Martin Luthers Effects on the Protestant Reformation

Introduction

Martin Luther can be seen as a unique opinion leader who influenced peoples minds and behavior. This work uses the article Multiplex Network Ties and the Spatial Diffusion of Radical Innovations: Martin Luthers Leadership in the Early Reformation as a primary source, as it reflects new research on Martin Luthers personal influence in spreading the Reformation. The study of primary and additional sources shows that Martin Luthers efforts became the basis for the rapid penetration of innovative and radical ideas contrary to established beliefs.

Martin Luthers ideas and the Beginning of the Reformation

Reformation Day is celebrated on October 31, the day Martin Luther nailed his 95 Theses to the door of the Castle Church in Wittenberg in 1517. His initial disputes were about the abuse of power and selling indulgences. Martin Luther considered the Rome center to be hopelessly corrupt. He was highly critical of the excessive mixture of money with grace, as well as the clergys attitude towards luxury and money (Bruni and Milbank 222). Over several years, the idea developed and grew into a full-fledged call for renewal and a break in relations with the centers in Rome.

The Protestant Reformation revealed the deep corruption of the church leadership and became one of the main issues for discussion. Ultimately it was not the only factor that influenced the development of Western civilization. Martin Luther translated the New Testament into German in 1522, whereas previously, the Scriptures were published only in Latin (Becker et al. 866). Others followed Luthers example, and soon the Bible appeared in English. Religion and the word of God became available to ordinary people. As Luther dreamed, they could touch religious scriptures without the mediation of the clergy. The Reformation has become a powerful tool for developing literacy among the population.

Not all Reformation events were worthy of praise, and not all leaders were always models of Christian behavior. Thus, a group of reformers was martyred by their fellow reformers. Luthers writings clearly showed anti-Semitic statements, although earlier works showed a more balanced attitude towards Jews. (Stern 6). Despite all, the Reformation was the most significant upheaval in the history of the Western church.

Martin Luthers influence on the spread of the Christian Reformation

According to conventional opinion, the reason for the rapid spread of the Reformation was the development of printing. New research shows that while printing did play a significant role, Luthers activism and connections also had an enormous impact (Becker et al. 861). Luthers ideas gained institutional support in cities where he had personal connections.

According to Becker et al. 36 percent of the towns that had personal contact with Luther before 1522 accepted the Reformation by 1530 (861). In these towns, political alliances arose that promoted reforms in the social and religious spheres. Martin Luther used three methods to spread his ideas and influence:

  1. He actively published his works on theology and philosophy.
  2. He conducted extensive and varied correspondence.
  3. He visited cities where he preached and participated in discussions on religious topics.

Although Martin Luther spent most of his life as a monk and professor at a provincial university, he was in active correspondence with many people. Among his correspondents were not only priests but also the highest church dignitaries, high-ranking officials, aristocrats, and several prominent burghers (Becker et al. 865). They became conductors of Luthers ideas to the broader masses. These connections gave impetus to the development of the Reformation, pushing in some cities for such changes as the abolition of privileges for the clergy.

In 1517, Luther began mobilizing his students to become apostles of the Protestant faith. The sparks of the Reformation soon flared far beyond the cities where Luther had connections and influence (Becker et al. 866). The spread was accompanied by the trade relations between towns and the missionary activity of his students. However, it would be a mistake to assume that only Martin Luthers influence contributed to the Reformations spread. His ideas lay on the soil of a favorable historical context. For example, reformism in England was initiated by the political interests of Henry VIII, who broke with the papacy of Clement VII in a series of legislative acts between 1532 and 1534 to initiate divorce (Tingle 129). Another reason is the appropriation of church wealth and the strengthening of the crowns power over the church.

Conclusion

Previous attempts to reform some church principles were suppressed, while the Reformation quickly spread in Germany, throughout Europe, and later on other continents. The reason for this success was a combination of several factors: the timeliness and innovativeness of Luthers ideas, his activism and personal connections with the clergy, government officials, and aristocracy, an organized missionary network of Luthers students, and a proper a historical context where the ruling state structures are tired of the rigid dictatorship of the church. Another factor that influenced the rapid spread of the Reformation can be considered the development of printing and reliable postal service.

By 1530, the network of the Protestant Reformation had established a well-organized and structured network. In this process, Martin Luther was not only an inspirer and spiritual mentor but also a leader who formed and changed public opinion.

Works Cited

Becker, Sascha O., et al. Multiplex Network Ties and the Spatial Diffusion of Radical Innovations: Martin Luthers Leadership in the Early Reformation. American Sociological Review, vol. 85, no. 5, 2020, pp 857-894. Web.

Bruni, Luigino, and John Milbank. . International Review of Economics, vol. 66, no. 3, 2019, pp. 221-231. Web.

Stern, Robert. Martin Luther. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2020.

Tingle, Elizabeth.  Midland History, vol. 44, no 2, 2019, pp. 128-143. Web.

What Led to the Protestant Reformations?

Introduction

As one of the main reasons that led to the beginning of Reformation, it is necessary to name the total decline of morals in the midst of the Roman Catholic Church. The political factor can also be considered one of the important indirect causes. The new centralized nation-states in northwestern Europe opposed the concept of a universal church, which proclaimed its jurisdiction over the nation-state and its powerful ruler.1 The ideal of such a universal Church came into conflict with the emerging national consciousness of the middle class in these new states.

Another reason for the reform movement was the struggle between representatives of the just emerging capitalist mode of production and the feudal one, whose ideology was protected by the medieval church of that time, which itself was the largest feudal lord-landowner.2 Feudalism prevailed in Europe, and the overwhelming majority of the population was serf, feudal dependent, the poorest peasantry, almost completely powerless, since in order to strengthen feudal ownership of land the number of peasant duties increased, while the development of peasant farms was not allowed, contributing to the peasants’ impoverishment.

There was growing dissatisfaction with the church in all segments of the population, because the church was the largest land feudal lord and, moreover, it declared each person without exception “unable to save his soul.”3 Thus, it subjugated all sectors of the population, the secular life of human, secular institutions and all spheres of life of the state as a whole.4 Particular dissatisfaction was caused by requisitions by the papal curia and higher clergy, which, in the context of the growth of commodity-money relations, were constantly increasing. Secular feudal lords and monarchs demanded restrictions on exactions in the papal curia.5 The burgher opposition, which at first expressed the aspirations of the broad masses of the population, reflected on the abolition of the Catholic Church as a feudal institution and the creation of a new, “simple and cheap” church without requisitions and fees for demands. The ideologists of the masses put a broader meaning in the concept of the Reformation ‑ the transformation of the entire system of social relations in the spirit of gospel equality. Moreover, the political influence of the church on the life of the state and its financial base were enormous, and the fragmentation of the countries of medieval Europe and the weak centralized power only contributed to this. The mentioned claims of the church aroused grumble and indignation among the largest feudal lords, including kings.6 All this led to the fact that the reform movement not only embraced, but also united all sectors of the European countries population.

The Magisterial Reformations in Germany, Switzerland and England

Each country had its own specific foundations of the reform movement, and, therefore, the nature of the Reformation in each country was different. The reasons for the reformation existed everywhere, but in Germany they acted especially strongly, since, on the one hand, rarely religiosity was distinguished by such an intimate, moral character as in the then German people, and on the other hand, few nations were so humiliated before the Roman curia as the German: its political impotence was a convenient ground for the development of papal claims.7 As a political whole, Germany in that era was in a state of unstable equilibrium, so to speak, ceasing to be a single state, but not finally turning into a simple federation of principalities and free cities. It has long been felt here the need for state reform, which would lead the country out of its chaotic state.8 In conditions of social contradictions associated with the emergence of capitalist relations, fragmentation, with the intensification of feudal exploitation in the countryside, the Reformation movement in Germany was the first serious battle against feudalism as a whole. The impetus for the mass reform movement in Germany was Luther’s speech against indulgences.

Starting his reformation activity, Luther did not immediately break with the papacy and Catholicism. In his first theoretical reformation act ‑ the Ninety-five Theses or Disputation on the Power and Efficacy of Indulgences ‑ he still remained an Orthodox Catholic.9 However, the Reformation in Germany developed, and Luther appeared at the head of the broad anti-Catholic movement. As the leader of this movement, Luther spoke out not only against indulgences, but also against the dogma of the infallibility of the Roman bishop. Moreover, he came to the denial of papal authority and criticized Catholic dogma. By the time the pope excommunicated Luther from the Church, his fame reached its climax.10 The reformers did not have a single attitude to the Theses, but this was not so important: these Theses united the various layers of Germany ‑ from the peasant-plebeian masses to the nobles and secular princes.

At the beginning of the 16th century, Switzerland was a confederate state. The Swiss Confederation included cantons and allied lands, and each canton possessed autonomy. The land belonged to the feudal lords, who, together with city patriciate exploited dependent peasants. The rich and omnipotent city cantons sought to completely subjugate the backward forest cantons, which depended on them both economically and politically. This, in turn, caused constant clashes among the cantons within the Swiss Confederation and violated its unity.11 Moreover, the disaster for Switzerland and its population was the mercenary system, widespread at that time in Western Europe. The hired troops of the Swiss served in a wide variety of European countries that did not have their own regular troops.12 Naturally, the ruling aristocracy of the Swiss Confederation used the recruitment of mercenaries as a source of profit. However, most Swiss considered mercenarism to be a scourge for the country, since it sucked out the strongest and most courageous men, thereby depriving the country of workers and defenders.13 The Swiss Reformation began with the demand to end mercenarism ‑ this is what the basic requirement of the Zwinglin Reformation became.

As in German lands, the Reformation in Switzerland took place in conditions of political fragmentation and at first it did not cover all the cantons, but only a part of them. The center of the Reformation was the city of Zurich, one of the largest city cantons, claiming leadership in the confederation. The founder of the Swiss Reformation was Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531).14 Like Luther, Zwingli began the struggle against indulgences and substantiated the thesis of justification by faith, i.e., went deeper into theological problems. After Luther’s speech, Zwingli became his ardent supporter. However, Luther and Zwingli soon diverged in the interpretation of the dogma of transubstantiation. While Luther spoke of the real presence of Christ in the sacrament of the Eucharist, Zwingli gave this sacrament a purely symbolic meaning.15

The Zwinglian church was much more democratic than the Lutheran ‑ it had a republican system. Preachers and pastors were chosen by the community, and each community was in charge of church affairs and subordinated to the city magistrate. The Zwinglians who gained power did not limit themselves to religious reform; they carried out some socio-political transformations.16 The socio-economic and political views of Zwingli were characterized by certain radicalism. He denied mercenarism, opposed serfdom, defended the petty property of peasants and artisans, and was a supporter of the republican system and an opponent of the monarchy.

In England, the Reformation began much later than on the continent ‑ during the reign of Henry VIII, in the 30s of the 16th century, Reformation ideas in England began to take shape in the 14th century. The ideologist of the early English burgher Reformation was John Wycliffe.17 Wycliffe denied the papacy’s reverence and demanded the secularization of the land. In 16th century England, the Reformation began from above, emanating from the king. The main objective of the Royal Reformation was the liberation from the Vatican and the direct submission of the English Church to the king. Crucially important was the king’s desire to secularize the monastic lands.18 The reason for the Reformation was the refusal of the pope to terminate the marriage of Henry VIII with Catherine of Aragon, which would allow the king to enter into a new marriage with the maid of honor Queen Anne Boleyn.

The divorce of Henry VIII was formalized by the English Parliament, after which Henry married Anna Boleyn. In 1534, Henry VIII issued the Act of Supremacy, by which the king was declared head of the Church of England. Relations with the Vatican were decisively broken. The Act was not a manifestation of the struggle against Catholicism; it signified, first of all, the struggle with the pope.19 The Catholic episcopate remained the backbone of the new form of monarchy that was taking shape in England at that time ‑ absolutism.20 The new English church, denying the pope’s leadership, has already ceased to be completely Catholic, but has not yet become Protestant. It was called Anglican, and Anglicanism, at first, took a middle position between Catholicism and Protestantism.

