those below the poverty line. And finally, one can see how it affects their cultural system by showing how they treat others differently depending on where they fall on this scale of importance, for example, the rich versus the poor

In addition, in American economic, social, and cultural systems, there is a hierarchy that exists. The lowest level of this Hierarchy would be the individual under the poverty line (Fallatah & Syed, 2018). They have not only been given no opportunities to improve themselves but are also limited in what they can do with their lives because of their economic status. If someone attempts to better themselves, they will be encouraged by many who do not understand their situation. They will listen to those who suggest that they should give up on their dreams and accept what they have been given instead. However, suppose someone is at a lower level of this Hierarchy than themselves, an individual under the poverty line. In that case, it is difficult for them to change their circumstances or even see another way out of their situation.

The next level of this Hierarchy is Self-help enthusiasts. These individuals are often motivated by self-improvement but may not realize how limited their options are due to their lack of finances or education, which keeps them from being able to pursue those dreams with any commitment or real-world impact (Fallatah & Syed, 2018).

The Hierarchy of needs theory applies to many different aspects of life, including economics, social interactions such as dating, consumerism, politics such as voting and business management practices. In the case of consumerism, the lower levels of our hierarchy are satisfied by cheaper products or services that appeal to our basic needs. In comparison, higher levels require more expensive products or services that appeal to our advanced conditions, such as luxury brands and designer clothes for women who want to feel beautiful regardless of their financial situation; however, this does not mean that people cannot afford luxury items  it just means they must have more money than others before they feel comfortable spending.

Conclusion

The Hierarchy is a thorough analysis of the driving force behind all human behavior aimed at fulfilling each individual to the greatest extent possible. The model shows that all human beings have five layers of needs. They are; survival, basic and deficiency needs, self-esteem and self-actualization needs, and social and love needs. The Hierarchy of needs highlights those aspects of life which are essential for an individual to feel that they are living self-actualized and thus secure, having everything they want. The Hierarchy consists of five distinct levels, indispensable for every person to feel confident and live a happy, fulfilled and content life.

These range from the most basic physiological demands required for human survival to emotional demands and desires that contribute to an individuals overall well-being. This particular Hierarchy of Needs helps people see what they need and how important it is. It further shows them how to get it as well. As such, Maslows Pyramid of Human Needs can be a very effective tool for defining and appreciating the psychology behind consumerism.

Reference

Fallatah, R. H. M., & Syed, J. (2018). A critical review of Maslows Hierarchy of needs. Employee Motivation in Saudi Arabia, 19-59. Web.

Benefits of Animal-Human Interaction

Today, animals live in nearly every household. Dogs, cats, parrots, hamsters, and other animals are considered family members. Such a tendency suggests that people become more compassionate while protecting and caring for animals. The interaction between humans and animals has a beneficial effect because it helps people cope with emotional stress and mental conditions and increase physical activity.

Pets do a lot of emotional work, serving as companions for humans. For instance, Brooks et al. found that dog companionship helps war veterans overcome post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (5). Many studies showed that having a dog significantly reduces depressing feelings, such as loneliness, irritability, and anxiousness (Brooks et al. 5). Thus, pets serve as a source of connectedness because they give unconditional love to their owners. Besides, people become more attached to their pets, which increases tolerance, kindness, and patience since caring for an animal is always accompanied by these attitudes.

Pet ownership supports physical activity that positively influences mental health management. Animals can distract peoples attention from painful symptoms and negative mental experiences, such as panic attacks or suicidal thoughts (Brooks et al. 6). Brooks et al. state that dog owners are more likely to be involved in motion activities (6). Moreover, daily walking with the dog can cause a love for nature. Spending time in a park or forest with the dog helps to notice other surrounding details, such as clouds in the sky, the lifecycle of leaves, the behavior of insects, and so forth. Besides physical activity and playing with the pet, one may become interested in the form of clouds and what it tells about the state of an atmosphere.

Animals can contribute to a feeling of self-worth and make human life meaningful. Compared to non-pet owners, those who have pets tend to perform more activities that are meaningful (Brooks et al. 7). Moreover, many people feel better with animals because it enhances human existential meaning (Brooks et al. 7). As Brooks et al. suggest, caring for pets gives a sense of purpose in life (8). Noteworthy, such regular activities as feeding animals, cleaning their cages, and so on infuse the feeling of devotion to a living being. In addition, pet ownership can be associated with emotional nourishment because people learn their pets behaviors and specific reactions. Therefore, interaction with animals may increase emotional intellect.

Animals can positively contribute to human interactions and personal relationships. People have formed their culture based on social interaction and norms. Therefore, the need for socialization can be the reason why they constantly try to interact with animals (Brooks et al. 7). Moreover, having pets improves relationships with family and friends and fosters general social integration (Brooks et al. 7). For instance, people may find new friends who own pets, and this mutual interest prevents people from loneliness. Thus, humans learn from animals how to be more engaged in a community, which contributes to human feeling of importance in society.

Finally, having pets and caring for them positively affects humans. Besides contributing to the health improvement of people, animals teach them to be more compassionate, patient, and kind. Pets require attention that facilitates the expression of positive emotions in humans. In turn, it helps to cope with mental conditions, increases socialization and quality of life, and makes it meaningful.

Works Cited

Brooks, Helen Louise, et al. The Power of Support from Companion Animals for People Living with Mental Health Problems: A Systematic Review and Narrative Synthesis of the Evidence. BMC Psychiatry, vol. 18, no. 31, 2018, pp. 1-12.

Evolutionary Theory of Aggression

Many attempts were made to explain the nature of human aggression, proving that it is a complicated behavioral system that requires extensive research to understand its origin. The recent rise of violence through the acts of terrorism has led to increased interest in the theories of human aggression. Evolutionary psychologists proposed their own theory of aggression in an attempt to explain its underlying psychological mechanisms.

Human aggression is usually defined as a social interaction or behavior with intent to cause harm to others (Anderson & Bushman, 2002, p. 28). Since it is an intended behavior, the harm-doer consciously chooses the action that will inflict damage on others. The extreme degree of aggression is called violence, and human violence is the underlying mechanism of many devastating, large-scale conflicts, as well as smaller acts of homicide (Anderson & Bushman, 2002, p. 29). Several theories of aggression exist, one of which is the product of evolutionary psychology.

