Prostitution is considered to be the oldest profession. In different times there were women who offered their bodies and pleasure to men. However, the meaning and the attitude to prostitution has always been different.
Nowadays, prostitutes are women who provide people with sexual pleasure, however, there were times when to be a prostitute was an art, prostitutes were the most educated women and were praised by some men more than their counselors.
Prostitution as the profession has revolutionized having become a simple satisfaction of the sexual desire, however, in the Middle Ages prostitution was a more responsible and valuable profession with the presentation of many freedoms to prostitutes while women were restricted in many social spheres.
The belief that prostitution is a dirty profession is not correct as people are to know the history of this occupation to judge the issue.
Critical engagement with the film using class materials and academic sources
Prostitution is a profession based on sexuality and women of all times wanted to have a great look when chose this occupation. However, to become prostitutes in the Middle Ages women had to work harder than now.
Nowadays, beauty and the opportunity to bring pleasure for men are the main criteria for a prostitute. However, several centuries before a prostitute had to be educated, she had to be able not only to bring pleasure, but to seduce a man, to make him dependant.
Watching the movie Dangerous Beauty, the history of the prostitution may be studied. This movie is a story about one of the greatest prostitutes whose actions once saved Venice, whose mental abilities were great and this was her main weapon, not the sexuality.
Paola Franco, the mother of Veronica Franco, the greatest courtesan, said the following, Courtesans, my dear, are the most educated women in the world& Desire begins in the mind. Cleopatra, Theodocia, she could seduce a man at twenty paces, without revealing an inch of flesh .
The value of courtesans was higher the wiser a woman was. Sexuality was important as well, however, this was not the most important aspect as each woman is beautiful if she cares about herself.
The movie under consideration, Dangerous Beauty, shows the life of those who were lucky to have rich lovers, this is a story about pain of a woman who loves but cannot become a wife of a man she loves.
The prostitution in this movie is presented as something sacred and acceptable. However, to show the attitude of another part of the society, the final scene of the inquisition is shown.
Watching the movie, it is possible to change the attitude to courtesans, however, for many people such women would always remain prostitutes who sell their bodies and souls without having the right for forgiveness.
Dangerous Beauty is the movie which tries to show that there are many reasons why society should be grateful to courtesans, still anxiety and hostility are the main feelings people consider appropriate for them.
Still, thorough research makes it possible to say that this anxiety and hostility hided compassion (Mathieu, 2011, p. 114).
It becomes reasonable, as the greatest part of the society is sure that prostitutes steel their husbands, but at the same time they pity prostitutes destinies.
Levin and Peled (2011) conducted a research where they tried to present the methodology of considering the social relation to prostitution. Validity and reliability of the methods were considered.
The authors do not question the necessity of prostitutes in the society (p. 582). The same idea of the importance of prostitutes (courtesans) in the society is presented in the movie Dangerous Beauty.
Courtesans were necessary for the Middle Age Venice as well as prostitutes are necessary in the modern world. Men need sexual and mental relief and wives cannot always give them what they need and want. Prostitution is a service where human labor is specific, however, it may be one of the main ways to get whatever one wants.
The problem of prostitution and the legalization of the profession remain sharp in many countries and Levin and Peled (2011) have a desire to consider and evaluate the opinion of the societies to draw a conclusion.
The methodology offered by the author my help solve the problem of prostitution legalization in case society understand the real value of the occupation (p. 583).
Conclusions
In conclusion it should be stated that the attitude of the society towards prostitution is an important factor in the life of a country.
Looking at the modern country, prostitution is not legalized in most of them, however, the changes in the attitude of the society to the issue may change the situation.
Looking at prostitution as the way to get relaxed, to enjoy not only sexually but mentally, may change attitude of people to prostitution in general.
History shows that prostitutes used to be educated people who supported their lowers not only in bed. Such function of prostitutes may increase their status, however, this may also make those uncomfortable for wives.
Reference List
Levin, L., & Peled, E. (2011). The attitudes toward prostitutes and prostitution scale: A new tool for measuring public attitudes toward prostitutes and prostitution. Research on Social Work Practice, 21(5), 582-593.
Mathieu, L. (2011). Neighbors anxieties against prostitutes fears: Ambivalence and repression in the policing of street prostitution in France. Emotion, Space and Society, 4, 113-120.
Under the broad category of sexual ethics is prostitution, one of the contemporary moral concerns in our society. Prostitution, in its moral perspectives, can be intertwined with the elements of utilitarianism. The usefulness of an individual for the greater good is the foundational principle of utilitarianism (Gunawan et al. 57). If prostitution makes the majority of societys members happy, then it gains support from the utilitarian perspective. In his YouTube video explanation of utilitarianism, Miller argues that if an action brings pleasure to the vast majority in the community or a society of people, it is reasonable because it has a positive perspective from all the parties involved. However, on moral and ethical grounds, the sex workers and the society are the primary parties that this philosophy considers justifying whether the goodness that comes with prostitution outweighs the bad or the wrong cause of action.
Discussion
Another way that utilitarianism supports the moral standpoint on prostitution is by considering the persons involved, those hurt by a particular cause, and those who benefit. If prostitution benefits most individuals, it has support anchored on the second aspect of utilitarianism. For example, the impoverished racial minorities in America, whose study shows that they form the larger numbers involved in the sex trade (Gore et al. 23).
If these people reap more benefits from exercising prostitution. If society allows and upholds it as morally acceptable, then sex work and utilitarianism converge. Some people will be hurt by sex work; if a woman engages in prostitution to gain financially, feed her hungry children, or support their studies, the beneficiaries are the children. However, the sex worker may suffer guilt, social stigma, or depression; the fact that she engages in prostitution to cater to her familys well-being offers some relief.
Utilitarianism prominently focuses on both long- and short-term gains in determining the utmost beneficial cause of action. This represents the third way this ethical theory of utilitarianism consents to prostitution. The truth is that people who offer sex services face difficulties. Again, it is not ideal that every member of society would accept that sex work is the best and the outright cause of action (Miller). There is no absolutism that society fully supports prostitution; nevertheless, the philosophical standpoints on this moral concern are supported by relative truths that some cultures acknowledge (McQuade 156). What would be the long-term benefit of prostitution to society? That is a complex question that demands a multi-disciplinary approach. The ethical discipline alone may only demystify it if engaging other areas, including legal, religious, and policy development, among other fields.
Conclusion
Lastly, utilitarianisms ethical viewpoint acknowledges that only one right decision produces the maximum net benefit. There are instances when prostitution becomes the only best cause of action one can take. The benefits we discuss attach themselves to societys socio-economic and political aspects. A substantial number of women in society have faced a rough past, and mental traumas of the turbulent childhood may manifest in prostitution (Raki 1209). Others may be educated with degrees but lack employment, which may drive them to engage in prostitution. Concerning this, fresh graduates are in a dilemma on what business to involve in. Is it living without a source of income or being a sex worker? Many governments, including the United States, have neither legalized prostitution nor declared it a criminal activity. Such a scenario leads to an ethical and moral dilemma; utilitarianism is among the numerous rational explanations for this situation.
Works Cited
Gore, Manisha N., and Avinash R. Patwardhan. Disparities in the Cost of Living Adjusted Earnings of Female Sex Workers in India, Thailand, and the USA: A Need to Create an Equitable Economic Survival of Female Sex Workers. Journal of Primary Care & Community Health 13 (2022).
Gunawan, Riyan, et al. Behavior Motives and Legal Study of Commercial Sex Workers Around Pemalang District Terminal Area. Law Research Review Quarterly 6.1 (2020): 53-68.
McQuade, Aidan. Ethical Leadership: Moral Decision-making under Pressure. Vol. 2. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG, 2022. Web.
Youth prostitution has plagued the American continent, after having mushroomed in Southeast Asia. Hundreds and thousands of children engage in sexual activities for basic survival, satisfy substance abuse needs, are forced into it or voluntary take it up, for the exchange of favors. These children are homeless most of the time, and vulnerable. They have no one looking out for them and so, a large of them is abducted by sex traffickers. Sex traffickers provide for sex tourism in almost all parts of the world. Sex tourism leads to child prostitution and child pornography.
The scope of this paper revolves around the reasons why children engage in such activities, the stats about children who do, the consequences of youth prostitution and a review of the different strategies adopted, and laws put into effect for controlling and preventing youth prostitution. Reasons include poverty, unemployment and underemployment, homelessness, and drug abuse. Stats show that the majority of underage sex workers are females and most workers are from the ages of 9-15. Strategies used involve traditional ones such as imprisoning sex workers and forcing them to testify against their pimps. This however causes double victimization of these children. Therefore, a Safe Harbor Act has been introduced in New York to prevent this. There are many other federal law statutes and the state law preventing practices of child prostitution also.