Aspects that made the Anabaptist Reformations Different from the Magisterial Reformations

Luther and Calvin were “magistrate reformers” in the sense that they were supported by governments (magistrates). While the radicals, with their strict views on Church membership, did not recognize compromises with state or city authorities, magistrate reformers depended precisely on such compromises.21 The Anabaptists believed that the church and government should be separated from each other. Some of the distinctive beliefs of the Anabaptists were as follows:22

  1. The Church is a community of dedicated Disciples of Christ who know the price of following Jesus, including their willingness to suffer for their faith. The church is different from the surrounding secular society.
  2. Christians must be separated from the world, so they cannot serve in government or the army.
  3. The church should “exclude” (i.e., excommunicate) those who do not live in accordance with the requirements of the church.
  4. The rejection of Calvinist soteriology.

The Anabaptists were not Catholics because they looked like Protestants at first glance, proclaiming the reformist principle of Sola Scriptura and rejecting all complex Roman Catholic rites, hierarchies, and sacred objects. At the same time, they were not Protestants either, since they inwardly maintained Catholic thinking, upholding concepts such as free will, denying double predestination, emphasizing the importance of the community in the matter of salvation, preserving the main monastic values, using a strict system of punishment, and confronting state control over the church.23 However, the political realities of the early sixteenth century required a link between states or cities and the Churches of the Protestant Reformation. The social views of radical congregations and thinkers were so menacing and destabilizing that they were gradually squeezed out of cities into the countryside and deprived of any political or social power.

Counter Reformation Response to Protestants

The bishops’ councils represented one of the main mechanisms of Counter Reformation. In particular, the Ecumenical Council of Trent was a decisive reaction to Protestantism, which responded to new doctrines of church authority, justification, and sacraments. Regarding authority in matters of doctrine, Trent Council ruled that truth is contained in “written books of the Bible and unwritten traditions ‑ that is, those that were received by the apostles from the mouth of Christ himself or were received from the apostles themselves (being dictated by the Holy Spirit), and came to Christians, being passed from hand to hand.24 The principle of Sola Scriptura has been repealed; also, the Council anathematized (excommunicated) all who taught the justification of sola fide (only through faith) by imputing Christ’s righteousness alone.25 The Council reaffirmed the Catholic doctrine of the sacraments, including the doctrine of transubstantiation.26 Moreover, it reaffirmed the belief that the Mass is a true atoning sacrifice, which represents the repeated bloodless sacrifice of Christ on the altar of the cross for the faithful participating in the Eucharist.

By decision of the Council, an Index of Prohibited Books was compiled, which included the works of many European humanists. The military order of the Catholic reaction ‑ the Order of the Jesuits ‑ was created. Unlike other monastic orders, members of the Jesuit order lived in the world and led a secular lifestyle, acting as politicians, diplomats, educators, doctors. They occupied departments in all European universities, created schools and colleges where boys were brought up in the Jesuit spirit.27 During the early bourgeois revolutions, the Jesuits sided with the feudal monarchy and did everything possible to preserve its foundations.

The Catholic Counter-Reformation managed to stop the expansion of Protestantism in most of Europe. For some time, it consolidated shaken papal throne and strengthen the forces of the papacy and Catholicism. Nevertheless, it was not able to eliminate the split of Catholicism and prevent the formation Protestantism. The Counter-Reformation faced complete failure in the Scandinavian countries, England and Scotland; in particular, in the Scandinavian countries, the Roman Catholic Church completely lost its position.

Bibliography

Gonzalez, Justo L. The Story of Christianity: Volume 1: The Early Church to the Dawn of the Reformation. San Francisco: HarperOne, 2014.

Gonzalez, Justo L. The Story of Christianity: Volume 2: The Reformation to the Present Day. San Francisco: HarperOne, 2014.

Hillerbrand, Hans J. The Protestant Reformation. New York: Perennial, 2009.

McGrath, Alister. Reformation Thought. Hoboken: Wiley-Blackwell, 2012.

Rublack, Ulinka. The Oxford Handbook of the Protestant Reformations. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017.

Spitz, William Lewis. The Protestant Reformation: 1517-1559. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 2005.

Witte, John. The Protestant Reformation of the Church and the World. Westminster John Knox Press, 2018.

Footnotes

  1. John Witte, The Protestant Reformation of the Church and the World (Westminster John Knox Press, 2018), 4.
  2. Justo L. Gonzalez, The Story of Christianity: Volume 1: The Early Church to the Dawn of the Reformation (San Francisco: HarperOne, 2014), 437-442.
  3. Lewis W. Spitz, The Protestant Reformation: 1517-1559 (St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 2005), 25-28.
  4. Spitz, The Protestant Reformation, 29.
  5. Ulinka Rublack, The Oxford Handbook of the Protestant Reformations (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017), 105-111.
  6. Ulinka Rublack, The Oxford Handbook, 114-115.
  7. Justo L. Gonzalez, The Story of Christianity: Volume 2: The Reformation to the Present Day (San Francisco: HarperOne, 2014), 44-46.
  8. Justo L. Gonzalez, The Story of Christianity: Volume 2, 45.
  9. Alister McGrath, Reformation Thought (Hoboken: Wiley-Blackwell, 2012), 78.
  10. William Spitz, The Protestant Reformation, 62.
  11. John Witte, The Protestant Reformation, 89-93.
  12. John Witte, 94.
  13. John Witte, 95.
  14. McGrath, Reformation Thought, 81
  15. McGrath, Reformation Thought, 128.
  16. John Witte, The Protestant Reformation, 98-99.
  17. William Spitz, The Protestant Reformation, 106.
  18. McGrath, Reformation Thought, 87-89.
  19. McGrath, 90-91.
  20. McGrath, 92.
  21. Ulinka Rublack, The Oxford Handbook, 190-197.
  22. Rublack, 196-199.
  23. Rublack, 199-200.
  24. Justo L. Gonzalez, The Story of Christianity: Volume 2, 147-148.
  25. Gonzalez, 149.
  26. Gonzalez, 149.
  27. Rublack, The Oxford Handbook, 253.

Religious Studies: the Protestant Reformation

Introduction

Protestant Reformation was an overhaul of Catholicism, which occurred in the 1500s. The Roman Catholic church was embroiled in a conflict with the protestants over church doctrines.

Purists from the West objected to the running of the Catholic church. In fact, the purists were against issues like the sale of indulgence and divine priesthood, among others. Other issue included access to the Holy Bible. This paper will explore religious occurrences in the 1500s. In addition, the paper will provide four main reasons for choosing protestant in the 1500’s Europe (Wilson 1).

Discussion

Firstly, Catholicism considered priests as divine in their ministry. This belief did not resonate well with the protestants. The latter wanted priests to be considered ordinary and liable to mistakes. However, based on the pope’s argument, the priesthood was a reserve of a few.

Further regulations that the priests could not marry made it difficult for protestants to join the priesthood. Priesthood infringed on people’s right to marry. Moreover, Catholic priests wanted rich lifestyles; this made it difficult for them to focus on evangelism. Therefore, protestants could be considered superior in this regard (Hodges 1).

Secondly, protestants allowed worshippers to access Bible for spiritual gain. By enhancing access to the Bible, protestants promoted understanding of this book through religious study. On the other hand, the Roman Catholic doctrines did not permit people to read the Bible or get a copy of it.

The pope wanted the Bible to be in one language only (Latin). In this regard, Catholicism wanted to control people, as well as dictate their religious groupings. This was quite damaging to the spread of the gospel, which aimed at reaching every nation and language as directed by Jesus Christ before his ascension (Hodges 1).

Thirdly, the forgiveness of sins also became controversial in the Roman Catholic church. People’s sins could be forgiven by paying money or donating to the church. Moreover, the Catholic Church believed that forgiveness of sins could also be achieved through prayers. This belief was wrong since it encouraged people to commit sins and compensate it through donations to the churches.

Additionally, people would just confess their sins to the priests and believe that they would be forgiven. According to protestants, sins could only be forgiven by God or Jesus. Protestants’ argument resonated well with the scriptures. In essence, the sale of indulgence was improper in Catholicism (Zucker and Beth 1).

Finally, Catholic church members assumed that one had to go through a priest to meet God. This action restricted worshipers from reaching God. Additionally, this technique was also used to deny worshippers the right to read the Bible.

However, protestants’ insistence on God as omnipresent enabled worshippers to meet God at a personal level. Catholicism’s assertion that only the priest could find God was wrong. In essence, reaching God at a personal level enabled people to worship him whenever necessary (Zucker and Beth 1).

Conclusion

Protestant Reformation in the 1500s ushered in a blood bath between Catholics members and Protestants. Sale of indulgence was of great significance to Catholicism while the protestants remained strong in pursuing what they considered pure.

Nonetheless, it should be noted that the sale of indulgences, the role of priests, the definition of God and his ability to be omnipresent, as well as access to the Bible, among others, was unacceptable in the true body of Christ. In this regard, Protestant was a better choice than Catholicism in 1500’s Europe.

Works cited

Hodges, Miles. . 2002.

Wilson, John. The Reformation in Europe (1500-1700). 2014. Web.

Zucker, Steven and Harris Beth. 1500-1600- End of the Renaissance and the Reformation. 2014. Web.

Protestant, Catholic and Jews Religion Issue

Introduction

Religion is a very controversial subject in the contemporary world. However, although the issue is prevalent in America, it carried more weight in the 20th century than it does today. People always judged others, depending on their religious affiliation and church membership. Nonetheless, secularism was common in the mid-twentieth century. People had turned out to live in the framework of reality, and they had forgotten about religion.

The historians, educators, and journalists had all overlooked religion, and secularism had prevailed in American society. However, in the late 1940s and early 1950s, the distribution of scriptures increased significantly. People began buying and distributing bibles that revealed the word of God. Those who never believed in the bible perceived it as a piece of literature.

Interestingly, even the Christians who attended church sermons rarely read the bible. The entire scenario was a paradox as religious believers were practicing secularism. Although Christians were involved in major religious activities, their honesty, moral principles, and integrity were questionable (Cohen and Hill 738).

Herberg analyzes the contradictions and controversies of the American religion and American society concerning three religious groups, Protestant, Catholic, and Jewish. He wrote a book to interpret the paradox of religion, and address the issue of the immigrants who had to change their cultures to become Americans.

Since every American had to belong to one of the aforementioned religious groups, the immigrants had to transform into Catholics, Jewish, or Protestants. This paper will give a stringent analysis of Herberg’s book, Protestant, Catholic, Jew. It will describe the initial and subsequent reception on the book to determine whether the Herberg’s work is a classic or a periodic piece.

About the author

Will Herberg was an intellectual scholar and social philosopher who wrote the book Protestant, Catholic, Jew: An Essay in American Religious Sociology in 1955. The philosopher had an interesting early life. Since his birth in 1901, Herberg grew up in a secular Jewish family that was not serious about religion.

Herberg joined college, but he did not complete his course successfully. He was expelled from school twice, first in 1920 and secondly in 1929. The main reason for his expulsion was joining the Communist Party of the USA and becoming a loyal member. The disgusting scenarios did not dishearten Herberg, and after the second expulsion from college in 1929, he joined the Levestoneites organization to work as a newspaper editor.

Herberg worked as an editor for about 11 years, and he thought of turning away from Marxism. He became a religious conservative, and within no time, he founded the Judaism Quarterly. Herberg was very concerned about the American immigrants who had to adopt the American culture instantaneously. He made a critical analysis of the perception that religious movements and institutions had about the American religion. To relay his message, Herberg wrote the essay Judaism and Modern Man in 1950.

The controversial essay raised people’s eyebrows, and the Europeans and Americans became skeptical about their religious believes. Through his works, Herberg proved to be a competent writer who addressed controversial religious issues.