Evolutionary psychology explains all human behaviors by a set of mechanisms internal to the individual, which are born out of evolution by selection (Buss & Shakelford, 1997, p. 607). According to evolution theory, human aggression is a collection of strategies that emerged as the solution to survival-related problems such as reproduction or securing resources and thus, helped the survival of humanity. The problems that most likely prompted a violent response in our ancestors could include resource procurement, intersexual competition, hierarchy negotiation, and mate retention (Buss & Shakelford, 1997, p. 618).

From the perspective of evolutionary theory, human aggression is adaptive and occurs as a natural solution when certain conditions are met. The context-specificity of aggression means that although evolution theory cannot predict the exact expression of aggression, it can predict the context that will result in aggressive behavior. Evolutionary psychologists introduced the model of intrasexual competition and hypothesized that sexual dimorphism and violent male-male competition are ancient and enduring elements of our human evolutionary history (Daly & Wilson, 1988, p. 143).

The researchers argue that reproductive challenges of our ancestors led to the development of aggressive strategies exercised by men today. Homicide the extreme form of violence, and some studies show that men are more likely to commit homicide, and their victims are mostly other men (Buss & Shakelford, 1997, p. 612). The evolutional theory suggests that violence emerged as a means to achieve and withhold a certain social status, which was needed for survival.

Evolutionary psychologists see sexual jealousy as another trigger, and a different study found support for the link between aggressive behavior and male retention behaviors and proved that male retention behaviors can be used to predict spousal violence (Shackelford et al., 2005, p. 1). Although women commit aggression, their actions are typically less violent, which is supported by the evolutionary theory of sexual selection.

From the perspective of evolutionary psychology, aggression is a strategy developed by the humanity during the course of human evolution in response to certain survival-related problems. This theory does have some limitations, for example, it cannot explain the cultural differences in the perceptions of violence, or why the same context evokes a violent reaction in one case and does not in other. Nevertheless, it can still explain some findings such as the prevalence of male violence against males, and leads to better understanding of at least some of the factors behind human aggression.

References

Anderson, C., & Bushman, B. (2002). Human Aggression. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 27-51.

Buss, D., & Shakelford, T. (1997). Human Aggression in Evolutionary Psychological Perspective. Clinical Psychology Review, 17(6), 605-619.

Daly, M., & Wilson, M. (1988). Homicide. New York: Aldine de Cruyter.

Shackelford, T., Goetz, A., Buss, D., Euler, H., & Hoier, S. (2005). When we hurt the ones we love: Predicting violence against women from mens mate retention. Personal Relationships, 12, 447-463. Web.

Transtheoretical Model of Change

The Transtheoretical Model of Change (TTM) is not a theory, but it can employ multiple behavioral theories within its framework, combining various processes that are needed to understand how behavioral change happens. The TTM is based on the belief that people go through multiple stages when thinking about and implementing change. The model proposes six steps to which one can adhere: pre-contemplation, contemplation, preparation, action, maintenance, and termination. Each person completes these stages differently, and most activities do not have a set time frame, although the stages of action and maintenance are timed.

Moreover, the TTM considers self-initiated change and intentional action as the focus of its structure. For example, people following a TTM process are encouraged to modify their habits, start performing desired activities, or stop participating in behaviors that they find problematic. To achieve the established goals, individuals can engage in a variety of evaluative and cognitive processes.

The critical part of TTM is the six steps that people go through during their efforts to change. These are:

  1. Precontemplation. During this stage, a person may not consider that their behavior needs to change. As such, they do not intend to take action in the next six months. Here, one does not think about the negative consequences of a particular behavior, focusing more on the drawbacks of change instead.
  2. Contemplation. When a person starts considering a change in behavior as possible or required, they enter the stage of contemplation. In this step, one becomes interested in information about change-related processes, outcomes, and advantages. While not acting in a way to start altering their behavior, people become more prepared for the change to happen in the next six months.
  3. Preparation. This step starts when an individual is ready to enact change within a month. The person can take some preliminary actions  contact a health care provider, talk about the issue with family or friends, or develop a plan for future action. Here, one considers behavior change as a way to improve life.
  4. Action. People enter this stage when they perform actions to change their behavior. However, it is not a single event  one needs to maintain such activity for at least six months and wish to continue with the processes. For instance, an individual may eliminate a harmful habit or replace it with a healthy one.
  5. Maintenance. If a person has succeeded in sustaining their behavior change for six months, they enter the stage of maintenance. Here, people should continue to move forward, focusing on relapse prevention and positive reinforcement.
  6. Termination. The final step is assurance that a person will not want to go back to the old behavior. People are certain that they will not relapse. This step is difficult to reach as the exposure to triggers often remains.

To move through these steps, a person can participate in various cognitive and affective processes. These include revaluation of the self and the environment when a person assesses the harm that behaviors can bring to themselves and their family. People may use stimulus control to understand and limit the exposure to factors encouraging relapse, as well as reinforcement management to reward themselves for enacting change. They can also develop helpful relationships and utilize counter-conditioning as a support network for lowering the risk of moving backward (Gökbayrak et al. 2015).

References

Gökbayrak, NS, Paiva, AL, Blissmer, BJ & Prochaska, JO 2015, Predictors of relapse among smokers: transtheoretical effort variables, demographics, and smoking severity, Addictive Behaviors, vol. 42, pp. 176-179.
Harris, KK, Zopey, M & Friedman, TC 2016, Metabolic effects of smoking cessation, Nature Reviews Endocrinology, vol. 12, no. 5, pp. 299-308.
Lindson-Hawley, N, Banting, M, West, R, Michie, S, Shinkins, B & Aveyard, P 2016, Gradual versus abrupt smoking cessation: a randomized, controlled noninferiority trial, Annals of Internal Medicine, vol. 164, no. 9, pp. 585-592.
Stead, LF, Carroll, AJ & Lancaster, T 2017, Group behaviour therapy programmes for smoking cessation, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, no. 3, pp. 1-106.

The Contemporary Relevance of Little Red Riding Hood

Introduction

Classic fairy tales have always been a big part of Western culture. In most American societies, educational institutions provide us with assignments that involve analyzing various fairy tales characters or their intentions. These stories have remained for a long time because of the messages they can communicate with both children and adolescents. This is explained by the fact that many situations that occur within the stories represent real-life dangers in the society of today.