Introduction
According to the National Center for Missing and Exploited Children, Prostitution of children is defined as the sexual exploitation of a child for remuneration in cash or in-kind, usually but not always organized by an intermediary such as a procurer, family member, pimp, or madame (Rosen, 2008). Child or youth prostitution has become a grave reality in many parts of the Americas; the Central, South and North. This had always been an issue of Southeast Asia but has now plagued America as well, and continues to do so at a fast rate.
Child prostitution was not a real problem in the United States until the late 70s. In 1974, Congress passed the Juvenile Justice Delinquency Prevention Act that prohibited the secure detention of runaways. That meant that the police were prevented from arresting children for running away from home. Consequently, children were left on the streets to fend for themselves. Since 1974 children have been allowed to live on the streets and they need to support themselves. (Children of the Night, 2006).
This paper will give a literary review of much of the material on youth prostitution in America. It will aim to highlight the major areas plagued by it, the reasons for youth prostitution with special reference to the American culture, the consequences of youth prostitution in America, and finally, the paper will identify the different strategies to counter this, that have been highlighted in literature previously.
Literature Review
Hubs of Youth Prostitution in America
While Southeast Asia remains the hub of world sex tourism, Central America, racked by poverty and stunted by diminishing opportunities, is rapidly gaining in popularity (Gutnam, 2004). According to Gutnam (2004), Costa Rica is gaining popularity as the hemispheric capital of sex tourism. Over 3,000 girls and young women work in San Joses 300 brothels (Gutnam, 2004). Sex tourism is directly related to child prostitution. Child prostitution is simply, and harshly, when adults sexually abuse children to satisfy their own perversions (Gutman, 2004). Sex tourists travel from one country to another in search of easy prey or simply easy and diverse sex.
According to Brown et al (2002), Mexico and parts of Latin America are struck by poverty. As a result of unemployment and under-employment, youth prostitution has become common in these regions. There is a rise in the number of women sex workers in these areas each year. More than 100,000 Street children have resorted to prostitution in Brazil. (Brown et al, 2002, pp. 297)
Costa Rica is a region where ownership of child pornography for personal use is not considered a crime. Side by side, it is also known to have the regions largest child prostitution problem. Commercial sexual abuse of minors (youth prostitution) in Costa Rica is said to attract over 5,000 sex tourists a year (Gutnam, 2004).
Other areas in the region where youth prostitution is common include Belize, El Salvador, Guatemala, and Honduras. In Guatemala, more than 5000 street minors resort to prostitution for survival and many of these are trafficked into Europe and US. While in Honduras, Honduran girls, some as young as 13, are regularly trafficked into and sold to brothels in Guatemala, El Salvador and Mexico (Gutman, 2004).
According to a report by the DSTPR on sex trafficking, trafficking victims mostly come from Asia, Latin American and Eastern Europe. Leading destinations for sex traffickers are New York, Los Angeles, San Francisco and Las Vegas (Department of State Trafficking in Persons Report, 2006). According to Rosen (2008), New York and other states continue to prosecute exploited child sex workers.
Statistics and Findings
There have been some obvious and some interesting findings about youth prostitution. One of the obvious ones is that more girls are involved in prostitution than young boys. According to the National Center for Missing and Exploited Children, the most of the youth involved in prostitution are girls, although some see a rise in the number of boys. It also states that the average age most girls get involved in prostitution is at 14-years and the median age of involvement is 15.5-years. Unfortunately and shockingly enough, it also reports child prostitutes of only 11 or 12-years and even 9-years of age (Department of Justice, NIS-MART, 2002). Another interesting finding is that larger cities are more likely to have a higher proportion of boys involved in prostitution . (Department of Justice, NIS-MART, 2002) (Rosen, 2008)
Another finding is that most children who yield to prostitution do so before they turn 12 (Gutman, 2004). Younger people have also been picked up by the authorities. An interesting finding is that those who give in to prostitution are those that have already been abused before. It is relatively easier for these children to give in. According to Gutman (2004) again, all who engaged in survival sex in exchange for basic necessities were first sexually abused at home. Most had contracted at least one sexually transmitted disease.
An interesting and obvious finding is that these runaway sex workers are more commonly involved in criminal activities such as theft, violence and drug dealing (Flowers, 2001). Therefore, one thing stems another for these street children. This is also a consequence of youth prostitution.
Furthermore, in addition to forced or coerced prostitution, there is also a voluntary prostitution whereby children opt for it in exchange for favors such as dope, crack cocaine, money and other presents (Rosen, 2008).
Reasons
There are many reasons why youngsters such as teenagers and adolescents succumb to prostitution. One may think why it is even an option. It is an option for thousands of children and there are reasons for this. The first and the foremost, and the most obvious, reason for youth for child prostitution is poverty. Poverty leads to children having survival sex (Gutnam, 2004). They go on the streets to meet their most basic needs of food and shelter. Food comes from the money they earn from prostituting while shelter comes in the form of brothels.
Poverty, as an effect, leads to unemployment and underemployment. In many parts of Latin America, child labor still continues. When such children do not find employment opportunities, they yield to prostitution as a profession.
Another primary cause of child/youth prostitution is homelessness. Prostitution takes form in its gravest forms only when children are vulnerable and homeless. In the larger cities and states of the US, children are homeless when they run away from home. Reasons given for this is when their families fail to understand them; when there are not enough opportunities or enough freedom at home. Another reason for children, or teenagers, running away from home is when the streets are more attractive to them. They feel like they have not explored the bigger and the better part of the world. Others are abandoned by their families due to personality difference, unacceptable sexual orientation or gender identity factors (Rosen, 2008).
Estes and Weiner (2001) agree with the fact that the majority of American victims of commercial sexual exploitation tend to be runaway or thrown away youth who live on the streets who become victims of prostitution. They also agree with the reasons; these children generally come from homes where they have been abused, or from families that have abandoned them (Estes & Weiner, 2001).
In 2006, the National Runaway Switchboard estimated that there were between 1.3 and 2.8 million runaway and homeless youths in America. (Rosen, 2008). Around three fourth of these children had physical threats, drugs or sexual abuse threat while they were on the streets. Of these, it further estimates that 27,300 (or 2%) had spent some period of time that they were missing with a sexually exploitative person and another 14,900 (or 1%) were sexually assaulted or someone attempted to sexually assault then while a runaway (Rosen, 2008). Therefore, a homeless is very likely to run into sex traffickers or pimps while on the streets. Youth prostitution is also blamed on an alarming rise in the use of crack cocaine by homeless youth (Gutnam, 2004).
This is all about prostitution that is forced upon these children. They succumb to it as a last resort. There is another increasing form of prostitution. This one is known as voluntary prostitution. This is mostly taken up by teenagers or adolescents who abuse substances. They do it in exchange for dope or other presents, even money. A study by Jessica Edwards, of the Pacific Institute for Research and Evaluation, found that approximately 650,000 American teenagers exchange sex for favors (Rosen, 2008).
More findings from her study suggested that around 4 percent of her sample of more than 13,000 U.S. teens she sampled reported having prostituted themselves. More disturbing, about 15 percent of boys and 20 percent of girls who took up voluntary prostitution reported that they had had a sexually transmitted disease in the process. (Rosen, 2008)
Another possible reason for youth prostitution, according to Miko and Park (2003) is organized in the form of kidnapping, or from pressure from parents, or through unreliable agreements between gullible parents and sex traffickers. This is when parents are either not aware of what they have agreed to or have bet on something that ultimately leads to traffickers to abduct their children for prostitution.
Consequences
Interpol has identified a positive, direct relationship between the spread of child pornography and the rise in child prostitution (Gutman, 2004). This is when adults abuse children sexually to satisfy themselves, and for more satisfaction and monetary reward, they make videos of their encounters with these teenagers, and sell them for the purpose of child pornography. This means that the more the sex trafficking and prostitution of children, the more distribution and growth of the child pornography industry.
On the other hand, sex tourism can also be blamed. To keep the industry flourishing, service providers ensure that the service will be provided, regardless of anything. Sex tourism is a cause as well as an effect.
Even though complete data concerning child prostitution in Belize is not on hand, sex tourism is still responsible for a rise in HIV/AIDS cases among minors and adults (Gutman, 2004). Youth prostitution is responsible for many of the sexually transmitted infections in many parts of America. Runaway prostitutes are prone to AIDS virus, sexually transmitted infections, pregnancy and other health issues (Flowers, 2001 pp. 57). According to Flowers (2001) again, the truth of the matter is that it is these people who also are without proper medical care. In other words, these children are more exposed to health issues, and are least likely to have access to effective medical treatment. Young sex workers are also more prone to physical abuse, robberies, street violence and even have more potential to commit or attempt suicide (Flowers, 2001).
Sometimes drug abuse is a cause of voluntary prostitution. Other times, it is also a consequence. According to Flowers (2001), many of the underage workers become drug or alcohol abusers (Flowers, 2001, pp. 57). He also believes that they become more sexually promiscuous once they yield to prostitution the first time.