The untrained sociologist wrote his book, Protestant-Catholic-Jew in 1955, and his work triggered the Americans to rethink of their religion. In his book, Herberg described a cut flower to symbolize the contentious issue. According to Herberg, the modern European and American societies have no spiritual root as they had to be grafted onto Judeo-Christian roots to survive. The two societies were like cut flowers that cannot survive on their own (Healan 1130).

Initial reception of the book

Herberg deserved an honorary reward for having considered writing about a controversial subject that most historians had forgotten. Religion was very important in the twentieth century as it played a critical role in socialism. People receipted Herberg’s work with much appreciation because of its originality. After that, researchers made it their obligation to find out the best selling books, the highly-rated media outlet, and the subject that intellectuals emphasize in their speeches.

Indeed, everyone had forgotten about religion, and Herberg had founded the topic. Succeeding authors only criticized the book, but Herberg was the original religionist author. He recognized America as a nation of multiculturalism about religion. Herberg gave a clear insight of the contestation between assimilation and particularism.

The greatest achievement that obtained a positive reception was the rejection of particularism and emphasis on having a common ground. According to Herberg, there was a need for the Americans to commit themselves to a particular religious group that would give them an individual or group identity.

Will Herberg’s book, Protestant-Catholic-Jew, was honored at the time of its publication, as it was a revelation to the Americans of the 1950s. America was a unified nation, but everyone belonged to a particular religion. Believers who were not Protestants were either Catholics or Jewish. The entire community embraced the book as it gave a clear insight of religious group identities using the “triple melting pot” derision.

The book enabled the Americans to have a clear understanding of why some religions never had a significant meaning. Indeed, a visible disparity between a Catholic and an Irish American existed, as the Irish Americans had no social significance.

On the other hand, Methodists were insignificant, but the Protestants were highly significant. Therefore, German Jews and Russians identified themselves as Jews, the Irish and the Italians found it worthwhile to be identified as Catholics, whereas, the German Lutherans, English Methodists, and the Swedish Lutherans pursued Protestantism (Hesser 159).

The entire nation embraced the book with much gratitude to the author. The three major religions comprised of the “three melting pots” that could not interrelate freely. Catholic believers could intermingle and intermarry with fellow Catholics. Similarly, the Protestants could intermarry outside their ethnic groups, but within their religious groups.

The entire book described the life of the Americans in the twentieth century. Most people receipted Will Herberg’s book as it acted as a guide to understand every incidence that happened in other religions. The Catholics, for example, were able to know about the religious believers of the Protestants and the Jewish without necessarily changing their religion.

In his work, Herberg insisted that culture and ethnic lines may change, but religion will always remain the same. Regardless of the fact that the world is evolving at a considerably high speed, religious believes will always remain significant. Most Catholics will always marry their fellow Catholics, and that will also apply to the Jewish and the Protestants.

Therefore, Herberg claimed that it was always good for a person to have a strong believe in a particular religion. According to Herberg, it is almost impossible to change the faith of a strong believer, and indeed, almost all Americans were Protestants, Catholics, or Jewish in the twentieth century (Herberg 13).

Subsequent reception of the book

The “triple melting pot” conception was logical for quite some time in the twentieth century. The initial editors of the book found the entire work to be factual. However, in the subsequent generation, identification of people depending on their religious believes was practically impossible. There were no clear evidentiary grounds of being a member of any of the religious groups. This scenario motivated people to begin scrutinizing Herberg’s work, and they identified some misconceptions.

Herberg’s ideas were somewhat wrong, as the religious identities had softened since the 1920s. Indeed the immigration laws had played a great role in accommodating the immigrants. The number of people living in middle class had broadened considerably, and that scenario weakened the high-class people who mainly consisted of the Native Americans.

Further scrutiny of Herberg’s work also revealed that he did not make a significant consideration of the racial divisions in America. In his entire work, Herberg considered racial divisions as unimportant, and this brought in an anomaly in his work. Moreover, researchers took a stringent analysis of the American population later on. Indeed, it was practically impossible to describe people according to their religion or spiritual experience. It is only possible to describe people depending on what they do in their daily errands.

According to Herberg, the Catholics, Protestants, and the Jewish believed in the bible. However, believers have very controversial believes. The Jewish believe in the Torah that comprises of a limited number of the books of the Old Testament.

They do not believe in the New Testament, and neither do they believe in Jesus. Similarly, the Protestants are perceived to have removed about seven books from the Old Testaments after their reformation because the books contradicted with their doctrine. Some Protestants claim that the Catholics worship Mary, the mother of Jesus, instead of worshiping Jesus.

The entire issue is controversial, and people find it difficult to identify themselves with a certain religion. In the subsequent century, the number of religious hypocrites rose significantly, and some people opted to become pagans. Such people would not want to be identified as Protestants, Catholics, or Jewish, and they preferred to be identified by what they did.

The issue of associating and intermarrying with people of the same religion became outdated almost immediately. Indeed, it was no longer difficult for people to change from one denomination to another for convenience purposes. Jewish women who wanted to marry Catholic men would simply transform into Catholic believers and vice versa. Moreover, after the Second World War, the Catholic Church had various humanitarian facilities, social facilities, educational facilities, and job opportunities for its followers.

The church had orphanages, bowling leagues, and professional associations to train people. The Catholic Church turned out to be a “self-contained world” that would sway people to become Catholic believers. Indeed, people would become members of the Catholic Church for convenience purposes and not because of their faith.

It is noteworthy that later on, the Muslims increased in number, and this group did not have any ties with the bible. Moreover, many smaller religious groups that did not believe in the bible emerged. Indeed, descendants of Herberg’s time might have adhered to the three religions; however, the emergence of other religions made the Protestant-Catholic-Jew classification of the Americans outdated; the period piece served in the twentieth century, and it is not applicable in the contemporary world.

The “triple melting pot” strategy was problematic in the diversifying world. The issue of trying to force the traditional religious believes to compete with the American way of life would cause controversies. On the other hand, obligating immigrants and traditionalists to blur their culture and adopt the American way of life was not righteous.

Therefore, the best thing to do is to stop insisting on the religion or culture of people, and allowing the evolving world to dictate on what to abide by and what to dismiss. Of course, the various religions would reduce to a common system that would enable people to interrelate with one another. After that, people would re-mold the common system to resemble Americanism. From this perspective, it is evident that Herberg’s work was not standard, as it would not continue to shine in subsequent generations.

Conclusion

It is more than 50 years since Will Herberg wrote his book, Protestant-Catholic-Jew; however, it is evident that people still treasure his work. Many religions might have arisen ever since the twentieth century, but the three main religions are dominant across the world. The bible is the most dominant religious book across the world, and even the Muslims believe in certain parts of the bible.

However, the subsequent receptions reveal that Will Herberg’s book is a mere periodic piece. His insights about religion may not shine in forthcoming generations, but the historians will find Herberg’s book, Protestant-Catholic-Jew, to be quite significant in their writings.

Works Cited

Cohen, Adam, and Peter Hill. “Religion as Culture: Religious Individualism and Collectivism among American Catholics, Jews, and Protestants.” Journal of Personality 75.4 (2007): 709-742. Print.

Healan Gaston, “The Cold War Romance of Religious Authenticity: Will Herberg, William F. Buckley Jr., and the Rise of the New Right.” Journal of American History 99.4 (2013): 1109-1132. Print.

Herberg, Will. Protestant, Catholic, Jew: An Essay in American Religious Sociology, Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1955. Print.

Hezser, Catherine. “Are You Protestant Jews Or Roman Catholic Jews? Literary Representations of Being Jewish In Ireland.” Modern Judaism 2.1 (2005): 159. Print.

Historical Significance of “The Protestant Reformation” by Hillerbrand

Introduction

Everybody knows how the historical background of any country is essential for its modern development. No wonder, historians do their best for society to know everything that is connected with social, political, and religious heritage. One of such wonderful books is called The Protestant Reformation by Hans J. Hillerbrand. It is amazing how the book captures by its compelling narration even those who have no interest in history as a subject at all. Moreover, the author managed to make a book essential even for the modern history courses. It can be used both for amateur reading and for teaching, as well, though it was firstly published more than forty-year ago. There is no doubt it hasn’t lost its significance since then.

The Protestant Reformation’s Significance

The main topic of the book under consideration is the mindset of those who stood behind the Protestant Reformation. It is truly exciting to read and subsequently comprehend how the revolutionary spirit made people step forward. I have to admit that this book rates as one of the history buffs that automatically makes it respected among scholars. Moreover, I am talking about The Protestant Reformation as a new, revised edition that maintains old integrity and holds newly added information and historical opinions. Since the new era brought many new opinions to the history of the Reformation, the historical publications are now full of radical views and connections while The Protestant Reformation brilliantly combines both the new historical views and the old ones.

I loved that the author outlines the basic leitmotif that is read and sensed throughout the book. It can be determined in the following statement: disregarding the social impact made on the religion it still has to be considered as a fundamental issue of the history of the sixteenth century.

The Value of the Book

The preciousness of this book for many historians is in its source documents that serve as a perfect representation of those times’ political and religious events. Sometimes, students do not fully understand the essence of the Reformation and its importance within the history content. However, this book is likely to clear up all issues. For example, after reading it you can easily tell right from wrong, namely, you won’t label all sixteenth-century movements as the reformation ones. One has a chance to read about Evangelicals (Luther), the Reformed Church (Calvin), and the Anabaptists and know everything about those.

The Assessment of Author’s Writing

No doubt the book will find its admirers among many different students who haven’t read it yet. It is written in a very cohesive and understandable style. The introductions of every chapter put forward what the text is going to be about so that you can get prepared in advance and look forward to new information. Moreover, the author chose the sources wisely for the book. The sources must be picked so that a reader can dive into the epoch of the sixteenth century. You would never think that a book about history can be so compelling and interesting, sometimes even more than a mere narration or fiction. The author did a great job in describing the premises of the Reformation because understanding the event’s prelude is often a halfway victory over the history course. Hence, Hans J. Hillerbrand masterly managed to talk about the split of Roman Catholic and Protestant churches. The author’s work can be assessed as broad research that ties everything together. Some scholars would say that this book does not need any other helping material because its content is enough to understand the epoch and the Protestant Reformation.

The Favorite Chapters

My favorite was about Martin Luther. It is clear from The Protestant Reformation that he addressed a common man, and the author made Luther’s speech concise enough to comprehend. It is amazing how the ideas touched upon by Luther are very relevant today, so they were during the sixteenth century. The entire book is worth reading, indeed. It is very cognitive for people studying history from different perspectives and for those who want to know about the Reformation from all facets.

Conclusion

The entire book is a nice implementation of dreams for those who wanted to have a perfectly written book about the sixteenth century at home. There is a lot of useful information for the one to peep in when it is necessary. The Protestant Reformation reveals so many details about the history of those times that you can’t possibly tear yourself away from reading. Besides, it seems like the author lived during those times of Reformation because all the Reformers merely come alive from the pages. If you have always wanted to know the premises of the Protestant Reformation – “Grievances, or complaints were part of the medieval political scene which vested representative bodies with the power and authority…” (Hillerbrand, p. 3) – and its development in real cases then this book is definitely what you want on your bookshelf. In a word, the book is worth reading for the sake of enlightenment and personal aesthetic pleasure.

Works Cited

Hillerbrand, Hans J. The Protestant Reformation: Revised Edition. NY, New York: Harper Perennial, 2009.Print

Protestant Reformation Promotion of 16th Century Social Roles

Protestant reforms brought about turmoil in the 16th century that accelerated changes in Europe. These changes paved way for modern movements, values and institutions that emerged from capitalism that introduced new attitudes towards profit and money in the society. The new perspectives provided Europe a new place in the world as an age of exploration and innovation arose in the society. Innovations that changed the social order of European society were like the printing press, improved sailing ships, gunpowder and navigation techniques, which enabled people to travel further and explore more (Butler 1). The changes in social order seen in Western Europe will be discussed in terms of the expectations of the nobles and peasants.