In this paper, the working thesis runs as follows: despite the fact that the tale of Little Red Riding Hood is typically viewed as a childrens story that narrates the perils of the phenomenon known as stranger danger, it should also be viewed through the scope of transitioning from childhood to adulthood and therefore be interpreted as a cautionary tale about sexual relationships and the associated threats that women and other vulnerable subjects face in todays American society, such as sexual predators, stalking, and date rape.

Background and Context

The advancement of technology is changing society, business, and peoples lives. This progress explains why people nowadays interact, study, communicate and work differently. As a result, there are numerous behaviors that have emerged through ill-minded interactions with various types of technology, such as mobile phones and the internet. These behaviors include a phenomenon known as cyberstalking. Stalking is viewed as a behavior or a course of action towards a particular person, where the conduct is likely to instill fear and psychologically affect the other person (Catalano 1). Stalking can occur in real life as well, as persons may follow their victims in the physical world.

Weakest Reason

With the advancements in technology, communication is enhanced as individuals are now able to share information through devices such as smartphones, computers, and tablets. Through this technology, individuals have the opportunity to share and exchange data through text messages, videos, and, most importantly, photos. With these specific developments of the given technologies, there has been a dramatic increase in cases of cyberstalking, which consequently has led to real-life stalking, in which the perpetrators access their victims information, images, and the most private information (Stalking Resource Center).

Then, they proceed to follow these individuals, usually hiding their identity and scaring the victim as a result. The example of stalking is present in the story of Little Red Riding Hood, as the protagonist is followed by a wolf throughout the course of events. The narrative of the story is relevant to this day as it describes ones experience with stalking. While the issue of cyberstalking is not noted in the book, the current developments of stalking can be compared to the events of the story.

Counterargument to Weakest Reason

Despite the fact that cyberstalking has become one of the most pressing problems among those that emerged with the rapid development of technology, some people still argue that the actual danger posed by this kind of online behavior is exaggerated. They claim that cyberstalking is limited to the webspace and rarely crosses the boundary with the real world. In other words, it is much more common than physical stalking that involves physical harassment.

Cyberstalkers use social networks such as Facebook, Instagram, or Twitter, emails, and other means of tracking another individuals personal life and threatening him or her (Gil). Also, many abusers use texting to express some sexual themes, also known as sexting, which intimidates their victims. Although their behavior is disturbing, they cannot do any physical harm to their victims unless the latter agrees to meet them in reality.

The proponents of this view on stalking typically cite the argument provided by the Bedford Universitys ECHO research that stalkers on online dating sites are a very rare phenomenon, accounting for approximately 4 percent of victims, which implies that the risks of being inflicted any physical harm is low (Maple et al. 14). Furthermore, it is rather easy to protect oneself from stalking by law enforcement if the situation seems to be going out of control. Thus, the issue of stalking, evidently present in the Red Riding Hood tale, is inapplicable to the modern society, in which such activities do not go further than the online space.

Refutation of Counterargument

As argued by Catalano, there are still many illegal or disturbing behaviors that are not based on cyberstalking or the development of technology (1). Such behaviors include spying or following the victim without his or her consent, sending harassing emails or other kinds of messages, making repeating and unwanted phone calls, spreading rumors and exposing victims private information online without their consent, and waiting for victims in identified places. Not all of these behaviors are physically harmless for the victim. However, they can cause mental distress and lead to other health-related problems.

The same behavior of stalking, in this case, can also be traced in the tale of the Little Red Riding Hood, where the wolf may be seen following the girl from the moment she came into contact with him in the forest. The wolf also came to her grandmothers house to eat the girl. Thus, it supports the major argument of the paper hereof that the tale is cautionary as it outlines threats that women and other vulnerable members of the society, such as children, have to face on a daily basis.

Cyberstalking is also far from being harmless due to the presence of sexual predators online. Based on the fact that young people, including children and teenagers, have access to the internet, especially to social platforms such as Facebook, there is an increased risk of encountering a sexual predator who is able to access their profiles. Since many young people seek to share as much information as possible about their lives online, this has opened opportunities for sexual exploitation and abduction on behalf of sexual predators.

Young people engage in interactive online meetings with strangers, send personal information, visit related sites, and talk to unknown persons. As argued by Kelly, since in the 1990s, cases of children and teenagers being lured into sexual assaults by predators have been on the rise, especially online (26). Boss also agrees that many young individuals are likely to fall prey to online sexual predators (9).

In this case, it is argued that at least fifteen percent of young internet users between the ages of 10 and 17 are at a high risk of meeting online sexual predators due to communication with strangers online (Wolak et al., Online Predators and Their Victims 123). Their willingness to get in touch with strangers makes them cross the boundary between the online world and the real one and agree to arrange a meeting with a predator.

Next Stronger Reason

According to Wolak et al., most young people become victims of sexual predators online because sexual predators have a tendency to hide their age and other profile details (Internet-Initiated Sex Crimes Against Minors 424-e12). Many sexual predator offenders also entice their victims by seeking an opportunity to meet or through stalking. When such opportunities emerge, some of them abduct their victims. According to Wolak et al., at least five percent of the sexual predators tend to act as adolescents in order to solicit sexual acts from their victims (Online Predators and Their Victims 126).

In most cases, such sexual predators use emails, instant messages, and chat rooms to conduct their operations. Online sexual predators behaviors are also considered very complex to control due to the fact that they take place online, where victims are unable to recognize them. Across the United States, crimes committed by sexual offenders are regulated by American law. However, this law varies across states. In this case, the law acknowledges that youths of a certain age are too young to give consent to sex (Wolak et al., Internet-Initiated Sex Crimes Against Minors 424-e15). Thus, this problem becomes even harder to manage.

Many victims of sexual predators may suffer from different physiological and psychological problems. This can be attributed to the actions of their offenders. For example, many young people that were victimized by sexual offenders suffer from different types of health complications, ranging from stress and depression to such diseases as HIV and AIDS that come as a result of rape (Stalking Resource Center).