Other consequences come under the umbrella of psychological and developmental problems. According to the US Department of Justice, few children in this situation are able to develop new relationships with peers or adults other than the person who is victimizing them.
Strategy and Law
Traditionally, extreme actions by some police and prosecutors have threatened to punish underage sex workers by imprisoning them. Moreover, they also force them into testifying against their pimp or trafficker. This is not a very effective strategy and is said to be abusive because it leads to young person being victimized twice, once by their traffickers and then by the authorities (Rosen, 2008). However, New York and other states still impeach exploited child sex workers. The Safe Harbor Act is projected to put an end to this (Rosen, 2008).
On the other hand, ambiguous statutes, careless investigations and short prison terms, mostly in Latin and parts of Central America, are turning Belize into a mushrooming haven for child pornography and youth prostitution (Gutnam, 2004).
Nonetheless, many Federal and State laws have been put into effect to prevent youth prostitution in the United States of America. The Federal Laws fall under 18 U.S.C. 1591 (2008). There is a statute for Sex Trafficking of Children By Force, Fraud, or Coercion. What this statute prevents is quite obvious from the title of it. However the punishment, according to this statue for forcing or tricking children into an act of commercial sex has conditions such as if the offense was effected by force, fraud, or coercion or if the person recruited, enticed, harbored, transported, provided, or obtained had not attained the age of 14 years at the time of such offense, by a fine under this title and imprisonment for any term of years not less than 15 or for life; or if the offense was not so effected, and the person recruited, enticed, harbored, transported, provided, or obtained had attained the age of 14 years but had not attained the age of 18 years at the time of such offense, by a fine under this title and imprisonment for not less than 10 years or for life (National Center for Missing and Exploited Children, 2009).
Another such Federal Law for prevention of child prostitution is the 2421 statute of Transportation Generally. This states that whoever knowingly transports any individual in interstate or foreign commerce, or in any Territory or Possession of the United States, with intent that such individual engage in prostitution, or in any sexual activity for which any person can be charged with a criminal offense, or attempts to do so, shall be fined under this title or imprisoned not more than 10 years, or both (National Center for Missing and Exploited Children, 2009).
Another statute 2422 Coercion and Enticement highlights that whoever knowingly persuades, induces, entices, or coerces any individual to travel in interstate or foreign commerce, or in any Territory or Possession of the United States, to engage in prostitution, or in any sexual activity for which any person can be charged with a criminal offense, or attempts to do so, shall be fined under this title or imprisoned not more than 20 years, or both. Or whoever, using the mail or any facility or means of interstate or foreign commerce, or within the special maritime and territorial jurisdiction of the United States knowingly persuades, induces, entices, or coerces any individual who has not attained the age of 18 years, to engage in prostitution or any sexual activity for which any person can be charged with a criminal offense, or attempts to do so, shall be fined under this title and imprisoned not less than 10 years or for life (National Center for Missing and Exploited Children, 2009).
Finally, 2423 Transportation of Minors prevents transportation with intent to engage in criminal sexual activity. The punishment under this statute for a person who knowingly transports an individual who has not attained the age of 18 years in interstate or foreign commerce, or in any commonwealth, territory or possession of the United States, with intent that the individual engage in prostitution, or in any sexual activity for which any person can be charged with a criminal offense, shall be fined under this title and imprisoned not less than 10 years or for life (National Center for Missing and Exploited Children, 2009). There are many other conditions also, which are not highlighted here.
These laws are great and comprehensive enough to protect these underage sex workers but they contradict with the Safe Harbor Act of New York. First, under the federal law, sex trafficking is defined as commercial sex act that is induced by force, fraud, or coercion and the person under 18-years is coerced into engaging in such behavior. The Safe Harbor Act, on the other hand, is intended to assist young people of 15 years of age and younger. According to Rosen (2008), this, therefore, not only fails to meet federal trafficking requirements, but also does not comply with New York State age-of-consent laws that specify sexual consent at 17-years.
State Laws state that child prostitution is illegal in all 50 states and the District of Columbia (National Center for Missing and Exploited Children, 2009). Therefore, in the modern America or the United States of America, prostitution and sex trafficking of underage sex workers can lead to imprisonment for a maximum of life. These federal and state laws have been put in place and are intended to ensure the protection of these children. However, they are not playing their role to the maximum because according to the literature statistics and findings, child prostitution is still common in many parts of the United States of America and other parts of the American continent.
References
Brown, B., Larson, R., Saraswati, T. S. (2002). The worlds youth: adolescence in eight regions of the globe. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Children of the Night (2006). Frequently Asked Questions. Web.
Estes, R. J. and Weiner, N. A. (2001) Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children in the U.S, Canada and Mexico. University of Pennsylvania. Westport CT: Greenwood Publishing Group
Flowers, R. B. (2001). Runaway kids and teenage prostitution. Westport CT: Greenwood Publishing Group.
Gutnam, W. E. (2004). Child prostitution: a growing scourge. The Panama News,10, No. 7. Web.
Justice.gov (2009) Domestic Sex Trafficking of Minors. Web.
Larson, R., Brown, B., Saraswati, T. S. (2002). The worlds youth: adolescence in eight regions of the globe. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Lerner, J. V., Lerner, R. M., Finkelstein, F. (2001) Adolescence in America. New York, NY: ABC-CLIO.
Miko, F. T. & Park, G. (2003) Trafficking in Women and Children: The U.S. and International Response. Web.
National Center for Missing and Exploited Children (2009). Web.
State.gov (2006) Department of State Trafficking in Persons Report. Web.
Rosen, D. (2008). Teen Prostitution in America. Web.
Prostitution is commonly referred to as one of the oldest careers in the world and it is mentioned even in the Holy Scriptures. Every country in the world today is faced with the challenge of dealing with the sex trade while in some the trade has been legalized (UNICEF). Great debates surround the notion that prostitution is a means of empowerment rather than a violation of womens rights (Wilkinson 36). Many people doubt the general assumption that women involved in promiscuous activities are indeed under gender duress. Prostitution has spread worldwide and with the development in technology, the business is growing bigger every day.
For the trade to thrive, there has to be a reasonable balance between the forces of a market, which are demand, and supply. Males create the demand while women are there to supply (Wilkinson 47). Many women who practice prostitution look at it as a form of employment, some even forced into it by their families. This essay seeks to argue that prostitution is the greatest form of female exploitation as opposed to empowerment. Men who pay for sexual services are not interested in the welfare of their service providers rather their sole intentions are to use them for their satisfaction.
Violation of womens rights in prostitution
Human rights can be infringed in many ways but depriving a woman of the right over her own body is quite demeaning. Prostitution is a practice where such deprivations are a norm and women can be used as sexual tools to satisfy males sexual needs. Some women in the sex industry argue that prostitution allows them to enjoy their rights over their bodies. However, taking an ardent observation into the real situation, indeed it is clear that through prostitution the male gender shows their ability to control womens sexuality (Day par. 6). Prostitution is abhorrently a violation of human rights in totality since it is impossible to have sexual consent between two adults especially when it is based on financial gain (Day par. 5). Women in prostitution report incidences whereby they have been subjected to violent ordeals leaving them with emotional scars.
Some of these violent actions include physical and psychological assaults, sexual abuse, robbery as well as kidnapping in some isolated cases (Hvistendahl par. 7). Daily, an average prostitute is raped, verbally abused, battered, or even tortured (Hvistendahl par. 9). According to the prostitutes, these are the challenges associated with their kind of profession. They argue that every job has its challenges and they take it as a challenge they have to overcome. However, rape and sexual harassment are unjustifiable under any possible circumstances since they are harming the women. People are harmed when they are made worse off than before the exploitation started. That explains why the majority of women who suffer from Post Traumatic Stress Disorder are mostly women who engage in the sex trade. Women are tricked into making pornographic materials without their consent while being sexually harassed to perform and make pornographic videos.
Degrading human dignity
Prostitution is an indecent behavior that depicts a form of socialized male violence against women (Hvistendahl par. 7). Women who practice prostitution are sexually involved with men whom they do not know hence feign enjoyment (Wilkinson 55). Sex in exchange for money degrades self-worth hence demeaning human dignity. The civil libertarian argument about prostitution is that prostitution is simply a way for women to support themselves financially. They argue that it is a matter of choice where consenting men and women engage in sexual relations. Nonetheless, civil libertarians forget the inequalities in the worlds oldest profession (Wilkinson 56). The sex transactions between men and women involved in prostitution are explicitly discriminative of women. Prostitution is not a transaction where two parties exchange sexual services voluntarily to each other for enjoyment.