After Martin Luther and protestant reformers denounced and broke away from the wealth and corruption of the Catholic Church, Western Europe awoke to a new social order. Nobles, who had enjoyed privileges of their high social class, saw a decline in position. Nobles like the king’s knights who enjoyed supremacy due to their armor and skills faced challenges from the rise of peasant pikemen, who were armed with gunpowder, longbows and cannon fire (Butler 1). Cannons and gunpowder was accessible to the lower classes from China, as they were able to explore distant lands with the use of improved navigational charts and better sailing ships.

Social changes also occurred in terms of a total decline in the Nobles’ status and power. This is because, reformers brought about the need for the abandonment of wealth and corruption (Geoffrey 10). This meant that reformers sought social, economic and religious freedom for peasants away from the dictatorship and corruption of the nobles. This implied that peasants were able to buy their freedom and own land like their Nobles did. Nobles’ economic and social status declined in the process, since peasants began paying for fixed rents of land rather than labor. This meant a decline of income for nobles as the fixed rents were lower in value than labor. Additionally, Europe saw increased economic power of the lower social classes, as they received increased income from the produce obtained from working on their land, rather than working for landlords (Butler 1). As nobles declined in economic power, they lost the ability to manage their lands. In the process, many Nobles lost property to wealthier lower class citizens who arose to become the new influential middle classes.

Protestant reformations also introduced the need for the bible to be placed in the hands of the lower classes and for religious teachings to abandon Latin instruction (Geoffrey 12). In the process, the social position of peasants increased as they learnt to read and write. This achievement was heightened by the arrival of printing press which made it possible for large volumes of bibles and reading media to be produced (Butler 1). The social position of lower classes increased as they gained knowledge and skills from interaction with new societies they met and from the experience of migration. This was made possible by improved navigational charts and skills coupled with better sailing ships, which made it possible for peasant dissenters from Holland and Britain to migrate to regions like America and the Far East.

In conclusion, protestant reforms made it possible for European lower classes to enjoy increased economic and social power as the Nobles declined in their social status. Lower social classes gained this new position from freedom to own land, economic resources from farm produce and trade with distant traders and increased knowledge from reading and writing. These changes arose from innovations and technology like printing press, navigational charts and better sailing ships that made it possible for Europeans to explore regions like the Far East and America.

Works Cited

Butler, Chris. “The Economic Recovery of Europe.” The Flow of History, 2007. Web.

Geoffrey, Blainey. A Very Short History of the World. London: Penguin Books, 2004. Print.

The 30 Years War Between the Catholics and the Protestants in Europe

Introduction

The thirty years war was a war of change between the Protestants and the Catholics. It started in Germany. Many European countries were involved in this war. It transcended from a religious war to a political war that engulfed Most of Europe. It was the climax of the France Habsburg political rivalry to dominate Europe. Consequently, the war metamorphosed to the war between France and Habsburg government. The mercenary armies were the main combatants in this war. The following paragraphs will explain why the thirty year war was both a religious war and a territorial battle as well (JÁszi 40).

Body

The countries involved in the war of change included Sweden, Bohemia, Denmark, Norway, Dutch Republic, France, Scotland, England, Saxony, Electoral Palatinate, Transylvania, Hungarian anti –Hapsburg, The Holy Roman Empire, the Catholic League, Austria, Bavaria, Croatia and the Spanish Empire. The major effect of the war was the widespread devastation that victimized large portions of Europe. Disease and hunger stalked the lands caught in the middle of the conflict (Murdoch 5).

Before the War

The Peace of Augsburg treaty that was signed in 1555 by the Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V was one of the factors that triggered the thirty years war. This treaty was instituted to put a stop to the religious war between the Lutheran of Germany and the Catholics. The agreement stated that each of the more than two hundred German princes can dictate the religion of his territory. Many Chose Catholicism. The others chose the Lutheran. The treaty also stated that the Lutheran army could retain the Catholic territories they conquered in war (Raitt 145).

Also, the Catholic Bishops who converted to the Lutheran faith must surrender their Catholic communities since they have left their original faith. Most importantly, all residents within the state must practice the religion ordered by their German Princes or leaders without reservation. This treaty was very disheartening because the ordinary folks lost their freedom of religion. The neighboring countries contributed to the war. Spain was instrumental in sparking the thirty year war. Its main concern was to maintain Spanish influence on the Spanish territories in Netherlands located on the western part of the German territory(ibid).

Plus, France was besieged on two fronts at this time. It was threatened by the Habsburg state of Spain on one side. It was also on war terms with the other Habsburg state known as the Holy Roman Empire. France was dragged into the war because it was a Catholic country and they pillaged its neighboring German Lutheran towns. The French victories in the thirty year were due to it was militarily superior to the defending armies of the Lutheran towns. Sweden and Norway also attacked and slaughtered many parts of Germany because of their superior military power. The Swedes and the Norwegians were interested to take control of the German states located along the Baltic Sea (Glete 35).

And, the Holy Roman Empire also triggered the thirty years war. The war was a religious one and the Holy Roman Empire was a Catholic state. The Holy Roman Empire was a conglomeration of many smaller Roman Catholic States. The Austrian House of Habsburg that included the states of Bohemia and Hungary were Catholic nations. The Holy Roman Empire logistics at the start of the thirty year was approximately more then seven million people. Some of the states under the Holy Roman Empire included the Electoral Saxony, Bavaria, Palatinate, and Brandenburg. The Holy Roman Empire state of Wurttemberg accounted for an estimated one million residents (Walker 9).

Clearly, the inaction of some defecting Catholic Bishops to give up their religious territories to the Catholic rulers in compliance with the Peace of Augsburg conditions was one of the factors that preempted the thirty year war. Likewise, the forcing of the residents to take up the religion of their German Princes angered the devout Catholics as well as Lutheran citizens who were force to practice the Lutheran Faith. Some areas like the Rhine region remained stout Catholics.

The Catholic Spanish troops dethroned the Cologne Prince and installed a Roman Catholic leader named Ernst of Bavaria. The Lutheran residents under the Catholic leaders were either forced to accept the new religion or be expelled from their homeland. The Lutheran leaders also rammed the Lutheran faith mercilessly down the throats of the Catholic devotees living within their newly acquired territories (Hampson 53).

In addition, some of the leaders gave their subjects the freedom to practice the religion of their choice. The Habsburg emperors Ferdinand I and Maximilian II gave their subjects the freedom to choose their own faith. They tried their best to avoid a religious war by giving their inhabitants the freedom to pray the way they want to. The people were not forced to follow either the Catholic faith or the Lutheran teachings. All the above factors truly triggered the thirty years war.

In fact, the prevention of the Lutheran faithful of the Catholics from making a procession in the town of Swabian sparked a riot between the two groups in 1606. The escalation into a full blown war stopped when Duke Maximilian of Bavaria interceded for the Catholics. In addition the formation of a strong union between the Calvinists in Germany as the League of Evangelical Unions in 1608 forced the Catholics to bond together also (Walker 9).

In addition, King Ferdinand’s installation as ruler in 1617 finally broke all peace accords between the Catholics and the Lutherans. Ferdinand was a devout Catholic and he was trained under the Jesuit religious system. He used an iron hand to forcibly impose the Catholic faith on all residents of his domain. This angered the Lutherans because they did not want to be forced to accept the new religion. In retaliation, the nobles of the Lutheran states under his jurisdiction showed disrespect to their new Catholic King. King Ferdinand could not accept the Lutheran leaders’ action of thrashed his representatives out of the Bohemian meeting place and into horse manure. The start of the war in Bohemia could have been contained if it was settled internally (JÁszi 33).

Start of the War

The war finally broke out. The war quickly spread to many European States. However, many neighboring states joined in the war. King Ferdinand called his nephew the King Philip IV of Spain to his side also escalated the war to far –reaching communities. Spain joined the war in 1620. Another factor that inspired the Lutherans to enter the thirty year war was the death of Emperor Matthias and his replacement by the weak King Ferdinand and his Bohemian constituents. The Spanish army then attacked and conquered the Lutheran state of Bohemia in response to King Ferdinand’s plea for help. King Frederick of Bohemia was defeated resulting to the transformation of Bohemia into a Catholic region (Hume 29).

Further, the entry of some European countries was a factor in the thirty year war. Denmark also took part in the thirty year war of change. Denmark was a Lutheran state and it went to the aid of the Protestant communities. Denmark, under Christian IV of Denmark feared that the recent success of the Catholic States over their Protestant enemies would affect his leadership as a Lutheran. Denmark joined the war in 1625. In response, he ordered his armies to go to the aid of the Protestant countries. France also came to the aid of the Denmark. In the same fashion, England also came to the rescue of the Protestant states. France and England decided to pay for the military weapons and other expenses of the war(ibid).

Also, Sweden, a protestant state, also came to the aid of the protestant countries. The Swedes feared that the successes of the Catholics in Germany would end with the Catholics pushing right into the heart of Protestant Germany. Sweden helped the Protestants in the battle field in 1630. The Swedish King, Gustavus Adolphus, had the same fears as Christian IV. Both Christian IV and Gustavus Adolphus were financially helped by the Chief Minister of Louis XIII of France, Cardinal Richelieu. The Dutch government also funded the war expenses of Gustavus Adolphus (Murdoch 8).

Plus, France entered the war in 1636. It sided with the protestant countries because it hated the Habsburgs. The French royalty at this time felt that the Catholic Habsburg royalty outnumbered and outmatched the Protestant countries in the battlefield. France entered the war to even the playing field. Thus, they fought on the side of the Lutherans. The French sent an average of One million soldiers each year to help the Swedish army fight the Catholic nations.

However, the Spanish forced attacked major cities in France and completely trounce them in all French lands. The French Cities of Champagne, Picardy and Burgundy were literally overrun by the Spanish invading forces. The Swedish army also grew weak. They suffered a resounding and unrecoverable defeat at the battle of Nordlingen. This is located in Bavaria, Germany(ibid).

After the War

The thirty years war finally ended with the signing of the Treaty of Munster on October 24, 1648. This was part of the bigger settlement entitled the Peace of Westphalia. The end of the war brought to a halt the formation of mercenary armies. These armies were trained to heartlessly maim, kill and pillage villages and enemy soldiers in the name of Catholicism or the Lutheran faith. This war brought future large scale religious wars to an end in 1648. No other religious war had casualties covering so many nations and involving death and destruction so many towns and communities (Cruz,1).

Further, boundary dispute is one of the factors in the thirty year war. The heartless mercenaries who had the mission to kill the enemy soldiers in the name of religion were replaced by the combatant countries in the thirty year war by institutionalized armies. The new armies never fought in the name of religion like the mercenaries. These same revitalized armies fought instead for the protection of their state from foreign invaders. The new treaties installed to end the thirty year war now established the territorial boundaries of each European state. The thirty year war set Sweden on the pedestal as a strong military power. Bohemia had remained under Catholic instructions even after the war (Healey 7).

In addition, a census after the thirty year war disclosed that the population of Germany, Italy and some its neighbors had been reduced. Money spent to buy military arms and other war expenses forced near bankruptcy in many of the warring states. Many of the issues that sparked the war continued to be unanswered even after its end. More than half of the male residents of Germany died from the war because the main area of conflict was in Germany. Army of Sweden literally destroyed many castles, villages and towns in German. One third of Germany was razed to the ground by invading Swedish forces (Frey,1).

Counterargument

The counter that the factor where German Princes forced their citizens to change to another religion against their will did not lead to (change) during the 30 years war between the Catholics and the Protestants in Europe during the time period 1618-1648 because they can secretly practice their forbidden religion at home is unsustainable. For, some devout Catholic or Lutheran Person would prefer to die than to fake another religion (Fleischer 89).

Further, it would be unthinkable to see a faithful Catholic destroy the status of the saints and Mother Mary just to fake that he or she is a Protestant in front of the Protestant king. It would also be a defiance of a Lutheran faithful to fake being a Catholic by praying the rosary in front of the Catholic King. For, many of the faithful on both sides of the fence would rather die for their faith than to give up their faith. The thirty years war proves that many people are willing to die for the sake keeping their faith. The thirty years war shows that thirty years are not enough to openly profess and even fight for one’s religion (Theibault).