Although there are numerous first-time sexual predators online, several offenders are considered to be criminals based on incarceration, conviction, and subsequent arrest. It is a common case that victims of sexual predators easily fall into the traps of such offenders as they are inexperienced and naive. The fact that most of the perpetrators conduct their acts in isolation has attributed to more cases of sexual assault being reported across the United States.

The same issue of hiding ones identity is clearly outlined in the tale of Little Red Riding Hood, in which the wolf tries to gain the girls trust by disguising himself as the protagonists grandmother. In this case, the girl is unable to recognize a threat as it is coming from a familiar source. Therefore, the girl is subjected to abuse, not because of her willingness but the wolfs deceitful behavior. The story of the book mentions this disguise for a reason as it shows that sometimes even the closest people cannot be trusted.

Counterargument to Next Stronger Reason

Although many young people are more likely to be exposed to the dangers of sexual predators such as physical harm and rape, questions have been raised on whether individuals, including the victims, have any responsibilities of contributing to such incidences. Although this argument has been viewed as controversial, there are still those who believe that young people are partially responsible for being attacked by sexual predators. In this case, the point of the argument is that online behavior is completely voluntary. It implies that children and teenagers willingly contact predators, send them their contacts, and meet them in real life, without ever being threatened or forced to do so.

Refutation

Although many cases of date rape have been associated with strangers or online predators, there are also incidences connected with friends and current and previous partners. Over the years, date rape has been associated with numerous behaviors that can happen during a date with a friend or partner. In this case, date rape is mostly related to sexual assault. Across the United States, cases of date rape are becoming common among young people, especially students. According to Koss, rape, in this case, is viewed as any type of sexual force that may include different types of penetration that are based on the inability to give consent due to age, intoxication, use of force, and mental status (Hidden Rape 23).

Across the country, these behaviors have become common among the youth. In many colleges of the United States, numerous cases of date rape have been recorded. This implies that even by trusting close people such as friends or boyfriends, young women are still at risk of being sexually assaulted. It is alarming that most of these cases are associated with individuals who are in intimate relationships, which makes the issue even more complicated to resolve. As argued by Koss et al., at least half of these reported cases were committed by perpetrators who were familiar with the victim (164). This problem poses a threat to many people in a relationship as such cases have a high chance of reoccurrence.

The same can be attributed to the Little Red Riding Hood story. Numerous views have been shared on the possibility that the protagonist played a critical role in exposing herself to the dangers that faced her (Orenstein 18). Based on the fact that the girl agreed to go through the forest and sit on the bed with the wolf, it can be argued that the girl is to blame for her weakness and ignorance since she trusted a stranger and was not cautious enough. She is also criticized for not being able to disagree with the wolf or simply avoiding any communication with him. Thus, according to this point of view, teenagers that fall victim to sexual molestation or rape have initiated this by their actions on the internet.

Strongest Reason

The issue of predatory behavior remains complicated as many people tend to blame the victims for their actions rather than focus on the person committing a crime. Moreover, the lack of control from adults is also an issue that is prevalent in the country. In this case, the story of Little Red Riding Hood can be considered relevant to this day. The mother of the protagonist, while being concerned for the safety of her child, does not attempt to protect her from harm. Moreover, she gives a simple warning to her daughter and believes that the girl will be able to avoid any problems of the way. The issue of child and victim neglect can be outlined as another parallel of real life with the story. Moreover, the dismissal of the problem as a whole is also one of the most highlighted themes of this book.

According to Koss et al., the scope of aggression and sexual abuse is astounding as it spans across generations (170). However, many of those cases go unreported as the victims are shamed and threatened not only by abusers but also by other persons. Moreover, the issue of rape being persistently avoided shows that people are unable to recognize the true scope of this issue. The example of Little Red Riding Hood reveals that just as the protagonists mother does not consider the risks of letting her child go through the forest without any assistance, people are often dismissive of the dangers that await some people in real life and online.

Conclusion

Stalking is a major problem that has been recorded in institutions, society, families, and relationships. Although stalking is commonly identified among strangers, the behavior has also been recorded among partners, roommates, neighbors, or friends. People often fail to realize that stalking and sexual assault can be conducted by individuals that are closely connected with the victims. Moreover, American society may not fully grasp the severity of the problem, as cyberstalking and real-life abuse are not connected in the minds of some persons. In reality, these phenomena often follow one another as some sexual predators meet their victims online and collect their information in order to assault them in real life. Peoples ignorance towards this issue can be found in the story of Little Red Riding hood as well.

The tale of a girl whose closest relatives cannot recognize a threat and expose their child to the dangers of the world displays the main issues of the real world. This story is still relevant to the problems of contemporary society as it reveals the main flaws of peoples beliefs. The characters of the tale do not attempt to prevent the little girl from being in danger. In the same way, many individuals blame young people for being open on the internet and in real life instead of creating measures for their protection. In the end, Little Red Riding Hood remains a tale that portrays peoples inability to realize the danger of putting too much trust in people and desire to place the responsibility for a crime on the victim.

Works Cited

Boss, C. Jail Not a Given in Sex Stings. The Columbus Dispatch. 2007. Web.

Catalano, Shannan. Stalking Victims in the United StatesRevised. 2012.

Gil, Paul. Cyberstalking: More Common than Physical Stalking. Life Wire. 2017. Web.

Kelly, K. To Protect the Innocent. Learning to Keep Sexual Predators at Bay. U.S. News & World Report, 2005. Web.

Koss, Mary P. Hidden Rape: Sexual Aggression and Victimization in a National Sample of Students in Higher Education. Rape and Sexual Assault II, edited by Ann W. Burgess, Garland, 1988, pp. 3-25.

Koss, Mary P., et al. The Scope of Rape: Incidence and Prevalence of Sexual Aggression and Victimization in a National Sample of Higher Education Students. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, vol. 55, no. 2, 1987, pp. 162-170.

Maple, Carsten, et al. Cyberstalking in the United Kingdom: An Analysis of the ECHO Pilot Survey. University of Bedfordshire, 2011.

Orenstein, Catherine. Little Red Riding Hood Uncloaked: Sex, Morality, and the Evolution of a Fairy Tale. Basic Books, 2002.

Stalking Resource Center. Stocking Fact Sheet. 2015. Web.