According to Wilkinsons concepts of objectification and commodification, prostitution has turned the human body into a commodity and has commercialized human social practices. Supporters of the commercial sex campaign argue that the trade is not in itself harmful but the circumstances involved (Wilkinson 57). Wilkinson argues that commodification of the body includes aspects such as, exploitation, objectification, harm, coercion, and consent, which are the main characteristics of any, sex trade (Wilkinson 57). He argues that regulating the trade, as a business entity is the most effective approach to dealing with the moral concern in this case. The practice is bent on one partner enjoying while the other gains financial benefits of providing the commodified sexual services. In this case, a woman is simply a commodity and can be used as the client or consumer pleases. Exploitation is unjust because the exploited person suffers harm. Goals in these scenarios can be releasing sexual frustration, feeling power over someone else, or enhancing ones ego.
Women in prostitution trade their self-worth and human dignity in pursuit of financial gains. Most times, women who engage in prostitution are in a vulnerable state of mind.
A person is vulnerable when she/he perceives that there is no other course of action than the one proposed, even with the knowledge that this choice might bring harm. The wealthy men take advantage of the desperate state they are in and exploit them to satisfy their own needs. Therefore, prostitution cannot be viewed as a way of empowering women but as an act, that destroys their consciousness to decency and moral values. In prostitution, women experience the greatest level of social and sexual insubordination (Wilkinson 57).
Physical and psychological abuse
Physical and psychological abuse is a far-reaching implication of prostitution and the effects of this are detrimental to the future of both young men and women. Sadly, the sex trade has increased the level of human trafficking involving underage teenagers (UNICEF). The video, Not My Life uploaded by UNICEF USA shows the extent of human trafficking on a global scene. In some poor countries, children are forced into the practice by their poor parents who seek to raise money by selling their daughters to men seeking sexual services although in some cases young men are also victims of the forced sex trade. This is tantamount to the slave trade although the ramifications are even worse. Clients normally abuse young girls physically by beating them up and forcing them into sexual intercourse in very inhumane ways.
Kids, both boys, and girls are victims of coercion while engaging in sexual activities without their consent. This leads to physical and psychological harm that can have long-term implications in the future. Prostitutes or sex workers, as they are commonly referred to, are the greatest victims of rape (MacKinnon 78). More often than not, sex workers are forced to have sex with men whom they do not even know or love. This amounts to rape which results in other psychological and psychological effects. The physical and psychological abuse notwithstanding, the women are expected to act and pretend to be enjoying the sexual intercourse. These are the adversities that women in the prostitution industry have to put up within the course of their profession.
Forced sex and coercion
Women in prostitution have no rights over their bodies as discussed earlier in this essay. Most of the clients force them into engaging in inhumane practices such as sexual intercourse with animals (MacKinnon 78). Some are even forced to have their sexual services recorded for resale on the black market in exchange for money (Wilkinson 33). Pornographic materials have increased all over the world due to the increase in the number of women engaging in the sex trade, which has also seen the increase in the prevalence of abuse of children especially young teenage girls. In third-world countries, young children are forced into the sex trade as a way of raising money to support their poor families (UNICEF). At their tender age, they have to cope with the rude clients who force and coerce them for their sexual pleasure.
Conclusion
This essay has shed some light on the sex trade/prostitution to show how women are currently being lured into the practice in the guise of empowerment. The paper also discusses Wilsons concepts of objectification and commodification to show the rationale used in approaching this trade. The essay displays prostitution as a form of exploitation as opposed to a means of empowerment. The paper shows some of the physical and psychological pain that the victims undergo because of prostitution arguing that some of the culprits are forced into it by poverty. Prostitution is under all circumstances a way through which men exploit vulnerable women for their sexual satisfaction in exchange for money. However, research has shown that in the long run, the emotional pain caused to the women surpasses the financial gains therein.
Works Cited
Day, Shelagh. Prostitution: Violating the Human Rights of Poor Women. 2008. Web.
Henderson, Sarah, and Alana Jeeydel. Women and Politics in a Global World, New York, NY: Oxford University Press. 2010. Print.
Prostitution is one of the oldest professions known to mankind. In the last decade, studies have been carried out to try and understand why people engage in this behavior which abuses the moral fiber of society. From a sociological point of view, prostitution is socially deviant and morally repugnant behavior. Traditionally, prostitution has been known as a female profession paying little attention to the presence of male prostitutes in society. In addition, researchers have failed to agree on the reasons why people especially young males engage in prostitution compared to their older counterparts.
Prostitution, age, and marriage status
According to Carpenter (1998), the need to buy sex is driven by the fact that most of the prostitutes clients have the conviction that they cannot have access to sex in any other form which is socially acceptable other than using money or material things with monetary value. In addition, clients feel in control when they buy sex compared to when they get it from their wives. Although few married men engage in buying sex, those who buy it as stated by one of the prostitutes are that men love their wives as well as children but engage in prostitution to get something extra (Carpenter, 1998).
Clients on the other hand have acknowledged that their underlying motive is based on a natural drive to have sex. As a result, they occasionally go and acquire sex from prostitutes to fulfill that urge. Other reasons why either married or unmarried men may engage in prostitution is because they are either lonely, ugly, incarcerated, or sexually incapacitated and prostitutes are the only people who understand them hence the drive to have sex with a prostitute. However, the shocking news is that married men who buy sex and visit brothels enjoy the company of prostitutes more than their wives (Carpenter, 1998). According to Perkins (1999), married men seek sex because there were either being rejected, denied their conjugal rights or they enjoy being in the company of sex workers.
Plumridge, Chetwynd and Reed (1997), note that there is a relationship that exists between the interaction of a client and a commercial sex worker. In their study, they found that males who initiate sex and take control over a commercial sex worker thus gain the societal respect a man gets from a woman. The study that was carried out on male clients between 23 and 78 years old found that once in a while, men would save money and use it to buy sex. Out of the subjects used, only seven were married which indicates that even married men are part of the prostitution circle. However, some of the men were divorced, separated, or single.
The married men noted that after rejection from their wives, they would seek alternatives of sexual pleasure from outside which was achieved via commercial sex workers (Plumridge et al., 1997). The two preceding statements can confirm that men buy sex because prostitutes are always there for them despite the problems they are going through. Married men also noted that, unlike their wives, prostitutes would initiate sex and be in control.
This spiced what they had from their wedded wives hence the preference to buy sex. This can be supported by a study carried out by Perkins (1999) which found that married men who visited sex workers claimed that they were denied sex, their sexual partners did not offer sexual pleasure, sex workers were less complicated, or they enjoyed having sex with several sex partners.
Men who have developed an intimate relationship with a sex worker are more likely to have unprotected sex. In addition, the young generation sees nothing wrong with having unprotected sex compared to the older males. This is because the young generation is on the verge of trying to experiment with things while the older generation buys sex from a prostitute because they need something extra.
The statements can be supported by Haque and Soonthorndhada (2009) who note that married men who engage in commercial sex are less likely to engage in protected sex. This is because the intimate relationship developed with their wives is transferred to prostitutes. In their study, Haque and Soonthorndhada (2009) found that most of the people especially the young of between 20-24 years in their study had engaged in unprotected sex upon the use of alcohol. Shocking, most the participants 62.1% used condoms not to prevent themselves from STIs but prevent pregnancy and other reasons.
Prostitution is not as always smooth as it is expected in the case of a client who buys sex from a worker and gets it. The statement can be supported by Karandikar and Prospero (2010) who do not that violence is sometimes encountered in prostitution especially from pimps, clients, and police officers. In their study, they found that prostitution had harm especially when the clients sexually abused the sex workers.
In addition, the sex workers would be forced to have unprotected sex which leads to HIV, depression, suicide attempts, or substance abuse. The cruelty, rape, and sex without consent on the prostitutes are some of the examples that are associated with prostitution. Furthermore, transmitting sexually acquired diseases such as HIV as a result of not using condoms is another harm that affects both the clients and the workers.
Perkins (1999) carried out research to find the frequency and the age group that engaged in prostitution. Out of the participants, 40% were never married and were between ages 26-40 years. This age group according to the study, engaged in buying sex with the aim of buying sex and enjoying alternative modes of sex. The researcher concluded that compared to the early 90s, few married men would visit sex workers compared to currently when fewer unmarried men seek sex workers compared to the married men. The contributing factor to this change of trend has been because of greater availability of sex outside both marriage and prostitution.
The middle aged men especially the married ones engages in prostitution because middle age is regarded as the period when sexual stagnation is very high and prostitution offers them adventurous variations in terms of sexual pleasure and satisfaction. Other results revealed in the study was that men who had been married for a longer period have high likelihood of visiting a sex worker compared to newly married (Perkins, 1999). This is because they get bored of having sex from their partners. In addition, sex workers are professionals and they take them from the bondage or stress associated with marriage.
The age group between 18 and 25 has been associated with high levels of alcoholism and sex (Wegenaar, Toomey & Lenk, 2005). This group indulges in high consumption of alcohol especially when at college levels. As a result, the younger group is more likely to engage in prostitution as part of leisure, entertainment, and discovering themselves. This kind of mentality makes them engage in sexual behaviours that do not conform to the societal norms. As such, they tend to perceive prostitution as a less risky venture compared to the older male counterparts. The preceding statements can be supported by Brown (2006) who acknowledges that the youth engage in prostitution even at early age.