Conclusion

The thirty years war was a war of change between the Protestants and the Catholics. This large scale and thirty year long war that has left its bloodshed marks on the people of the European Countries from 1618 until our present generation. This same war has psychologically affected the exchange of religious information as well as the conversion of one person from one religion to another. The major effect of that war that occurred four centuries ago brought about widespread devastation. It victimized large portions of Europe, especially the German population.

Further, disease and hunger stalked the lands caught in the middle of the conflict. It had cut down the male population in the battle areas by almost half. The thirty year war was waged because one community forced its religious practices on another community’s inherited religion. Many of the Catholic leaders envisioned that all of their constituents must be Catholics. Many of the Lutheran leaders commanded that all their subjects should embrace the Lutheran faith.

Also, the war erupted because the leaders in one community wanted to side with one combatant in the war of change. The disrespect done by the nobles in Bohemia was the eruption point of the thirty year war. The Bohemian spark and was because the protestants had already reached their boiling point and there was no more turning from war to prevent a change in their religion from Protestant to Catholic. One beneficial effect of this war of change as prescribed by the new Treaty of Munster was a new map. The new map was drawn to finally determine the official boundaries between two or three European States to prevent a repetition of the thirty year war. For one of the reasons of the thirty day was the boundary dispute issue.

Works Cited

Brandi, Karl. The Emperor Charles V: The Growth and Destiny of a Man and of a World-Empire. Trans. C. V. Wedgwood. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1939.

Cruz, Laura. “Policy Point-Counterpoint: Is Westphalia History?.” International Social Science Review 80.3-4 (2005): 151+.

Fisher, Herbert. The Medieval Empire. Vol. 1. London: Macmillan, 1898.

Fleischer, Manfred. “Lutheran and Catholic Reunionists in the Age of Bismarck.” Church History 57.Suppl. (1988): 89-107.

Frey, Marsha L. “The Winter King: Frederick V of the Palatine and the Coming of the Thirty Years’ War.” The Historian 67.1 (2005): 162+.

Glete, Jan. War and the State in Early Modern Europe: Spain, the Dutch Republic, and Sweden as Fiscal-Military States, 1500-1660. London: Routledge, 2002.

Hampson, Daphne. Christian Contradictions: The Structures of Lutheran and Catholic Thought. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 2001.

Healey, Stephen. “Dialogue among Civilizations: Possibilities after Huntington.” International Journal on World Peace 18.1 (2001): 7.

Hume, Martin. Spain in Decadence Spain in Decadence. New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1907.

JÁszi, Oscar. The Dissolution of the Habsburg Monarchy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1929.

Murdoch, Steve, ed. Scotland and the Thirty Years’ War, 1618-1648. Boston: Brill, 2001.

Raitt, Jill. “The Emperor and the Exiles: the Clash of Religion and Politics in the Late Sixteenth Century.” Church History 52.2 (1983): 145-156.

Theibault, John. “The Rhetoric of Death and Destruction in the Thirty Years War.” Journal of Social History 27.2 (1993): 272+.

Walker, Mack. Johann Jakob Moser and the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1981.

Martin Luther’s Effects on the Protestant Reformation

Introduction

Martin Luther can be seen as a unique opinion leader who influenced people’s minds and behavior. This work uses the article Multiplex Network Ties and the Spatial Diffusion of Radical Innovations: Martin Luther’s Leadership in the Early Reformation as a primary source, as it reflects new research on Martin Luther’s personal influence in spreading the Reformation. The study of primary and additional sources shows that Martin Luther’s efforts became the basis for the rapid penetration of innovative and radical ideas contrary to established beliefs.

Martin Luther’s ideas and the Beginning of the Reformation

Reformation Day is celebrated on October 31, the day Martin Luther nailed his 95 Theses to the door of the Castle Church in Wittenberg in 1517. His initial disputes were about the abuse of power and selling indulgences. Martin Luther considered the Rome center to be hopelessly corrupt. He was highly critical of the excessive “mixture of money with grace,” as well as the clergy’s attitude towards luxury and money (Bruni and Milbank 222). Over several years, the idea developed and grew into a full-fledged call for renewal and a break in relations with the centers in Rome.

The Protestant Reformation revealed the deep corruption of the church leadership and became one of the main issues for discussion. Ultimately it was not the only factor that influenced the development of Western civilization. Martin Luther translated the New Testament into German in 1522, whereas previously, the Scriptures were published only in Latin (Becker et al. 866). Others followed Luther’s example, and soon the Bible appeared in English. Religion and the word of God became available to ordinary people. As Luther dreamed, they could touch religious scriptures without the mediation of the clergy. The Reformation has become a powerful tool for developing literacy among the population.

Not all Reformation events were worthy of praise, and not all leaders were always models of Christian behavior. Thus, a group of reformers was martyred by their fellow reformers. Luther’s writings clearly showed anti-Semitic statements, although earlier works showed a more balanced attitude towards Jews. (Stern 6). Despite all, the Reformation was the most significant upheaval in the history of the Western church.

Martin Luther’s influence on the spread of the Christian Reformation

According to conventional opinion, the reason for the rapid spread of the Reformation was the development of printing. New research shows that while printing did play a significant role, Luther’s activism and connections also had an enormous impact (Becker et al. 861). Luther’s ideas gained institutional support in cities where he had personal connections.

According to Becker et al. 36 percent of the towns that had personal contact with Luther before 1522 accepted the Reformation by 1530 (861). In these towns, political alliances arose that promoted reforms in the social and religious spheres. Martin Luther used three methods to spread his ideas and influence:

  1. He actively published his works on theology and philosophy.
  2. He conducted extensive and varied correspondence.
  3. He visited cities where he preached and participated in discussions on religious topics.

Although Martin Luther spent most of his life as a monk and professor at a provincial university, he was in active correspondence with many people. Among his correspondents were not only priests but also the highest church dignitaries, high-ranking officials, aristocrats, and several prominent burghers (Becker et al. 865). They became conductors of Luther’s ideas to the broader masses. These connections gave impetus to the development of the Reformation, pushing in some cities for such changes as the abolition of privileges for the clergy.

In 1517, Luther began mobilizing his students to become apostles of the Protestant faith. The sparks of the Reformation soon flared far beyond the cities where Luther had connections and influence (Becker et al. 866). The spread was accompanied by the trade relations between towns and the missionary activity of his students. However, it would be a mistake to assume that only Martin Luther’s influence contributed to the Reformation’s spread. His ideas lay on the soil of a favorable historical context. For example, reformism in England was initiated by the political interests of Henry VIII, who “broke with the papacy of Clement VII in a series of legislative acts between 1532 and 1534” to initiate divorce (Tingle 129). Another reason is the appropriation of church wealth and the strengthening of the crown’s power over the church.

Conclusion

Previous attempts to reform some church principles were suppressed, while the Reformation quickly spread in Germany, throughout Europe, and later on other continents. The reason for this success was a combination of several factors: the timeliness and innovativeness of Luther’s ideas, his activism and personal connections with the clergy, government officials, and aristocracy, an organized missionary network of Luther’s students, and a proper a historical context where the ruling state structures are tired of the rigid dictatorship of the church. Another factor that influenced the rapid spread of the Reformation can be considered the development of printing and reliable postal service.

By 1530, the network of the Protestant Reformation had established a well-organized and structured network. In this process, Martin Luther was not only an inspirer and spiritual mentor but also a leader who formed and changed public opinion.

Works Cited

Becker, Sascha O., et al. “Multiplex Network Ties and the Spatial Diffusion of Radical Innovations: Martin Luther’s Leadership in the Early Reformation.” American Sociological Review, vol. 85, no. 5, 2020, pp 857-894. Web.

Bruni, Luigino, and John Milbank. “.” International Review of Economics, vol. 66, no. 3, 2019, pp. 221-231. Web.

Stern, Robert. “Martin Luther.” Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2020.

Tingle, Elizabeth. “Midland History, vol. 44, no 2, 2019, pp. 128-143. Web.

The Impact of the Inquisition on the Protestant Reformation

Introduction

Diverse religious practices prominently influence the reformation among individuals from different societies. According to research, the incorporation of the Inquisition significantly contributed to the enforcement of orderliness within the Catholic religious community1. During the Reformation, the Roman Catholic incorporated the organization engaging the different European societies, such as the Spanish, through intensive persuasion2. Despite the institution being a persuasion instrument, it intensified oppression among the non-believers. On the one hand, the entity fostered the spread of Catholicism. On the other hand, the institution prominently affected scholarship. An excellent example is the incarceration of Fray Luis de Leon for five years leading to the hindrance of the progressive boost in scholarly works by the author3. Fray Luis de Leon was a poet whose passion involved educating students concerning literature and liberal thinking, a perspective contradicting the Inquisition’s goal. The establishment of the Inquisition fostered the advocacy for Roman Catholicism as a dominant religion over other cultural practices and contrary to the reformation by Protestants.

Purpose of the Study

The main purpose of the study involves an in-depth evaluation of the dynamic effects caused by Inquisition during the reformation process across the European countries and American states. Roman Catholicism integrated cultural practices and Biblical doctrines to promote the widespread of Christianity. However, Protestants contested Roman Catholicism arguing that Christianity involves upholding the Biblical doctrines without an intersection of cultural practices. In this case, the research assesses the distinctive influence of the institution’s roles in the reformation process in religious organizations.

Significance of the Study

The study significantly contributes to the evaluation of the influence of the Inquisition on Reformation across different nations. Despite the evolutionary gradient in religiosity, different leaders within the groups utilized distinctive measures concerning the prompted changes. Focusing on the influential value of the Inquisition renders an understanding regarding the interdependence between religious beliefs and cultural domains4. One of the main reasons for the reformation encompassed steering the distinction between cultural practices and the Biblical stipulations on the belief and salvation indicator. The research offers a pool of insights regarding the interdependence between the Inquisition and effective reformation within the Catholic religious community.

Research Questions

  • What was the role of the inquisition group in religious practices?
  • What is the significance of reformation to religious practices, social growth and development?
  • What is the interdependent relationship between inquisition influence and reformation process?

Research Objectives

  • To assess the roles of the inquisition group in religious practices.
  • To evaluate the significance of reformation in religious practices and social growth and development.
  • To determine the interdependent relationship between Inquisition’s influence and the reformation process.

Thesis Statement

Church reformation is an event that involves an attempt to alter the practices and the system to accommodate the interests of other entities. In 1517, the protestants contributed to the emergence of the reformation encompassing a campaign to change some Catholic religious practices. The initiative violated Catholic aesthetic values on worship and praise and the organizational protocol. Therefore, the senior members developed the Inquisition, whose mandate encompassed persuading individuals to uphold Catholicism and defend the religious practice against protestant5. The Inquisition’s practice to enhance Catholicism countered Protestant’s domains across different European countries resulting in oppression among the non-believers. Understanding the influence of the Inquisition on reformation renders an insight concerning the domino effect and the accrued value across the sociological domain.

Literature Review

This study was conducted in the form of a narrative literature review that focused on describing and evidencing the Inquisition’s influence on the reformation process from the perspectives of both Catholicism and Protestantism. Moreover, the topic of differences between the two doctrines in relation to reformation was approached in the study as well. Multiple sources were used to answer the research questions and support thesis statement with factual and historical evidence.

Role of the Inquisition in the Reformation Process

Numerous studies support the claim that the emergence of the Inquisition fostered profound controversies concerning the social justice system. Research indicates the key purpose for the formation of the Inquisition involved consolidating the core differences between Catholicism and other religious groups6. One of the major roles of the institution encompassed evaluating the uniformity and difference among Judaism, Jewish, and Roman Catholicism religious practices. Another entity’s mandate enshrined enhancing the censorship of the Hebrew literature while inhibiting the widespread reformation influence. Different religious groups utilize dynamic doctrines and practices based on Biblical statements, hence the emergence of the reformation to render inclusivity of protestants’ interests in Roman Catholicism.