Wolak, Janis, et al. Internet-Initiated Sex Crimes Against Minors: Implications for Prevention Based on Findings from a National Study. Journal of Adolescent Health, vol. 35, no. 5, 2004, pp. 424-e11-424.e20.

. Online Predators and Their Victims: Myths, Realities, and Implications for Prevention and Treatment. American Psychologist, vol. 63, no. 2, 2008, pp. 111-128.

The case history Little Hans

Introduction

The case history Little Hans illustrates very clearly some of Freuds most basic theories, such as infantile sexuality, the role of transference, and the way in which the phobia is part of the cure.

This case study is an account of the very first psychoanalytical treatment of a child. It was the little boys father, Max Graf, who conducted the treatment of Little Hans (Herbert Graf), a quite common practice at the time. The analysis lasted from January to May 1908 and was supervised by Freud on the basis of the observations the boys father noted down and communicated to Freud. Freud himself took an active part on only one occasion  a discussion with both father and son which was to prove decisive. The case history narrates the analysis of phobia in a five year old boy which is represented by horses, giraffes, plumbers, lumf and widdlers.(Quinodoz, 2005pg.79). This case represents and confirms Freuds theory of psychosexual development and Freuds theory of personality. The case of Little Hans provided Freud with proof which he needed to support his hypothesis concerning existence of sexuality in children in general. This case study supported Freuds theories concerning infantile sexuality, existence of Oedipus and castration complexes. Freud was also able to establish the ability to cure the case of phobia, as an illustration of how therapeutic potential of psychoanalysis could be used not only with adults but also with children.

Main Body

The participant of the clinical study Little Hans is five year old, and interestingly his mother had been a patient of Freuds and his father was a keen Freudian. The symptoms which attract attention and are attentively observed and recorded by the father are anxiety, jealousy, fear of being separated from mother, fear of being bitten by horses and oedipal complexes. Little Hans was not formally psychoanalyzed; rather he was questioned by his father who interpreted his responses in consultation with Freud. This did not hinder the observational aspect as psychoanalysis is not an impartial scientific investigation, but a therapeutic measure. Freuds account is divided into two parts: the first is short introduction which brings together the observations made by the father of Little Hans when boy was aged between 3 and 5, the period immediately before the outbreak of phobia; the second is a narrative of how the treatment progresses and is followed by Freuds own comments. Accurately written down by his father, Little Hans thoughts on sexual matters clearly showed that the young boy was very preoccupied with the enigma of sexuality in all of its forms.

The findings and the interpretations confirmed that Little Hans was neurotic, he was preoccupied with his penis, urinating and defection; jealous of his new baby sister, had fear of bath and was scared he would drown for wanting his little sister to drown. The observations made in this little boy could be applied more generally to all children however young they were, since there was nothing pathological about the case. The observations reported by Hanss father lent support to the hypothesis Freud had put forward in Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality as regards the existence of infantile sexuality. These hypotheses had for the most part been deduced from memories which adult patients had communicated in the course of their analysis. This was phenomenal.

Freud also concluded and was surprised to discover that children very often had misperceptions on the matter which concerned penis for boys and vagina for girls. In case of Little Hans the assertion of the fact that little girls do not have widdlers; this is where the feeling of castration anxiety begins. Hanss father notes suggest that when Hans was 31/2 years old he had his hand on his penis and was in the habit of frequent masturbation. On one occasion his mother threatened him with these words  If you do that I shall send for Dr. A to cut off your widdler. And then what will you widdle with?(Quinodoz, 2005,pg.79). Hans response was with my bottom.(Quinodoz, 2005,pg.79). This was the turning point in the acquiring of castration complex which plays such a decisive role in the emergence of neurosis.

This was followed by the birth of his sister Hana around the same time and his curious questions regarding pregnancy, childbirth and baby did not find satisfactory answers from his father and mother which led to fantasy which became an overwhelming part of his personality. Birth of his sister Hanna was the great event of his life. Hans felt a strong aversion to the newborn baby that sobbed him of a part of his parents love. Interestingly, though this dislike did not altogether disappear it was partly overcompensated by an exaggerated affection. He had already several times expressed a wish that the stork should bring no more babies and that it should be paid money not to bring any more babies out of the big box. His understanding is that Hanna had been in there and that she had come out like lumf(the word he invented for faeces). There can be seen in the months that followed the birth of his sister increased jealousy, sometimes to the extent that he wished that she must die or drown while she was being bathed.

In the case of Little Hans Freud was delighted to see that the case study of Hans confirmed in the most concrete and uncompromising manner what he had written in his book The Interpretations of Dreams and in Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality. Hans was a little Oedipus who wanted his father out of his way to get rid of him so that he might be alone with his beautiful mother and sleep with her(Quinodox, 2005).

This wish to sleep with his mother and coax with her had originated during the summer holidays, when his father was often away, the little boy got chance to sleep with his mother in her bed. Little Hans wanted his father to be away forever and dead. In the interpretation of Freud, this death wish aimed at father is a feature of all little boys and is part of the normal Oedipal situation, however when it becomes exacerbated it may lie at the origin of various symptoms as was the case with Little Hans. In this way the conflict of love and hate become a central focus of the Oedipal situation. In this case father could also be said to have played the role of transference of his emotional energy. This resulted in the recurrent fantasy which is revealed in his case with symbolism. It is the same father whom he thinks as his rival as well as whom he had always loved and considers his model and his first playmate. The father who took upon himself the role of the psychoanalyst has been transferred with rivalry which is the root of the phobia. This resurfaces in the form of fantasy which is represented by Giraffes, horses, etc.

The symbolism of Giraffes and Horses in his fantasy holds the chord which can lead to the origin of his fear. There is connection between his fear of losing his mother and the warning from his mother regarding playing with his widdler. Freud analyses this as a symptom in which Hans liked to get in bed with his mother, this urge had been long repressed came out in the form libido on her.

In one of his fantasy Hans saw two Giraffes, which represented his parents. The event takes place in the morning in the parents bedroom. Freud believes that the Giraffes reveal his castration complex and explores further description of the fantasy. Hans expresses shocked arrival of a big Giraffe which came into his room with another crumpled Giraffe. Hans took the crumpled one away from the big Giraffe and the big Giraffe called out. After some time the big Giraffe stopped calling and Hans sat on the top of the crumpled Giraffe.(Freud,1909).