Farley (2003) note that alcohol consumption by the young increase their sex drive and as result, they end up engaging in prostitution or paid sex which they consider as part of entertainment. This kind of behavior is catapulted by the fact that alcohol acts as a kind of aphrodisiac. Despite the fact that the young generation sees no harm with prostitution, Brown (2006) is keen to observe that the young not knowingly end up being sexually abused, or sexually exploited. This can be supported by Haque and Soonthorndhada (2009) who adds that the young especially of age between 22-24 years engage in unprotected sex with more than one sex workers not putting into consideration associated with having sex with multiple partners.
Hirschis Social Bond/Social Control Theory
The theoretical framework for the study will be developed based on the adoption of theoretical concepts and theory. Hirschis social bond/social control theory will be adopted as it better explains how society and deviant behaviour relate from a societal and sociological perspective.
Prostitution occurs in a society which is governed by social norms, beliefs, and culture. It is also considered as social deviant behavior which is repugnant in nature. Therefore, to better understand prostitution from the societal perspective it is imperative to have a look at Hirschis social control theory. According to Hamilton (2000), people who have high levels of social control compared to those with low social control are less likely to engage in what the society sees as antisocial behaviour such as prostitution and other crimes.
Based on the social control theory, both self control and social control acts as pre-requisite in engaging in an act that would be considered as not morally outright. The combination of the two defines the propensity to criminality or engaging in antisocial or deviant behaviours. As expounded by Travis Hirschi on the social control theory, society plays a great role in defining the behaviour of the people in the society. In addition, most of the delinquent behaviours occur as a result of unmonitored behaviours and social control especially by the family.
Hirschis social bond/social control theory assumes that weak social bonds makes people engage in deviant behaviours. The theory is based on four elements/bonds as devised by Hirschi which are attachment, commitment, involvement and beliefs (Hirschi, 1969). Attachment has been defined as the level of psychological affection an individual has to the social institution such as family and schools. According to Hirschi (1969), young people who have close and strong relations with the societal institutions have high levels of social control. In reference to prostitution, people engage in it as a result of rejection or self denial which leads to low self control.
On the second bond which is commitment, Hirschi (1969) note that the social relationships that people value are more safeguarded and people cannot engage in antisocial or deviant behaviour in fear of jeopardizing the relationship. For example, people are less likely to engage in deviant activities that jeopardize their marriage bonds or employment. According to the theory, people who have commitments have less likelihood to deviate from the social norms because of the risks associated with the acts (Hirschi, 1969). For instance, individuals who are heavily committed are less likely to engage in deviant acts such as prostitution and alcoholism.
According to Edlund & Korn (2002), the levels of involvement by an individual determine the activities in which they are likely to get committed to. In most of times, engaging in the socially approved activities reduces the chances of one to engage in activities labeled as being socially deviant. This can be supported by Hirschi who note that getting involved in socially acceptable behaviours reduces the chances of engaging in antisocial acts.
Lastly, belief which is the last social bond is used to refer to the level into which an individual engages in activities that conform to the societal norms, values, and law (Hirschi, 1969). The assumption made is that if the values are high to a person then they are less likely to engage in deviant behaviour. For example, if a youth perceives prostitution to be less harmful then they are more like to engage in prostitution. The most important component of the theory is that, the social bonds coalesce to indirectly have control over the behaviour of the people. This ensures that people get committed and involved in behaviours in which they highly value and as a result, they are less likely to deviate from them.
The theory will be adopted in the design of methodology as it explores the society, deviant behaviour and why people engage in activities which have been regarded as socially or morally deviant such as prostitution.
Reference List
Brown, K. (2006). Participation and young people involved in prostitution. Child Abuse Review, 15, 294-312.
Carpenter, B. (1998). The prostitute and the client: Challenging the dualisms. Womens Studies International Forum, 21(4), 387399.
Edlund, L., Korn, E. (2002). A Theory of prostitution. Journal of Political Economy, 110(1), 181214.
Farley, M. (2003). Prostitution, Trafficking, and Traumatic Stress. New York: Haworth Press.
Hamilton, M. (2000). Theoretical framework. Web.
Haque, M. R., & Soonthorndhada, A. (2009). Risk Perception and Condom-use among Thai Youths: Findings from Kanchanaburi Demographic Surveillance System Site in Thailand. J Health Popul Nutr, 27(6): 772783.
Hirschi, T. (1969). Causes of delinquency. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Karandikar, S., & Prospero, M. (2010). From client to pimp: Male violence against female sex workers. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 25(2), 257-273.
Perkins, R. (1999). How much are you, love? The customer in the Australian sex industry. Social Alternatives, 18(3), 38-47.
Plumridge, E, Chetwynd, J. & Reed, A. (1997). Control and condom in commercial Sex: Client perspective. Journal of Sociology of health and illness, 19, 2, 228-243.
Wagenaar, A. C., Toomey, T. L., &Lenk, K. M. (2005). Environmental influences on young adult drinking. Alcohol Research & Health, 28(4), 231-235.
Prostitution has been illegal in many countries in the world. Despite this fact, prostitution has continued to be practiced in every capital, and other cities in every country. This being the fact the governments need to see that they are fighting a losing battle and continuous prohibition of prostitution is like chasing wind. There are many reasons that do call for the government to change its strategy and legalize prostitution. There are numerous reasons as to why the government should legalize prostitution. Some of those reasons are as follows.
When prostitution is illegal, many of those who practice it do it secretively. This makes them be exploited by their clients. They are put in every kind of abuse, yet they are afraid to report the exploiters to the authority, as they fear they may be arrested. This makes the exploiters to evade justice.
This encourages them to continue with their vice thus humiliating many innocent prostitutes. If prostitution will be legalized, prostitutes will not fear to report the clients who rape them and the exploiters will stop this menace, as they will be afraid of consequences of their actions.
Legalizing prostitution will curb the spread of HIV and AIDS and other sexually transmitted diseases. This is because when prostitution will be legalized prostitutes can be required to be tested for those diseases. Those found with diseases can be treated or barred from trading. The government can offer treatment to them easily as prostitutes will not be afraid to seek medication. This will be extremely beneficial as it can protect the prostitutes and their clients.
Legalization of prostitution will make the government put its resources in other beneficial activities. Governments do use a lot of money in campaigns to condemn prostitution. These resources can be put into other uses such as education or health provision in the country. Police spend a lot of time chasing and arresting prostitutes, whereas many criminals are harassing the public. With the legalization of prostitution, police will be chasing real criminals instead of harassing harmless prostitutes.
Prostitution is a source of income to those who practice it. With the current rise of unemployment in the country, it is paramount for the government to legalize prostitution. Bearing in mind that many of prostitutes have low education profile and for them to secure decent jobs is hard, prostitution need to be legalized. This would make prostitutes be respected by members of the public. This will minimize stress faced by prostitutes, which leads to other stress related crimes.
Legalization of prostitution makes the government control prostitution. The government will ensure those who practice this profession are not underage. This will assist in eliminating child prostitution. Human trafficking will decrease as many of victims trafficked are meant to participate in prostitution. With this in mind, it is crucial that those who care for children should let prostitution be legalized.
Ones body is a Gods gift, which one should not be controlled on how to use it as long as one is not infringing rights of others. Therefore, prostitutes has right to use their bodies as they see it fit without being stigmatized by law. Legalization of prostitution will make prostitution be carried out in conducive environments, which pose no danger to the prostitute and their clients.
Since today prostitution is illegal, prostitutes are not taxed, yet they earn a lot of money from the trade. Bearing in mind that taxes are the ones used to develop every country economy it is not agreeable to ignore the contribution the taxes from prostitutes can make. The government can encourage the establishment of brothels, which would make government access the taxes from prostitutes easily.
Prostitutes would be required to acquire licenses in order to commence their business. The licenses would be provided with a fee as a source of income to the government. Countries, which have legalized prostitution, are getting a lot of revenue from the sex industry. Dutch sex industry gives more than 500 million dollars annually. Countries with high population can make a lot of money from prostitution and put this revenue in their economy development.
Legalization of prostitution will help to curb incest and rape crimes. This is because the perpetrators of these crimes will not fear to seek prostitute services. Many relatives are exploiting young ones, and if prostitution is legalized the relatives are provided with an alternative to seek prostitutes services without being intimidated or judged. Bestiality and other harmful sexual practices will come down with legalization of prostitution.
Prostitution is a trade where buyers and sellers do it willingly. No one is forced to be the party in prostitution. This being the fact there is a need to legalize this practice because adult individuals who are responsible for their actions carry it out. Prostitution therefore, needs to be considered as any other profession carried out in the country.
Conclusion
The government has no choice but to legalize prostitution. Legal prostitution is the only remedy to end menace associated with prostitution. Prostitution is a practice, which is here to stay, and illegalizing makes, it is a black market trade exposing both the prostitutes and their clients to many risks. Legal trades are easy to control and manage, and if the government want to control this trade it need to legalize it.