Protestants initiated the reformation process of the catholic society due to the difference between certain practices and the belief system. According to research, the Roman Catholic integrated cultural practices with the Biblical beliefs and practices hence fostering acculturation of other cultural practices under the religious domain7. Therefore, the protestants’ involvement in the reformation encapsulated promoting the alteration of the religious practices to the representation and reflection of the Biblical values. However, the Roman Catholics, through the Inquisition, incorporated intensive punishment aspects influencing the essence of reformation. Apart from the Spanish, the Italian non-believers encountered proficient persecution based on the implemented rituals of prosecution8. The enactment of the various practices by the Inquisition attributed to the conditional spectrum of persuasive measures using persecution approaches.

Doctrinal Differences between Roman Catholics and Protestants

Over the decades, different religious confrontations fostered the nominal interpretation of vital doctrines. One of the suggestions of the confrontations involved the Catholics and Protestants from the West, while a different contrast emanated from the East Orthodox and the ideological Western Catholicism. Both religious institutions portray a distinction between nature and grace. The dynamic religions argue about the nature of the relationship between God and man, creation doctrine, and the resultant concept of God’s grace and supernatural essence9. On the one hand, the Catholic theological construct view nature as a damaged element with minimal corrupt dimensions hence the deprivation. On the other hand, Protestant theology establishes nature as the significantly corrupt and depraved concept that justifies alienation from grace. Therefore, Catholics view nature and grace as interdependent quotients that complement each other in promoting Christianity10. Protestants portray grace as the superior and prioritized element mainly because of its ability to shatter the corrupted nature from its existence or remodel it afresh.

Different philosophers focus on distinctive marginal dimensions of Catholic and Protestant theologies: St. Paul, Martin Luther, Marcel Mauss, and Auguste Comte. According to St. Paul, a Christian is a human being with imperfections. Therefore, in St. Paul’s opinion, there is a distinction between grace and nature-based comparing God’s love towards the believers11. Martin Luther adopts the Protestant aspect on grace as the superior variable to nature that is optimally corrupt hence indicating God’s grace is an excellent demonstration of the moral and ethical obligation among people12. Fundamentally, Martin Luther and Paul agree that God’s goodness implies the necessity of humanity across the human populace. It is easier for an individual living under the law to get condemnation than for a man living by God’s grace. In this case, a Christian can sin and seek forgiveness without getting condemned mainly because God’s grace is earned through the acceptance that He exists and He is almighty. The vital factor in the comparison between God’s grace and law lies in the ability to confess God as the Almighty over all other powers.

The definition of the nature concept offers an in-depth insight while posing the distinction between Catholics and Protestants. Aquinas attempts to distinguish nature and grace by exploiting Augustine’s concept. According to Aquinas, an individual with the abstract human knowledge lacks the capacity to understand the will of God13. Aquinas further intersects Augustine’s concept with Catholicism to identify the two types of human nature. Abstract human nature focuses on knowledge regarding behavior without comprehending God’s grace and faith. However, there is human knowledge enlightened through faith that renders optimal growth and development among persons14. Therefore, an individual with faith significantly engages in religious practices and prioritizes God’s power and grace. Notably, Aquinas indicates that it is in the nature of man to commit sin, but faith forms the bridge to enhance the relationship between man and God.

Apart from exploring the commitment demanded from man to establish his relationship with God, Aquinas further establishes that God shows His commitment through grace. In a philosophical articulation, Martin Luther indicates that there is no good without grace15. The notion by Martin Luther affirms Aquinas’ regard for God’s grace and human nature. According to Aquinas, it is the human nature to commit sin based on the instincts and stipulations from the moral and ethical codes16. As a result, Paul intensifies the interdependent relationship with the core outcome of salvation17. In this case, Aquinas, Augustine, and Paul agree that the fundamental role of man’s nature enshrines justifying God’s commitment to protecting people through grace as a gift.

It is important to assess the functional baseline between grace, faith, and nature to enhance the relevance of salvation among Christians despite the diversity of the religious groups. Marcel Mauss’ perception of grace is a gift to human nature as a revealing insight into the coexistence of man and God. A Christian understands the relationship with God through grace18. The definition of man’s nature by Aquinas asserts that sin is not bad if the believers have God’s grace mainly because it is in nature to establish core reasons to adhere to His commandments. In the New Testament, Paul articulates that God’s given gift, that is, grace, attributes the redefinition of man’s ability to sin and seek forgiveness from God due to the gift of gracei. Martin Luther further uses the initiative to establish that redefining man’s nature means embracing the culture of giving grace as a gift. This means aligning actions and thoughts to portray the goodness than the bad intentions.

Grace is a gift to human nature, and the main reason involves enhancing the relationship between man and God. Auguste Comte establishes that based on the altruism theory, it is important to give gifts to others than show concern for receiving one in return19. Auguste’s concept adheres to Aquinas, Mauss, and Luther’s aspects and attitudes towards gifts. Aquinas establishes that man’s nature is to commit sin and intensifies the relationship with God by receiving the gift of grace20. Therefore, the Christian commits sin but, through grace, seeks forgiveness, and God extends their relationship. The notion, however, faces controversy from Catholics and Protestants21. Catholics appreciate the coexistence of human nature and grace, contrary to protestants, whose belief lies in righteousness after receiving grace as a gift. Although the disparity in the role of grace in the relationship between God and man, Luther, Mauss, protestants, Catholics, Aquinas, and Auguste agree that giving, receiving, and returning gifts improves the relationship between the parties.

The critical obligation to receive, give, and return lies in building a relationship. According to Paul, God focused on intensifying the relationship with Christians through His son, Jesus Christ, who was crucified and died for our sin. Research further indicates the relationship is strengthened based on the essence of reciprocity22. In this case, it is the responsibility of the receiving party to offer a gift back to establish the commitment to elevating the relationship. The notion of reciprocity renders the narrative an apt initiative to boost the quotient in Western culture23. Although modern society disregards gifts, the concept evolved in the practice of exchanging benefits and favors.

It is an individual’s responsibility to decipher a gift’s essential meaning mainly because of the distinctive consequences. According to research, a gift poses different impositions, such as constrained against generosity, interested against disinterested, and obliged against voluntary24. Although gifts intensify the relationship among the parties involved, it is vital to focus on the core ideological factor concerning the attained value and ethical baseline of the expectations than the spirit of nationalism and ethnocentrism as depicted by James Dunn and N.T. Wright25. Catholics face a profound challenge preaching God’s word to people mainly because of the focus on fictional constructs of the spiritual world26. Individuals seek abstract evidence indicating the presence of God and His capabilities hence the resolution among the Christians to adopt the scientific and religious aspects in the justification of the concept, while others abandoned evangelism. Martin Luther focuses on God’s grace as a relation than a substance; hence the articulation based on moral justice27. There is a distinct comparative essence between God’s grace as a gift and the consideration of abstract evidence among Christians.

The various scholars and philosophers relate to God’s grace across different mainframes. One of the notions that affirm a correlation between nature and grace is the consideration of grace as an outcome of faith and trust28. Luther establishes that God’s grace is a relation to the necessary love among people29. In the altruism theory, it is the mandate of the Christians to utilize the gift of understanding God’s love while adhering to the core obligation to promote ethical compliance30. Catholicism, however, offers a dynamic overview based on the religious practice and the disregard for free gifts31. In this case, one of the vital quotients in determining the underlying issue entails the integration of faith and reason to enhance the truth32. Paul indicates that the truth about God engulfs His offering of the Son, Jesus Christ, as a gift of grace, while Christians become obligated to profess that He is Almighty33. The approach aptly influences the ideological essence of the interpretation of the scripture and the determination of sin and Christianity.

Grace is a gift from God that was presented through the sacrifice of Jesus Christ to die for man’s sin. Paul affirms Augustine’s concept regarding the value of a gift under the dimensional approaches34. The overview by Luther indicates that faith is formed by love and the relationship improves trust in God. According to Paul’s culture, the gift concept existed under a dynamic spectral overview35. In Greek social life, the gift concept optimally steered relationship building among the dynamic parties36. There was a proficient exchange of entities and elements to boost the interdependence and correlation based on distinctive approaches. Examples of the exchanges encapsulated political favors, extravagant hospitality, sharing, and beneath-the-radar swapping that aptly impacted the quality of the relationship.

The literal context that advocates for equality include the necessity of adjusting the core values of religious practices. Research depicts that Paul’s teachings about grace offered enlightenment and a controversial aspect of the relationship between God and His Christians37. The researcher indicates that the core aspect of interdependence enshrines the vital element in advocating for the ideological newness in life. Although different religious leaders interpreted the concepts dynamically, the main factor of the grace involved spiritual rebirth into a better and righteous person with a proficient and functional relationship with God38. Despite the practice by Greco-Romans of the structural gift concept, Paul condemns the practice mainly through the aspects of ethnicity, age, gender, and social status39. Paul argues that God’s grace is not reciprocal hence the importance of focusing on the praise and worship of the Almighty.

The Inquisition put special emphasis on the necessity of exterminating sin and heresy from every aspect of the Christian community and its environment. As a human being, a Christian encounters different approaches that intensify the rate of sin and tendencies40. Research indicates that the critical mandate to establishing dynamic values is incorporating strategies that render the understanding of God’s grace41. Paul plays a significant role in comprehending “grace” within the religious spectrum mainly because of his linkage between grace, Jesus Christ, and God42. Paul articulates that the crucifixion of Jesus Christ, the son of God, earned human beings the grace from God, an essential shield against immoral behavior and approaches among people.

Ideally, Paul demonstrates the interdependent relationship founded on an unworthy quotient to elevate the interplay among the components. It is the responsibility of religious leaders to coordinate the establishment of initiatives that enhance the gift system while appreciating God’s grace through repentance and forgiveness without expecting a return43. The crucial aspect of promoting proficiency in the interdependent relationship is the determination to be faithful and committed to the worship of God44. The inquisition, however, focused on intensive persuasive mechanisms to the protestants, such as the utilization of incarcerations that trickled-down to economic growth and development slowdown45. Different research further indicates the influence varied based on the coherence to the followership of the scriptural stipulations46. Paul establishes that the lack of worthiness and the working faith foster the apt significance of building trust between Christians and God.

Conclusion

Consequently, the Inquisition significantly influenced the reformation aspect of religious practices. Since the institution’s development, the Inquisition fostered a significant percentage of persecution among the non-believers. On the one hand, the Inquisition focused on persuading the protestants concerning the prominence of Catholicism. On the other hand, the Inquisition contributed to the persecution based on subjective overview of religiosity. The prioritization of Roman Catholicism profoundly affected the interactive quotient of cultural exchange among persons from different communities.

Bibliography

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Ayzenberg, Shimshon. 2014. “Antokolskii’s Inquisition.” Images 8 (1): 93–104.

Barclay, John M.G. 2020. Paul and the Power of Grace. Grand Rapids, US: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company.

Barnett, Eleanor. 2021. “Food and Religious Identities in the Venetian Inquisition, Ca. 1560–Ca. 1640.” Renaissance Quarterly 74 (1): 181–214.

Becker, Sascha O., Francisco J. Pino, and Jordi Vidal-Robert. 2021. “Freedom of the Press? Catholic Censorship During the Counter-Reformation.” CEPR Discussion Paper No. DP16092.

Berner, Virginia Gutiérrez. 2010. “Mysticism and the Inquisition in Sixteenth-Century Spain.” Dissertation, Ann Arbor: Pro Quest UMI Dissertation Publishing.

Bethencourt, Francisco. 2022. “The Inquisition in the Early Modern World: Thirty Years of Exchange.” Ler História, no. 80.

Bodian, M. 2002. “In the Cross-Currents of the Reformation: Crypto-Jewish Martyrs of the Inquisition 1570-1670.” Past & Present 176 (1): 66–104.