The fear of the Horse is another example of his Oedipus complex, he fantasizes being bitten by the horse, and he recognizes the black on the horses mouth and the blinkers they wore. Freud interprets it as jealousy towards father from which this fear emerges. Hans is hostile in his manner towards his father and is frightened of his father because he is big. He likes to play the game of biting his father. Freud has keen perception regarding the fear of the horses and connects that the black which Hans had described in his fantasy around the horses mouth with the blinkers in reality as representation of characteristics in Hans father like his moustache and the glasses. This further affirmed by desire to believe that the bus horse which he witnessed on the road as dead. He narrated this scene to his father and Hanss father pointed out that the horse represented his father and his wish was that his father would be dead. Hans did not deny the interpretation made by his father and continued to play with him.

Hans suffered from lumf complex, which was expressed in his disgust of excrements. His father investigated the symbolism and came to the conclusion that in his fantasy the heavily laden cart represented body loaded with faeces. And in Hans mind he associated lumf with his sister whom he loathed.

Hans had another fantasy which was related to plumber who came in the bathroom, unscrew the bath and trapped Hans with a big borer in Hans stomach. This has been represented with the fantasy of procreation. This is a typical fantasy in which the bath of water represents the mothers womb and the borer is symbolic of the fathers penis. This fantasy can be reworded as with your big penis you bored me in my mothers womb(Freud.1909). This resulted in Hans having the fear of taking bath was partly associated with this as well with the guilt which he harbored regarding his sister drowning. The new fantasy of the plumber coming with pair of pincers; and cutting off his behind; and widdler and replacing them with larger ones.(Freud,1909). This has been interpreted by his father as sign of overcoming of castration anxiety. This was an indication that finally Hans wants to be like his father. This was affirmed by Freud that this final fantasy indicated that Hans would overcome his fear of castration.

The final fantasy hold the cur to the phobia, in which Hans was playing with his imaginary children and came to the conclusion that Hans would marry his mother, and she would have their children. His father would marry his own mother and so there was no need to be killed. Hans thus completed his identification with his father and was cured of his phobia. According to Freuds interpretation this fantasy demonstrated that he was happy to have his father around as now he did not fear him or was jealous of him. He identified his father as his grandmothers husband and had no threat from him. This led to the cure of his phobia.

Conclusion

This is an extraordinary case in which the infantile sexuality of an innocent five year old manifests in the form of strong emotion of jealousy and hatred and possessiveness. It leads to many psychological symptoms which are ultimately cured by right understanding and interpretation of the fantasy which gives the clue to the disease as well to the cure of the phobia. Many of Freuds theoretical concepts found a live proof in this case study of Little Hans who finally succeeded in overcoming his phobia and becoming a successful director of opera and renowned figure. It is interesting to note regarding this case study that even though the treatment is conducted by the father Little Hans the major theories concerning the case have been intriguing to many psychoanalysts. The case touched the core of many of the theories propounded by Freud. It is interesting to note that Freuds theory of infantile sexuality, the role of transference has been beautifully blended with the overcoming of phobia in which fantasy and analysis of the fantasy plays a very strong role in the cure of the phobia. The case stands out as unique in involvement of the father to treat the neurosis of the child in consultation with none other than Freud. The analysis has been a three way communication, which has had remarkable results.

References

Quinodoz, J-M.(2005). Reading Freud: a chronological exploration of Freuds writings.Routledge.

Freud, S. (1909). Analysis of a phobia in a five year old boy. Web.

Bystander Effect on Everyday Life and Consequences

Introduction

In the presence of two or more people, a victim of an emergency is subject to more suffering compared to the case when only one person is present. This introduces the issue of the bystander effect, otherwise known as Genovese Syndrome, a psychological problem that affects ones ability to take an action. Worth noting is that making a decision, especially of doing what is right and required of a person at a particular time, is one of the most challenging tasks. Before an action is taken for or against another, there precedes a good deal of controversy within ones conscience. Whether to have the action implemented, when, with or without what, and by whom, remains the root behind the controversy. These observations continue to manifest themselves through the day-to-day occurrences. For instance, emergency cases dominate most of the peoples dialogues and in all cases, reports reveal that as the emergency occurs, there is at least one person present in the area surrounding the incidence. It is expected that the more the people are present, the less tragic the emergency. On the contrary, this is not the case. The rate at which people turn up to rescue a victim of an emergency is inversely proportional to the number of people present. The fewer they are, the more the help and vice versa. This paper checks into detail the bystander effect: its effect on the individuals, the consequences therein, as well as the possible lessons that people need to learn. Standing and watching can take place when an emergency occurs.

What Takes Place

There exist at least four possible options for bystanders in case of an emergency; standing and staring is one of them. Charles (2009) asserts, If something is happening, it is normal for people to go and see what is going on (p.346). Several factors on the other hand fuel this choice. Firstly, because of curiosity, bystanders may decide to watch the incident. They are eager to know why and what the situation is about. Secondly, excitement plays a major role behind their standing and watching because any scenario featuring peoples emotions is always eye-catching. Fear of being hurt also explains this option. Bystanders can as well opt to take sides. For instance, in the case of a bully engaging in a fight, bystanders may choose to support him/her. They can also decide to vacate the place of the emergency or else intervene to help both sides. However, one can ask, Why does this happen?

Why this Happens

Fear is the major reason behind the choices that bystanders make in times of emergency. The majority of them do not just decide to sit and stare at suffering people. Given the chance, these people can assist a lot but none bears the courage to do so. Fear of being hurt or being blamed as a result defines their decisions. Addressing this issue of fear, Darley (1968) observes the most common question that brings the fear is what if that person being hurt was me? (p.379). The relationship between them and the victim(s) is another reason that brings in their failure to participate. If the victim is their friend or an acquaintance, the bystanders will find it easy to offer the best and possible assistance. However, if enmity prevails between the two sides, then the bystanders will opt not to intervene. It is against ones conscience to let go of the life of any other in his/her presence when he/she can help. This does not regard the cause of the emergency that involves the victim. However, the notion that there must be a link between the victim and the bystander inhibits the decision of the latter. For instance, if the victim is a thief, any person will withdraw from assisting because he/she does not want to be associated with the theft activities. Researchers on the subject of the bystander effect have formulated many theories and reasons as to why bystanders fail to show up in emergency scenes. The availability of other more powerful and experienced bystanders is a reason for the failure to act.