Contrary to what many believe, prostitution is legal in many countries of the world, and Canada should not be left behind. For example, in the state of Nevada, USA, prostitution has been legal since early 1970s. In Germany, prostitution is legal and is regulated by the municipal councils. Within the cities, like Munich, there are places that are designated for prostitution and are not allowed to operate outside certain limits. Within the city of Hamburg, prostitutes are only allowed to conduct their businesses in the nightclubs at certain hours. Whereas in Berlin, there are totally no restrictions and prostitutes can conduct their solicitations in the streets. Brothels in Germany are considered ordinary businesses, and do not require any license (Flowers 129). Most sex workers can be seen as independent contractors who pay taxes. In France, prostitution is not illegal, but what surrounds it is considered illegal. This view is almost similar to the Canadian view. French prostitutes pay taxes, and there are laws that prohibit soliciting for sex in public places. The laws governing prostitution in France prohibit individuals from selling or buying sex from persons who are below the age of 18. In Netherlands prostitution, brothels have been legal since 2000, so long as the workers are over 18 years and the client needs to be at least 16 years. The prostitutes are protected under the labor laws and have to pay taxes. The prostitutes must be registered with the authorities, and the municipalities do not require a license. In Greece, prostitution is legal, and each worker has to be registered, and must be at least 21 years. The prostitutes have to undergo medical checks after every two weeks, and any sex worker with medical records, which are not up to date, could be arrested (Weitzer 89). Prostitution, therefore, should be legalized because of the numerous benefits to the prostitutes, their customers, and the government.
In Canada, selling and buying of sex is legal, but and activities surrounding it is illegal. For instance, soliciting for sex in public and procuring of prostitution are all illegal. This implies that the outlawed activities which surround the sex trade will make it extremely difficult for the prostitutes to carry out their work without breaking the law. In fact, the exchange of sex for money has never been illegal in Canada (Malarek 65). This apparent contradiction has always generated controversy and confusion for many years, and that is the main reason why the prostitution should be legalized by the government so as to remove all the contradictions and confusions. In March 2012, in their ruling, the Supreme Court in Ontario legalized brothels citing the laws on prostitution as unfairly discriminating against the prostitutes and did not guarantee safer working environment for them. In their ruling, the judges observed that banning the brothels is a gross violation of sex workers rights. They further, argued that the only safe way for a prostitute to work indoors, should be in a location that is within her control (Weitzer). The implication of this ruling is that the prostitutes are now being brought into the society and are being recognized as full citizens. All laws governing prostitution in the whole country should change, because any attempt to criminalize prostitution, will only serve to push the industry underground, and these will give rise to predators (Weitzer 109).
The ruling of the judges was not to take effect immediately, but should take at least one year to allow the government to amend the criminal code. These changes will be applicable to the whole nation and not just the province of Ontario and when it is legalized it will protect all the players in the industry. Prostitution is touted as the oldest profession, and it is as old as humanity. It has existed despite being labeled as a criminal activity. A study by Simon Fraser University in British Colombia found that 80% of the surveyed persons were in favor of legalizing prostitution so as to protect the buyers and sellers of sex (Flowers 138). Those who favored the legalizing also expressed some form of government regulation in the industry. This study corroborates the argument made in the court of appeal in British Colombia, by a group of sex workers who challenged the constitutionality of the prostitution laws in Canada. This study found that 8% of those buying sex were gay, and 13% were bisexual. Also, those buying sex 65.7% said they never use a condom with their partner, a similar proportion said they have taken HIV test. 26.9% said they have been tested only once, and about 79% said they were hiding from t their partners that they were buying sex (Malarek 96). These findings indicate that the government has to legalize prostitution to guarantee the safety of others because the lives of many are always at risk. To reduce the risk factors is among the reasons why prostitution has to be legalized in the whole country. Illegal prostitution is placing the lives of many citizens at risk, and the government has a duty to ensure that safe sex is practiced by the prostitutes by regulating it. The government of Canada can take a cue from other countries, which have experienced greater success without criminalizing prostitution, for instance New Zealand and Australia, where they have registered numerous success measures for prostitution (Weitzer 105). The governments of the two countries have licensed the brothels, and it has been found to provide the safest working environment for the prostitutes. The brothels in the two countries have provided a sustainable model for crime free, safe, healthy, legal and licensed brothel industry. In Queensland, Australia, they are the best model for the sex industry. This is a clear indication that legal and well regulated prostitution is by far more superior compared to criminalizing it (Flowers 146).
Criminalizing prostitution has always been extremely expensive undertaking because money is spent on law enforcers to apprehend the prostitutes and their customers. They are put through the legal process, which is also extremely expensive. The police and the courts are overwhelmed with cases which have no effect on prostitution. The whole process of arresting, charging, and releasing them have not deterred prostitution (Malarek 102). They get back to prostitution, and the same process starts again. Legalizing prostitution will allow the government to manage the industry and ensure it is run like any other professional job. Legalizing is the position that all prostitutes support, all other measures that have been adopted previously have not taken into consideration the view of the prostitutes themselves. As stated earlier, prostitution is among the oldest profession, and it is not about to end any time soon. The reason why prostitution has persisted for many years is because there is a demand from men, and women are ready to supply it, and as long as there are people there will always be prostitution. The best way forward is to legalize it and manage it (Weitzer).
Works Cited
Flowers, Ronald B. The Prostitution of Women and Girls. Washington, DC: McFarland, 1998. Print.
Malarek, Victor. The Johns: Sex for Sale and the Men Who Buy It. Toronto: Skyhorse Publishing Inc., 2011. Print.
Weitzer, Ronald. Legalize Prostitution in Canada?. CNN World International . 2012. Web.
Weitzer, Ronald John. Legalizing Prostitution: From Illicit Vice to Lawful Business. New York, NY: NYU Press, 2011. Print.
Over the years, prostitution has been a major topic of discussion within legal circles in the United States of America. Although there are no existing federal laws that define the legality of the occupation, most state governments have laws that criminalize the activities of people who engage in sexual intercourse for money (Farley 12). According to reports by various economic firms, prostitution spreads widely across the country in a lucrative industry that operates with minimal regulations. It is important to note that the federal government is not enumerated to regulate prostitution by the constitution (Raphael 30). This mandate is relegated to the state governments under the tenth amendment.
Although there have been numerous campaigns geared towards the regulation of commercial sex, not all state governments have made the necessary efforts towards achieving the feat. Various arguments have been developed with regard to the advantages and disadvantages of legalizing prostitution in the United States (Kyle 42). One of the main factors behind this course has been numerous studies, which have established that commercial sex can be safe and profitable as long as the necessary regulatory measures are in place. These measures include regular testing of sex workers for sexually transmitted diseases and infections in order to keep their clients safe. Currently, the state of Nevada is the only one in the country where the occupation has been legalized up to the county levels (Farley 22). This gives a clear indication that the industry is highly unregulated, thus showing the huge gap that the relevant authorities have to fill.
Discussion
Studies have established that prostitution is a highly lucrative occupation that attracts even the educated people who have limited opportunities for income generation. Over the years, many people have believed that this industry is only suited to people with little education and of low social class. Another interesting element about prostitution in the United States is the fact that it is based on family ties and close friendships (Morehouse 100). The huge client base for commercial sex workers is the white population, closely followed by Latinos and the African Americans.
The structure of the legal system in the country is one of the elements that have influenced the growth and expansion of the occupation over the years. According to the countrys laws, prostitution identifies as a public order crime because the authorities believe it highly contributes to disruption of community order (Kyle 52). The root cause of discrimination against prostitution in the country was the allegations of white slavery that started in 1908. At the time, the federal government carried out a survey among prostitutes in a bid to establish the way they got into the business. A number of the prostitutes claimed that they got into the commercial sex as victims of white slavery that entailed kidnappings (Morehouse 109). The findings of the report led to the creation of the White-Slave Traffic Act of 1910 in a bid to end the transportation of females across states for commercial sex and other immoral purposes.
The Supreme Court is highly involved in the process of discriminating prostitution in the country. Its first major involvement was during the ruling on the Mann Act, where it expounded on the definition of immoral purposes involving women to include polygamy, adultery, and consensual debauchery (Kyle 66). Another major legal provision that sought to discriminate prostitution in the country is the Chamberlain-Khan Act of 1918. This legislation mandated the government to quarantine a woman with suspicions of having a sexually transmitted disease, where if a medical examination showed its presence them one would be charged on a count of engaging in prostitution (Raphael 67).