Cammarata, Joan F. 2020. “The Devotional Space of Performance in Counter-Reformation Spain.” Hispanic Issues On Line 25: 20–39.

Dias Pacheco, Milton Pedro. 2017. “The Counter-Reformation, Diplomacy, and Art Patronage in Portugal under Cardinal-Infant D. Henrique of Portugal: A Legacy to Serve Church and Kingdom.” Royal Studies Journal 4 (2): 196.

Falcon, Leonardo. 2019. “Manufacturing Sin on the Frontier of Heresy. Bishops, Franciscans and the Inquisition in Cuba during the Long Sixteenth Century, 1511 – 1611.” Dissertation, FIU Electronic Theses and Dissertations. Florida International University.

Fulton, Joseph Michael. 1999. “Counter-Reformation Politics and the Inquisition in the Works of Fray Luis De Leon.” Dissertation, University of Arizona.

Grendler, Paul F. 2019. “The Roman Inquisition: Centre versus Peripheries, Edited by Katherine Aron-Beller and Christopher Black.” Journal of Jesuit Studies 6 (3): 529–32.

Hawicks, Heike. 2021. “Heidelberg and Hussitism. Professors as Envoys, Experts and Inquisitors.” AUC Historia Universitatis Carolinae Pragensis 60 (1): 245–56.

Johnson, Joshua Andrew. 2019. “When Brethren Walk Together :: Immanuel Tremellius (c. 1510-1580), Jewish-Christian Conversion, Christian Hebraism, and Reformed Christianity.” Dissertation. Washington State University.

Kalak, Al Matteo. 2022. The Heresy of the Brothers, a Heterodox Community in Sixteenth-Century Italy. Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols.

Krijger, Tom-Eric. 2021. “Extraterritorial Privacy Zone? Dutch Protestants and Their Embassy Chapel in Early Modern Portugal.” TSEG – The Low Countries Journal of Social and Economic History 18 (3): 41–74.

Kooi, Christine. 2022. Reformation in the Low Countries, 1500-1620. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Lamping, Evan W. 2020. “The Galileo Affair In Context: An Investigation of Influences on The Church During Galileo’s 1633 Trial.” Thesis. Xavier University.

Lloyd, Kiegan, and Yvonne Petry. 2018. “The Plight of the Woman Witch: Examining the Witch Hunts in the Reformation Period.”

MacCulloch, Diarmaid. 2011. Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years. New York, US: Penguin Books.

MacCulloch, Diarmaid. 2005. The Reformation. London, UK: Penguin Books.

Mccool, Jeremy. 2021. “Peter Waldo and the First Reformation: The Waldensian Influence on the Protestant Reformation.”

Peeters Thérèse. 2022. Trust in the Catholic Reformation: Genoa 1594-1664. Leiden: Brill.

Prudlo, Donald S. 2019. A Companion to Heresy Inquisitions. Leiden: Brill.

Rhodes, Elizabeth. 2020. “Indecent Theology: Sex and Female Heresy in Counter-Reformation Spain.” Renaissance Quarterly 73 (3): 866–96.

Tarantino, Giovanni. 2019. “‘I Am Contented to Die’ The Letters from Prison of the Waldensian Sebastian Bazan (d. 1623) and the Anti-Jacobite Narratives of the Reformed Martyrs of Piedmont.” Essay. In Feeling Exclusion: Religious Conflict, Exile, and Emotions in Early Modern Europe, edited by Giovanni Tarantino and Charles Zika, 153–73. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge, an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group.

Thomas, Werner. 2019. “Judging Faith, Punishing Sin: Inquisitions and Consistories in the Early Modern World.” The Journal of Modern History 91 (2): 419–21.

Voltmer, Rita. 2019. “Debating the Devil’s Clergy. Demonology and the Media in Dialogue with Trials (14th to 17th Century).” Religions 10 (12): 648.

Wendehorst, Stephan. 2004. The Roman Inquisition, the Index and the Jews: Contexts, Sources and Perspectives. Leiden: Brill.

Wickersham, Jane K. 2012. “Rituals of Prosecution: The Roman Inquisition and the Prosecution of Philo-Protestants in Sixteenth-Century Italy.”

Footnotes

  • 1 Grendler, Paul F. 2019. “The Roman Inquisition: Centre versus Peripheries, Edited by Katherine Aron-Beller and Christopher Black.” Journal of Jesuit Studies 6 (3): 530.
  • 2 Ayzenberg, Shimshon. 2014. “Antokolskii’s Inquisition.” Images 8 (1): 93–104.
  • 3 Fulton, Joseph Michael. 1999. “Counter-Reformation Politics and the Inquisition in the Works of Fray Luis De Leon.” Dissertation, University of Arizona.
  • 4 MacCulloch, Diarmaid. 2011. Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years. New York, US: Penguin Books.
  • 5 MacCulloch, Diarmaid. 2011. Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years. New York, US: Penguin Books.
  • 6 MacCulloch, Diarmaid. 2005. The Reformation. London, UK: Penguin Books.
  • 7 Wendehorst, Stephan. 2004. The Roman Inquisition, the Index and the Jews: Contexts, Sources and Perspectives. Leiden: Brill.
  • 8 Wickersham, Jane K. 2012. “Rituals of Prosecution: The Roman Inquisition and the Prosecution of Philo-Protestants in Sixteenth-Century Italy.”
  • 9 Barclay, John M.G. 2020. Paul and the Power of Grace. Grand Rapids, US: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company.
  • 10 Ambrosi, Fabiana. 2019. “Giovan Battista Codronchi’s De Morbis Veneficis AC Veneficiis (1595). Medicine, Exorcism and Inquisition in Counter-Reformation Italy.” Religions 10 (11): 612.
  • 11 Cammarata, Joan F. 2020. “The Devotional Space of Performance in Counter-Reformation Spain.” Hispanic Issues On Line 25: 20.
  • 12 Barclay, John M.G. 2020. Paul and the Power of Grace. Grand Rapids, US: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company.
  • 13 Barclay, John M.G. 2020. Paul and the Power of Grace. Grand Rapids, US: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company.
  • 14 Rhodes, Elizabeth. 2020. “Indecent Theology: Sex and Female Heresy in Counter-Reformation Spain.” Renaissance Quarterly 73 (3): 867.
  • 15 Barclay, John M.G. 2020. Paul and the Power of Grace. Grand Rapids, US: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company.
  • 16 Hawicks, Heike. 2021. “Heidelberg and Hussitism. Professors as Envoys, Experts and Inquisitors.” AUC Historia Universitatis Carolinae Pragensis 60 (1): 248.
  • 17 Barclay, John M.G. 2020. Paul and the Power of Grace. Grand Rapids, US: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company.
  • 18 Becker, Sascha O., Francisco J. Pino, and Jordi Vidal-Robert. 2021. “Freedom of the Press? Catholic Censorship During the Counter-Reformation.” CEPR Discussion Paper No. DP16092.
  • 19 Barclay, John M.G. 2020. Paul and the Power of Grace. Grand Rapids, US: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company.
  • 20 Mccool, Jeremy. 2021. “Peter Waldo and the First Reformation: The Waldensian Influence on the Protestant Reformation.”
  • 21 Voltmer, Rita. 2019. “Debating the Devil’s Clergy. Demonology and the Media in Dialogue with Trials (14th to 17th Century).” Religions 10 (12): 648.
  • 22 Barclay, John M.G. 2020. Paul and the Power of Grace. Grand Rapids, US: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company.
  • 23 Falcon, Leonardo. 2019. “Manufacturing Sin on the Frontier of Heresy. Bishops, Franciscans and the Inquisition in Cuba during the Long Sixteenth Century, 1511 – 1611.” Dissertation, FIU Electronic Theses and Dissertations. Florida International University.
  • 24 Barclay, John M.G. 2020. Paul and the Power of Grace. Grand Rapids, US: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company.
  • 25 Barclay, John M.G. 2020. Paul and the Power of Grace. Grand Rapids, US: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company.
  • 26 Tarantino, Giovanni. 2019. “‘I Am Contented to Die’ The Letters from Prison of the Waldensian Sebastian Bazan (d. 1623) and the Anti-Jacobite Narratives of the Reformed Martyrs of Piedmont.” Essay. In Feeling Exclusion: Religious Conflict, Exile, and Emotions in Early Modern Europe, edited by Giovanni Tarantino and Charles Zika, 155. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge, an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group.
  • 27 Prudlo, Donald S. 2019. A Companion to Heresy Inquisitions. Leiden: Brill.
  • 28 Dias Pacheco, Milton Pedro. 2017. “The Counter-Reformation, Diplomacy, and Art Patronage in Portugal under Cardinal-Infant D. Henrique of Portugal: A Legacy to Serve Church and Kingdom.” Royal Studies Journal 4 (2): 196.
  • 29 Barclay, John M.G. 2020. Paul and the Power of Grace. Grand Rapids, US: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company.
  • 30 Johnson, Joshua Andrew. 2019. “When Brethren Walk Together :: Immanuel Tremellius (c. 1510-1580), Jewish-Christian Conversion, Christian Hebraism, and Reformed Christianity.” Dissertation. Washington State University.
  • 31 Lamping, Evan W. 2020. “The Galileo Affair In Context: An Investigation of Influences on The Church During Galileo’s 1633 Trial.” Thesis. Xavier University.
  • 32 Krijger, Tom-Eric. 2021. “Extraterritorial Privacy Zone? Dutch Protestants and Their Embassy Chapel in Early Modern Portugal.” TSEG – The Low Countries Journal of Social and Economic History 18 (3): 41.
  • 33 Barclay, John M.G. 2020. Paul and the Power of Grace. Grand Rapids, US: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company.
  • 34 Lloyd, Kiegan, and Yvonne Petry. 2018. “The Plight of the Woman Witch: Examining the Witch Hunts in the Reformation Period.”
  • 35 Thomas, Werner. 2019. “Judging Faith, Punishing Sin: Inquisitions and Consistories in the Early Modern World.” The Journal of Modern History 91 (2): 419.
  • 36 Barclay, John M.G. 2020. Paul and the Power of Grace. Grand Rapids, US: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company.
  • 37 Barclay, John M.G. 2020. Paul and the Power of Grace. Grand Rapids, US: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company.
  • 38 Barnett, Eleanor. 2021. “Food and Religious Identities in the Venetian Inquisition, Ca. 1560–Ca. 1640.” Renaissance Quarterly 74 (1): 188.
  • 39 Kalak, Al Matteo. 2022. The Heresy of the Brothers, a Heterodox Community in Sixteenth-Century Italy. Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols.
  • 40 Kooi, Christine. 2022. Reformation in the Low Countries, 1500-1620. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
  • 41 Barclay, John M.G. 2020. Paul and the Power of Grace. Grand Rapids, US: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company.
  • 42 Peeters Thérèse. 2022. Trust in the Catholic Reformation: Genoa 1594-1664. Leiden: Brill.
  • 43 Barclay, John M.G. 2020. Paul and the Power of Grace. Grand Rapids, US: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company.
  • 44 Bethencourt, Francisco. 2022. “The Inquisition in the Early Modern World: Thirty Years of Exchange.” Ler História, no. 80.
  • 45 Berner, Virginia Gutiérrez. 2010. “Mysticism and the Inquisition in Sixteenth-Century Spain.” Dissertation, Ann Arbor: Pro Quest UMI Dissertation Publishing.
  • 46 Bodian, M. 2002. “In the Cross-Currents of the Reformation: Crypto-Jewish Martyrs of the Inquisition 1570-1670.” Past & Present 176 (1): 75.

Protestant Reformation and Economy

Introduction

Social activist have been trying to determine the relationship between religion and economic growth especially during the medieval times in Europe and America. It has been argued that the emergence of Protestants from the Catholic Church had a positive effect in the economic growth. This is because Protestants had a capitalist ideology while the Catholics still held on to the socialist ideologies, which hindered economic growth.