Reasons for it happening

Police officers and doctors are believed to be the best people participating in some emergency cases like sickness, robbery, or accidents. Therefore, if they are accessible, other bystanders will not act until the relevant people intervene. Researchers reveal that the number of people around an emergency zone influences the individuals decision to act. These experiments virtually always find that the presence of others inhibits helping, often by a large margin (Hudson, 2004, p.166). Each of them wants to wait until the other leads in the helping. As a result, none begins the rescuing process making the rest follow suit. This failure arouses the assumption that the need to assist was not necessary for that situation. In addition, the failure to act results from the so-called Bystander apathy, a case where people show a lack of emotions and is thought to emerge from some complicated unconscious mechanisms within the mind. Diffusion of responsibility comes in handy in explaining the bystander effect. The bystanders assume that it is their collective duty to participate in the emergency. Therefore, it is possible that the more the people present, the harder it gets for one of them to single him/herself out of the crowd to participate alone. Though bystanders might seem unrefined, worth noting is that the bystander effect bears its positive consequences. One will remain safe by the end of the day.

Positive Outcomes

As a fact, some emergency cases expose bystanders to dangers thus rendering them inactive in their pursuit for safety. If several armed thieves break into ones neighbor who in turn screams for help, him/she can suffer to the level of death since none would tolerate the shootings. Therefore, for security purposes, the bystanders will refrain from the emergency. In addition, cases exist where the contributions of bystanders end up victimizing them. For instance, a bystander who fails to act in an emergency case involving gangsters as the victims, cannot be a victim of the same, compared to the one who participates. However, negative outcomes are still evident. Bystanders suffer losses of relationship.

Negative Outcomes

Failure to show up in emergencies has seen the end of relationships for many bystanders. Regardless of the underlying cause, whether fire, robbery with violence, or even an attack by a fierce animal, the victim always requires the help of his/her friends. Their failure to turn up, whether based on security reasons or not &can mark the end of their relationships (Levine, 2004, p.234) Bystanders suffer revenge too. When struck by an emergency, they suffer alone because they too do not assist.

Conclusion

The bystander effect carries with it many life lessons. Christians claim that one is supposed to treat others the way he/she would like them to treat him/her. Though being a bystander is not wrong, they are advised to think beyond their noses. What the future holds is uncertain. Therefore, if it has ever unfolded an emergency for some, then a bystander should expect such someday. To be secure, it is good for people to do what they can when they can. If it calls for their help in emergencies, let them participate to the best of their abilities. Otherwise, no man is an island, and bystanders are not an exception and as they demand the help of others, they too should help.

Reference List

Charles, D. Bystander Training within Organizations. Journal of the International Ombudsman Association 2.1 (2009): 342-344.

Darley, J. Bystander Intervention in Emergencies: Diffusion of responsibility. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 8.2 (1968): 377383.

Hudson, J. The Bystander Effect: A Lens for Understanding Patterns of Participation. Journal of the Learning Sciences 13.2 (2004): 165195.

Levine, M. Identity, Place, and Bystander Intervention: Social Categories and Helping after Natural Disasters. Journal of Social Psychology 144.3 (2004): 229245.

Organisational Behaviour in Teams and Groups

Introduction

For human beings it is typical to unite in various groups, teams and organisations. For the sake of order and avoiding anarchy certain rules and laws are established in these organisations that regulate the principles of organisational behaviour. Accordingly, organisational behaviour is the basis of the successful performance of any group of people having the same ideas, goals and means of their achieving (Mullins, 2008). This paper will focus on such fundamental phenomena of organisational behaviour as functions and ideas of groups and teams, motivations that people have for this or that type of assignment. Also, the individual differences typical of every team member in attitudes towards his or her co-workers, towards the environment and towards his or her place in it will be examined in this paper. The goal of the paper is to explain the process of group presentations preparation.

Groups and Teams

To start with, it is necessary to consider such aspect of organisational behaviour as groups and teams that are formed by organisation members. The first point to mention here is the fact that every member of an organisation is involved in a kind of a working group in it (Bloisi, W. & Cook, C., 2006). For example, students might be members of some project preparing groups, or sport teams, while accountants in a company may be involved in a group working on an annual report, etc. Drawing from this fact, groups and teams are basic detachments of any organisation, and the definition of group is rather important here. So, a group is a collection of people having the similar goals and ideas about their accomplishment, displaying certain hierarchy and leadership inside it, and finally all its members identify themselves as this groups participants (Brooks, 2005).

In other words, groups are united by the shared commitment (Brooks, 2005) and their goals are higher than goals for which each group member could strive for as an individual. As a result, group work has its advantages and drawbacks, among which the access to more ideas and a wider scope of knowledge are the former, while domination of leaders, blocking of minority opinions and lack of motivation could be viewed as the latter (Pettinger, 2000). In more detail, leaders of the group exercise their influence while the ideas of others are disregarded which leads to the decrease of their motivation. At the same time, diligent attention paid to the minds of all group members is the way to success in group tasks (Mullins, 2008).

Accordingly, scholars like Tuckman and Jensen created the respective theory of the main stages of the group development and task completion. Initially, this was developed as a four-stage model of group development which was later modified by Tuckman into a five-stage one. The major point of the model is the formation of group, realization of its goals and group cohesiveness directed at fulfilling group tasks. As a result, the four stages of the Tuckman and Jensens model of group development include the following points  forming, storming, norming and performing. The stage added by the authors later was the so-called adjourning stage explaining the process of group dissolution (Brooks, 2005).

In more detail, the forming stage is the process of group shaping. During this stage, the members of the group adjust to each other; obtain the initial knowledge of the group as a whole and of the interpersonal and organizational behavior in this group. The dependency relations with the group leaders are also formulated during this stage. It is followed by the storming stage during which the conflicts between group members, conflicts of interest and influences all become explicit. In this period, the unwillingness of the group members to be subjected to group ideas and goals is expressed in the forms of resistance, low productivity and motivation levels, etc. Accordingly, the stage of norming is the period when personal interests are put aside by group members who realize the significance of their task and start displaying group cohesiveness and team playing features. Personal viewpoints are considered and realized for the use of the common goal. Finally, the performing stage develops the ability of the group members to act as a single whole with roles being interchangeable; mutual assistance of group members to each others becomes a norm. The energy of the group is directed to the common goal. Later, the adjourning stage was added by the authors depicting the process of group dissolution when the goals are accomplished and roles of group members are eliminated (Brooks, 2005).