The act was mainly created to caution the soldiers fighting in World War I against venereal diseases. However, the fortunes of prostitutes have improved over time due to the nature of the countrys legal system, which allows everyone a chance to be heard. In Mortensen vs. United States, a lawsuit filed in 1944, the Supreme Court gave commercial sex workers the right to travel across states as long as their movements were not geared towards engaging in prostitution (Raymond 33). New York City probably made the biggest move geared towards legalizing prostitution, when they removed the need for massage parlors to have licenses. This easily turned most of the parlors into brothels. Many states followed this example and allowed for brothels as they sought to create more avenues for revenue generation (Carroll 206).
Reports indicate that the working conditions of sex workers and the involvement of courts are two major elements that have changed a lot over the years, especially after the turn of the century. The first element has been greatly influenced by technological advancements through increased use of cell phones and the internet. Unlike in the past where prostitutes were only accessible in brothels and along the streets, technology has created a new category of prostitutes called call girls (Morehouse 128). This means that all that a contemporary prostitute needs to have is a functioning cell phone and an active social media account to access as many clients as possible off the streets. With regard to the involvement of the courts, the decision by the Supreme Court to approve the use of contraceptive pills in 1960 made it better for prostitutes because they managed to prevent unwanted pregnancies (Raymond 41). Over the years, a number of prostitute rights groups have been formed with an aim to garner more respect for the occupation and fight against harsh punishments against prostitutes from the legal structure (Morehouse 133). Many prominent and powerful people have fallen from glory over the years for allegedly admitting or being caught soliciting for the services of sexual workers.
Challenges related to the legalization of prostitution
Over the years, there have been a number of arguments opposed to a proposal by various lobby groups to legalize prostitution. These arguments develop based on cultural believes and religion. One of the major cons of legalizing prostitution is the fact that it encourages immorality, thus discrediting the institution of marriage. Most cultures and religions believe that sex is a preserve for marriage, although the existence of commercial sex workers has continually created inconsistencies in its application (Carroll 221). People who are involved in prostitution, either as workers or as clients also tend to degrade themselves in terms of socialization and respect.
Another major challenge associated with the legalization of prostitution is the fact that it provides a true reflection of the few opportunities for income generation. Studies have established that most sex workers do not engage in the occupation out of will, but are rather forced by economic reasons. This also connects with human trafficking, which also identifies as a major challenge of legalizing prostitution (Raymond 49). Courts in the United States handle numerous cases of human trafficking, where innocent women are forced into prostitution under the pretense of getting better jobs. Cases of sex slavery are also a common element of prostitution that the countrys legal system has struggled to address over the years (Carroll 223).
Opponents of the proposal to legalize prostitution also identify violence as one of the main challenges faced by commercial sex workers. According to a report by the federal government, the rate of violence in the prostitution industry is very high compared to other occupations regardless of its legality (Weitzer 111). The current legal structure applied in the country applies to the disadvantage of commercial sex workers because they are not existing clauses that offer them protection or compensation in case they suffer different forms of abuse in the line of duty. Commercial sex rights activists argue that the American legal structure has neglected them and failed to legally recognize their industry, despite the fact that its a key pillar of the economy.
Another disadvantage of legalizing prostitution is the increased probability of spreading sexually transmitted diseases and infections (Weitzer 119). Reports indicate that a number of people that seek the services of prostitutes do not use protection, thus predisposing themselves to the danger of contracting various deadly diseases. The countrys legal structure has made numerous efforts to increase the awareness about the importance of practicing safe sex across all age groups. Another challenge associated with legalizing prostitution is the increased threat of social instability (Farley 109). This phenomenon is characterized by a high number of men without families. In addition, cases of infidelity also tend to increase because men have easier access to women for extramarital affairs.
Effect of the current legal system
The current legal system has been highly criticized for its failure to adequately, address the legality of the commercial sex industry. Although the occupation is regarded as highly immoral across various societies, a number of countries that have legalized it and reaped numerous benefits from doing so (Flowers 79). One of the main reasons behind the huge criticism towards the current system is its inability to protect women from the abuse and violence they suffer from engaging in commercial sex. In most cases, abused prostitutes tend to suffer in silence because they cannot report their violators. Such situations discourage women from seeking help because they fear being arrested and charged for engaging in illegal business. One of the best ways of mitigating this challenge is recognizing the legality of the commercial sex industry and allowing prostitutes to form organizations through which they can fight for their rights (Albert 9).
The current legal structure is very oppressive of sex workers, thus undermining their plights for better treatment. The biggest beneficiaries of the current legal system are the people who seek the services of prostitutes, as well as pimps. According to federal reports, pimps often procure customers for commercial sex workers and in the process make a lot of income that goes untaxed. The report also establishes the income projections that the federal government is losing from the commercial sex industry, simply because there are existing legal frameworks for regulating and monitoring its activities (Albert 11). The people who enjoy the services of prostitutes are also big beneficiaries of the current legal structure because they can easily get away with cases of abuse and violence towards women. In addition, they also have the benefit of negotiating for the price they pay to receive any service because there are no operational frameworks necessary in determining the prices (Weitzer 128).
Fixing the problem
One of the most important things to consider in any attempts to address the disadvantages associated with legalizing prostitution is the need to come up with the necessary legislation. This includes acts that will legalize the activities of commercial sex workers and tax their income. This will play a huge role in making the industry players feel more appreciated because their occupation has a direct impact on the growth of the economy (Flowers 86). The most effective legislation that I would write to address this challenge would integrate the importance of creating more avenues for income generation for the people with the need for relevant authorities to streamline the crucial sectors of the economy. It is important to ensure that the input of the legal team applies effectively, because all citizens ought to be treated equally regardless of their occupation, age, gender, race or religion (Albert 20). Another strategy that would effectively address this challenge is creating a government agency, whose mandate would be to streamline the industry by identifying the main avenues for revenue creation and regulating the category of people involved in the business. There ought to be an age limit for the people that can be allowed to visit brothels. However, the huge challenge would be limiting the activities of call girls who are easily accessible through websites and cell phones.
The government should reduce the requirements for registration of brothels as a way of encouraging commercial sex workers off the streets and being part of the legalized system (Flowers 100). It is also important to ensure that prostitutes are not allowed to operate in the streets. This will play a crucial role in making the industry gain some reputation and prevent exposing young people to the existence of the occupation. The federal government should also take more responsibility in regulating the industry by coming up with legislation that requires all state governments to register brothels within their jurisdiction (Barkan 161). Legalizing prostitution will also go a long way in reducing the disgrace associated with the occupation because commercial sex workers will have a legal identity.
Conclusion
Studies have established that prostitution is widely spread than many people or the authorities choose to believe. Over the years, the commercial sex industry has developed into a lucrative sector of the economy that supports millions of families across the world. Although the occupation has been marred with a lot of stigma and social disgrace, it is the high time for the relevant authorities recognize its existence and come up with effective legislation to regulate its activities. The benefits of legalizing prostitution outweigh its disadvantages. However, this does not mean that the cons should be ignored because they will definitely affect part of the population. The commercial sex industry is a sector that can easily affect the social order in any community if the right regulatory measures are not put in place. On the other hand, legalizing and regulating the industry in an effective manner would provide the government with more avenues for revenue creation and ensuring a healthier nation.
Works Cited
Albert, Alexa. Brothels of Nevada: Candid Views of Americas Legal Sex Industry. Princeton Architectural Press, 2003.
Barkan, Steven. Myths and Realities of Crime and Justice. Jones & Bartlett Publishers, 2013.
Farley, Melissa. Prostitution, Trafficking and Traumatic Stress. Psychology Press, 2003.
Flowers, Ronald. The Prostitution of Women and Girls. McFarland, 2010.
Kyle, David. Global Human Smuggling: Comparative Perspectives. JHU Press, 2013.
Morehouse, Christal. Combating Human Trafficking: Policy Gaps and Hidden Political Agendas in the USA and Germany. Springer Science & Business Media, 2009.
Raphael, Jody. Listening to Olivia: Violence, Poverty, and Prostitution. UPNE, 2004.
Raymond, Janice. Not a Choice, not a Job: Exposing the Myths about Prostitution and the Global Sex Trade. Potomac Books, 2013.
Weitzer, Ronald. Legalizing Prostitution: From Illicit Vice to Lawful Business. NYU Press, 2012.
Heather Montgomery presents a broad dimension of child-centered anthropological research in association with problems of practices and ethical dilemmas as a researcher while working with the most vulnerable children of the Thailand society. The author supplies an in-depth analysis of various dimensions of child prostitution in Baan Nua a slum community of Thailand. Some of the areas explored include economical and social problems as also psychological problems of a migrant community from rural Thai, problems of slum dwellers, and its rhythm of life. In Thailand, a thriving sex industry makes its money exploiting the young. Some children are coerced into prostitution and some have been sold into sexual slavery by their own families, but, just as tragically, there is no shortage of young girls (and boys) willing to work as prostitutes. (Sorajjkool, 2007).