England and Netherlands for example attribute their economic growth during the 17th and 18th century to the change in their religion from the traditional Catholic beliefs. At the same time Spain and Italy saw a decline in their economy and political stability during the same period. Many scholars speculate that this fall might be due to the fact that these empires still held on to the traditional Catholic beliefs.

Max Weber theory

Many scholars have come up with theories which have tried to explain the relationship of Protestantism and economic growth during the medieval times. One of the strongest theories was put forward by Max Weber in his essay which was released in 1905 called Protestant Ethic (Cantoni 1).

To this date historians, scientists and sociologists have never come to an agreement on the correct meaning of Weber’s ideas. However, during the early days, the essay was understood in its simplest terms where people believed that economic growth was tightly related to the changes in religion which were experienced during the sixteenth and seventieth century. With time, different people had different interpretation of the essay which brought about arguments as a result of difference in ideologies that people had.

The sixteenth century is a period where Europe and America experienced a lot of economic changes. Much of these changes had already been experienced even before the period of reformation. However, it is during the reformation period that drastic changes occurred in the economy. That is why many scholars like Weber believe that the change in religion might have changed people’s ideologies, triggering economic growth.

When people started to embrace the new religious ideologies they also developed the concept of capitalism, a key factor that led to economic growth over the years. This led to the development of trade on a credit system and the development of companies and trade unions. The western civilization was engaged in mass importation of sugar, silver and gold. There was also a massive increase in the Trans-Atlantic slave trade which involved large amounts of money that led to the development of the Atlantic coastal cities.

This led to a shift in trade from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic as a result of the good market that the Atlantic region was offering. As a result some merchants became very rich thus spread their businesses to new regions defying the rules which were set up by the state or the church most of which were governed by catholic beliefs. During these times many people enjoyed monopolies and thus imposed high lending rates to the loans which they offered to people.

In his essay Weber assumed that the western civilization was distinguished from other societies by its spirit of capitalism. This is because most of the people in these societies were Protestants and they embrace the worldly asceticism a reaction to the doctrine of predestination. He believed that greed and the love of making money were the key elements behind capitalism.

Supporters of Weber’s Work

Kemper Fullerton was one of the people who defended the works of Weber. He said that people have been having the element of greed all their lives but the constraints in the society suppressed this feeling. He believed that the elements of capitalism had been present in all societies but lacked the right of environment to sprout out.

This is because the traditional religion and the early church were against the activities which would have led to the development of capitalism in the society. Weber also discovered that there was a difference between the lifestyles of the people who were Catholics and Protestants and that this difference could not have been just a matter of chance but it held some elements of truth behind it all.

Therefore, Calvinism ethos resulted in the emergence of capitalism in the medieval societies. That is why Weber referred to Benjamin Franklin as the father of capitalism. Franklin most famous phrase was; time is money. People therefore needed to work hard all the time and make as much as they can because once time is gone it cannot be bought back. Therefore to capitalists, making money is more of a passion.

As stated earlier, Weber believed that Protestantism had a direct influence to capitalism. In his thesis Weber looked at two villages in ancient Germany (during the sixteenth century). One village had Catholic believers while the other had protestants, mainly Lutherans. These two villages therefore offered extreme conditions for his studies. He managed to notice that Protestants earned more income as compared to the Catholics.

He also noticed that the Protestants attended technical schools while Catholics attended liberal art schools. He therefore concluded that Calvinism was successful in instilling the notion that work and moneymaking was a vocation. This attitude thus could have been the avenue through which capitalism rose through into the modern society during the medieval times which later led to industrialization and economic growth in Europe and North America.

As a matter of fact, many religious scholars also point out that Calvinism was a means through which bourgeois and urbanization developed from which finally led to the growth of businesses, the economy and industrialization.

People thus became rational and developed industrious spirits since they knew that hard work led to success at the end of the day. People therefore dedicated much of their time in commercial activities and accumulation of capital. Calvinists cities also approved imposition of interest rates on money borrowed especially for commercial purposes, a thing which the catholic cities had refused to approve.

Interest earned from money earned made the lender to feel the value of his money and also gave them extra money to invest in other businesses. This made the economy of protestant cities to be much stronger compared to catholic cities. One should thus expect as a result of these theories that protestant cities had a stronger economic growth as compared to catholic cities especially if the cities had a strong potential in commerce and trade.

Other theories suggest that the rise in Protestantism changed people beliefs and ideologies. These changes had a positive impact in the development of the spirit of commerce in individuals. This is because these beliefs had a form of economic teachings to the people who believed in them. Some branches of Protestantism like the puritans and pietists might have led to the emergence of modern science.

The protestant teachings also stressed on individual freedom and flexibility in life which might have made individuals to be open to modern ideas. If these theories are true then Protestantism might have played a huge role in economic development and industrial revolution during the medieval times.

Other scholars suggest that trust is a major element in the development of strong economic ties and market exchange. In ancient civilization when cities were under the catholic rule there was lack of trust even among the leaders of the society.

This is because the hierarchical leadership under Catholicism discouraged horizontal ties among people leading to lack of trust in these individuals. Hierarchical states thus performed in a somewhat poor manner in terms of political stability, economic development, civic participation, development of infrastructure and corporations.

Further studies on the issue show that Protestants are not likely to lie on taxes, take a bribe but might easily trust a stranger unlike Catholics who do not easily trust strangers, teach their young ones thrift and do not deal well with competitions. This might be reasons why Protestant states grew stronger in terms of development as compared to Catholic states.

To expound further on the theory, it is believed that Protestants Cities taught their people how to read and write thus they were literate unlike the people living in catholic cities. They therefore could read and interpret the bible on their own which may have lead to the accumulation of human capital.

This may have led to the development of the industrial economy by the Protestants especially during the nineteenth century. A classical example of this was in the Prussian communities who were mainly Lutherans and were taught how to read and write while they were in elementary schools. They thus became literate and acquired much wealth both in the cities and on the countryside which gave them a strong base of economic capital.

Historians have gone on to analyze deeper the work of Weber and discovered that his work had a global and universal application. They say that he might have invented the term rationality as a key aspect to the development of modern capitalism. In his thesis, the term rationality distinguished modern capitalism from other forms of development. According to these historians, rationalization in an individual can be measured as the degree which magical thoughts and beliefs are replaced.

These thoughts and beliefs are strong in individuals who believe in ancient religion such as Islam, Catholicism and other ancient religions. This is because the orientation of religion contemplates on magical beliefs which hinder economic development. That is why dominant religions of the world during the medieval times did not have a strong economic base.

The people who believed in the doctrine of predestination, the bible was seen as a sole authority which put an individual directly before God. This had the effect of displacing the magical beliefs which were the key elements of the ancient religion giving an individual the chance to get in touch with God directly and to make his own decision.

This is the point at which individuals started to become rational in their thoughts and behavior. It came as a result of them being able to decide what they want and what they did not want. In the end capitalism emerged as the people had the thirst of making money and gathering capital. Calvinism thus led to the spirit of capitalism to develop in the people who believed in this new religion.

Critics of Weber’s work

However, not all historians and scholars were in line with Weber’s thoughts and beliefs of the development of capitalism. This is because Weber believed that capitalism developed as a result of the reformation that led to the development of Protestantism.

Some scholars and historians argue otherwise since they believe that capitalism had long been experienced in the western civilization before the period of the reformation. It is just during this period that much of the development of capitalism was experienced and that is why Weber and other scholars think that capitalism may have been related to Protestantism.

A theory which was advanced to critic the work of Weber was referred to as Leuthy Thesis (Wright 5). It was advanced by Herbert Leuthy, an Italian politician. This theory is in line with Weber’s thesis that the western civilization is characterized by the ideology of rationalism amongst individuals.

However, it rejects the fact that capitalism and economic development during this period is related to Protestantism. According to Leuthy, the development of all sectors of the economy such as technology, economy, development of the mind and the liberation of man’s personality were related to the spirit of wealth accumulation which preceded the reformation in all parts of the western civilization. However, the other half of Europe did not experience these developments because of inquisition and trials based on heresy.

In Calvinist Europe on the other hand, spiritual liberation was connected with the dropping of submission and fear, factors which led to the development of the modern culture that embraced capitalism. As a result, radical changes took place in the society. People started to apply and pursue scientific knowledge while the need of democracy in the society started to emerge.

Meanwhile, a move to counter the reformation that was led by catholic scholars discouraged a free market which the forces of demand and supply determined the price of goods and services; a market which the Calvinist had established. These catholic scholars followed the beliefs of Aristotle which stated that an ideal market should be composed of natural goods which were mainly agricultural in nature. Businesses such as loaning money for interest and selling of goods for a profit were discouraged.

The people who believed in the Roman Catholic religion were unable to adjust to the changes which had hit the market. They saw that this new culture was against the beliefs and practices of their religion. They therefore rejected to be involved in the market and economic activities leaving those who were actively involved to wallow in sin.

All these events had taken place even before the reformation and led to casuistry. According to Leuthy, Calvinism did not favor casuistry and led to its decline after the reformation started to be experienced. Protestantism only legitimatized capitalism which made people to have a true and natural economic spirit.

It also clearly differentiated between private charity and acquired economic activities, things the Catholic Church was against. Due to the poor beliefs of the Catholic Church, many merchants and liberal Erasmian fled the religion and joined Protestantism bringing in their talents and skills. In their previous societies, merchants and Erasmians worked as subjects of the rulers, but in these new lands they actually earned money from their services leading to a rise in their living standards.

Another scholar who differed with the works of Weber was Luther. He did not encourage avarice or greed. Avarice makes money to be deemed as the most necessary thing in life even though it cannot be eaten. It should be noted that Luther did not attack the development of trade and commerce.

However, he was against their incorrect usage where one individual took advantage of the other in the name of trade. He also complained about usury especially in the advancement of loans where the lenders usually looked for loopholes to make the law to be in their favor. He believed that in the event of loan advancement, a security should be used. If a profit was earned in the process it should be shared between the two parties and losses should also be shared in the same manner.

Impact of the Reformation on the Social and Economic Realm

This whole argument can be summed up by looking at the impacts of the reformation on the social and economic realm. The works of Weber where the aspect of Calvinism was expounded on and the works of Luther both had a common feature of controlled begging as a means of discouraging poverty in the society.

Through these concepts, lending of money started to follow certain stipulated laws and procedures which other economical sectors also started to follow. Drastically with time, capitalism emerged from these practices and beliefs in the society.

This therefore led to the establishment of a rational society. Private and individual needs were abandoned and people started to focus on community issues and problems using a secular and rational approach to solve these issues. They people therefore recognized poverty as a bad thing and wealth to be a good thing in the society. That is why almost all communities in the world even at the present moment strive to eradicate poverty from their society and try to attain economic stability so that they can have a stable lifestyle.

Conclusion

The reformation had drastic impacts on the development of the economy. Although many contrasting theories have been advanced to explain the phenomena, they all have some common elements. During this period people were rebelling against the Catholic Church and started protestant religions which gave the people the freedom to think and choose what is right. The ideologies of rationalism and capitalism developed in them. As a result, the economy of the states which believed in the protestant religion started to grow.

This was a positive change in the lifestyle of man and his society. Thanks to the reformation people could now earn from their hard work. This made them appreciate their efforts. People could also engage in numerous economic activities which if carefully planned would earn them a good profit.

The increase in income improved their living standards, gave them a chance to expand their businesses and also gave them the chance to come up with new ideas and innovations. In the end the general economy of these societies and of the entire world as a whole grew, revolution in the industrial and scientific world occurred leading to where the world is at the present moment.

Works Cited

Cantoni, Davide. The Economic Effects of the Protestant Reformation: Testing the Weber Hypothesis in the German Lands. 2011. Retrieved from www.econ.upf.edu/docs/seminars/cantoni

Wright, William. Economic Impact of the Reformation. Age of Reformation. (2003): 1-9. Retreived on 17 March 2011 from www.utc.edu/Faculty/Bill-Wright/ecoimp.pdf