Motivation

Drawing from all the above considered ideas, the performance of the group or team is dependant on the number of factors. Generally speaking, the effectiveness of the performance of any organisation depends upon the abilities of its members, their opportunities to demonstrate the whole range of their abilities and skills, and the paramount factor among these all is the motivation that every single member of the group has (Bloisi, W. & Cook, C., 2006). What is also important is that the motivation of every group member is based on his or her inherited, i. e. biological or natural, and felt, i. e. acquired, needs or drives. The opportunity to satisfy these needs with the less tension in the group environment brings better results of the group performance (Bloisi, W. & Cook, C., 2006).

According to these facts, there are numerous needs theories formulated by scholars among which Abraham Maslow takes the prominent place. His hierarchy of human needs is accepted as the universally applicable model displaying five major levels of needs and explaining them properly. Thus, the lowest level of the human needs is comprised of the physiological requirements of the human organism. People need to eat, drink, have clothes, etc. and these needs direct them at working with as much proficiency as possible. However, the peculiarity of Maslows theory is the succession of needs, In other words, having satisfied the lowest level of needs, human beings focus on every next level, while in case of failing to satisfy the first level needs, the latter become dominant and do not allow human beings develop their skills (Brooks, 2005).

As a result, according to Maslows model, after physiological needs are satisfied, security needs come into play. This group of needs includes shelter, security, safety from fear and threats, access to health care, education, etc. On the organisational level, these needs are satisfied through confidence about ones employment, security at the work place, impossibility of groundless firing, secure wages, etc. In case if these needs are satisfied, the dominant role is attributed to social needs expressed in the requirement of belonging and feeling support. In an organisation, these needs might be satisfied by successful and fruitful collaboration with colleagues and friendly relationships at the work place (McKenna, 2005).

Finally, the two most important levels of Maslows hierarchy are psychological needs of human beings. The fourth level is represented by the self-esteem and ego-satisfaction needs. This level also embraces the need of external respect, authority, prestige, etc. The highest level of the human needs is therefore the need of self-actualization. In other words, people experience the necessity for permanent and successful self-development and self-improvement which is realized through the success at work and feeling of belonging to the organisation (Mullins, 2008).

Moreover, Alderfers ERG (Existence, Relatedness, Growth) Theory is the modification of the Maslows one. It comprises the three levels constituting the abbreviation and assumes that people can satisfy several need levels at once. Also, the concept of frustration-regression is the notable feature of this theory stating that if a higher level motivation is frustrated it is compensated by the larger focus on the lower level one. Nevertheless, both theories state the paramount importance of motivation for the successful development of organisational behaviour in a company or any other group of people (Mullins, 2008; McKenna, 2005).

Individual Differences and Perception

According to all the above presented arguments, it is obvious that in the effectiveness of the group performance an individual plays a crucially important role (Mullins, 2008). First of all, the organisation or group is constituted by individual people who have their own psychological, physiological and other needs, ideas and values according to which they make decisions and act. These differences in individual perception and attribution styles are based on such factors as temperament of every single person who could be either optimist or pessimist, active or passive, initiative or non-initiative, etc. Moreover, the cultural, educational and social backgrounds of the person shape his or her individual peculiarities and respective styles of behaviour. Finally, the philosophies that each person builds on the basis of the above mentioned principles, might also differ and cause various conflicting situations in an organisation (Bloisi, W. & Cook, C., 2006).

The same can be said about the approaches each particular person takes in conflict situations. These approaches are numerous and range from the accommodating position of a person who tries to settle the situation peacefully to the competitor approach during which a persons aim in a conflict is the victory by all means. All these personal peculiarities have serious impact upon the motivation of organisation members and upon the performance of the whole organisation. Accordingly, the attribution theory comes into play when conflict overcoming and personal differences are viewed as forming factors of organisational behaviour (Rollinson, 2008).

The major point of the attribution theory lies in the facts, assumptions or other traits that people attribute to the activities, deeds and outcomes of work of other people and themselves. The factor that could explain such a state of things is the psychological perception of the surrounding world. In other words, it depends upon a persons mind how to perceive a phenomenon of reality. Thus, the same situation can be viewed differently by two or more people, from which different assumptions might result (Rollinson, 2008). For example, if a person has failed his or her part of the group assignment, the causes that the rest of the group members might attribute to this could vary from laziness and reluctance to objective reasons like family problems, health issues or practical lack of time (Brooks, 2005).

One more important aspect of this theory is the so-called Attribution Theory of Motivation. The essence of this concept lies in the alleged motivations that people attribute to the deeds, successful or failing, of their colleagues and their own. Moreover, the effects of those attributed motivations are observed in the subsequent working motivations of group members (Rollinson, 2008). For example, if a mistaken attribution assumed that a person failed some task for the reason of lack of skills or reluctance to act proficiently, this might reduce the motivation for further work in this person. On the contrary, if the attribution added to the positive features in the work of a person, it might result in the improvements in his or her work even if before this very person has never displayed any specific commitment to work and his colleagues. Thus, it is obvious that all the three aspects of the organisational behaviour considered in this paper are interconnected and equally important for a companys or a groups performance (Brooks, 2005).

Conclusions

To make the respective conclusion to this paper, it is necessary to state that organisational behaviour is the basis for the success of any company or another group of people united by the same goals. Groups and teams are fundamental branches of any organisation as they allow accomplishing goals that could not be accomplished by individual workers separately. Motivation is the moving force of any progress and in the organisational behaviour its importance can not be overestimated. Finally, the individual differences in behaviour and perception influence considerably both inner atmosphere in an organization and its external performance results (Pettinger, 2000). To achieve higher results in fulfilling any kind of a task, the group performance should be controlled by skillful leaders who are able of motivating people, uniting them into groups and subjecting their personal differences to the common goal of an organisation.

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