So the topic is very relevant. The authors enthusiasm for the topic is obvious through the work. Starting with the unnamed NGO that is working with the most vulnerable children of Thai society, the author shows the detailed picture of Baan Nua, an urban slum, and its rhythm of day-to-day life. She explains different forms of child abuse and their impact on the society of Thai. The majority of the household of the Baan Nua community is possessing very low incomes or have no work. As a result of this phenomenon majority of the third and fourth-generation children are engaged in prostitution work to sustain their families. The author says that without being conscious of their limited right and social and psychological impact on them, they are obligated to enter into this lucrative business for the survival of their family. The researcher also draws a picture of a society where only a few social organizations are there to take care of the needs of the marginalized section of the society.
It gives an insight into both Governmental Organizations (GOs) and Non- Governmental Organizations (NGOs) to redefine their roles and responsibility especially in the tourism industry to protect the moral rights and welfare of their informed citizen. Todays global privatized world tourism is emerging as the one of the lucrative businesses along with its negative impact on the society and also Thailand is named as 3rd in the sex tourism industry. (Country in focus: Thailand, 2007). In the context of this threat , this work would have wider socio- political impacts on the world. This research work also examines the ill-effect of child prostitution and its in-depth roots. One negative aspect is that Montgomery almost seems to justify a childs decision to become a prostitute. The following sentence in her work is indicative of the fact. This enabled them to see themselves, not as prostitutes, but rather as dutiful daughters and sons undertaking socially approved roles of support. (Problems of access and interpretation, 2007, p. 419).
This academic research work is an excellent source to students, educators, and child centered anthropologists.. This work also describes the everyday life of anthropologist in the field such as the entry point to a community, rapport with clients, ethical dimensions and limitations of researcher in this field. It raises several questions on the ethics of a researcher especially working with these kinds of social problems also. Many times the researcher himself/herself needs to limit his or her freedom as a researcher rather than a human being. But like other researchers, Heather Montgomery is not giving satisfactory explanation to solve these kinds of dilemma. Many times, author tries to justify the prostitution profession with stories rather than formulating solution to this social evil.
As an academic research work it contributes to the child centered anthropological research in a fruitful way in its content and subject knowledge. The researcher has adopted very apt methodology for data collection. The storytelling methods and case studies have been presented in its perfection to expose the gravity of the problem. A writing style that can be labeled as emotive writing to evoke feelings in readers is seen occasionally. In any academic writing, if you use emotive words you must be able to justify them. It is not academic to make judgments without justification. (Development level advice, 2004). The author does justice to the above statement in the article. This study is not merely an academic research but it will help anthropologist researchers and social policy makers to deal effectively with problems related to children; like when the author remarks that Thai Government is lacking in baseline data about the child prostitutes in their land. Hence it will act as a basic data for further studies in this line.
This work promotes very vast scope in the area of child centered anthropologist work in coming years. It will serve as a baseline data for further studies in the negative impact of child centered prostitution. This work will also help policy makers to plan and implement more mitigation measure as well as programs for the welfare of the society. So this study will explore the possibility of intervention by social institutions especially ,NGOs to act as a mediator for the wellbeing of the community.
Reference
Country in focus: Thailand. (2008). Fire Earth: Environmental Issues [Filtered, Stifled & Blocked by Google]. Web.
Development level advice: The effect your words create-the choice you can make: Example. (2004). Writing for university Courses-Use of Words. Web.
Problems of access and interpretation: Heather Montgomery: Working With Child Prostitutes in Thailand: Problems of practice and interpretation. (2007). Sage. 419. (Provided by student).
Sorajjkool, Siroj. (2007). Child prostitution in Thailand: Listening to Rahab: What can be learn from the tragedy of these exploited young people. Routledge Taylor & Francis group. Web.
Even though legalizing prostitution will protect women by allowing them to conduct business indoors in safer, healthier conditions, prostitution should remain as it is under the Criminal Code of Canada and should not be legalized because current laws prevent the commercialization of prostitution and protect women involved from violence and human trafficking thus decriminalizing prostitution could cause women to view it as a career and lead to red light districts across the country. In a bid to control the influx of prostitution, the Canadian government banned all form of communication with the aim of purchasing or selling sexual services (Young, 2008)
Legalization/decriminalization of prostitution and the sex industry promotes sex trafficking
Human trafficking for the purpose of forced prostitution has been recognized as one of the most problematic global issue. Several nations in the world have enacted rules to control the vice and also to address the needs of the victims (Monique, 2003). Sex trafficking occurs both within the countrys boundaries and across the borders and involves transportation of people whose motivation is based on profiteering (Chuang, 1998). Canada for a long time has acted both as a destination and a transit point for human trafficking (Qadeer, 2003).The increased vulnerability to duping and exploitation of women is largely attributable to political, economic, and social factors of societies (Derks, 2001). The cultural set up of many communities in the developing countries tends to marginalize women which expose them to cyclic poverty. Such cultures place very little value on the role of women in work and tend to disregard their contribution in economic development. Lack of adequate educational and employment opportunities tend to aggravate the problem further which increases their level of vulnerability.
Although legalizing it might be true that prostitution helps contain the trade by taking it from the back street, the Prostitution industry provides a façade for human trafficking where victims are duped into taking job offers later to be subjected to human slavery by prostitution rings. A survey carried out in the Netherlands found out that 80% of all prostitutes in the brothels had been trafficked into the country (Budapest Group, 1999: 11). According to International Organization of Migration, 70% were trafficked from Eastern and central European countries. (IOM, 1995: 4). The situation was complicated by the legalization of prostitution as an acceptable economic activity hence giving room for sex workers from the European Union block to obtain work permits as long as they can provide prove of self employment. This provided a loophole for traffickers to ship in more women whom they coach on how to prove that they are self-employed in order to obtain work permits. Following the legalization of prostitution in Germany, 75% of prostitutes in the country were immigrants from the South American countries according to Altink (1993). Many NGOs contend that these women must have been trafficked because there was no way the poor women could have afforded the cost of facilitation of their own travel arrangements nor the set up fees for their businesses without external aid. This points out at an organized ring of human trafficking.
The sex industry increases child prostitution
The sex industry is responsible for the increase in child prostitution across the globe. For example according to ChildRight organization, child prostitution in Netherlands has increased drastically from 4000 in 1996 to about 15000 in 2001. Of these, they estimate that about 5000 are from Nigeria (Tiggeloven, 2001). In Australia, child prostitution was reported to be highest in the State of Victoria where prostitution was legal. Studies carried out by ECPAT unearthed evidence of organized commercial child trafficking in the state which questions the ethics behind legalization of prostitution. Recruitment of young children into the trade is increasingly becoming rampant across the globe. Today, the internet is awash with child pornography content which fuels the trade. Cases have been reported where employment bureaus are set up in the name of recruiting girls for licit jobs but who are later coerced into prostitution. It is reasonable to conclude that as long as the prostitution business remains legal, children will continue being recruited into the illicit trade.
Legalization/decriminalization of prostitution does not protect the women in prostitution
Most prostitutes do not engage in the business by choice but are forced into it by a myriad of factors that conspire to push them into the business. Choices are usually imposed upon her by the clients rather than through a consensual agreement. Many more are coerced into the business especially those that are trafficked.
Women will still suffer physical violence from pimps and buyers
Another worrying consequence of decriminalizing the trade is the abuse of the prostitutes in the hands of pimps and clients who subject them to physical violence. It is true that legalization empowers women against abuse by pimps and clients through various policies instituted in the law but in reality many prostitutes are injured and sometimes even killed by ruthless clients and agents. Studies have revealed that the greatest cause of death in most prostitutes was homicide. The prevalence of homicide in active prostitutes was 17 times higher than non prostitute population (Anonymous, 2004). In a study carried out in Colorado Springs, it was found that homicide accounted for 19% of the causes of deaths among prostitutes (Potterat et al.2004). Some people masquerading as clients are known to inflict serious injuries or even death upon the prostitutes. For example, Steve Wright, a fork lift truck driver was charged in 2006 with murdering five prostitutes in London (Cheston, 2008). Others are reported to lure the prostitutes into backstreet dens where they have violently robbed them and sometimes murdered them.
In a study carried out by CATW 5, 80% of the women interviewed admitted to having been assaulted by their pimps and the clients and also suffered from the effects of sexual exploitation and violence. Violence was visited by the pimps to enforce compliance, to attain sexual gratification, to force new recruits into prostitution, as punishment, and to intimidate them. Besides these, rape cases are also rampant among prostitutes many of whom will admit to having been raped at an instance. Another risk facing prostitutes is battery when they demand for the use of condom during sex. This means that prostitutes work under very dangerous environments and those who seek to legalize it do not address the security of the sexual worker who is under the mercy of pimps and the clients. Hence going by the potential risk associated with practice it makes sense to retain the rules as they are rather than legalize it.
Monitoring prostituted women does not protect them from HIV/AIDS or STDs
The existing legalized systems only make it mandatory for health checks and certification on the prostitutes without any requirements on the side of the clients. This is discriminatory on the women as it fails to protect them from infection from HIV/AIDS and other venereal diseases from their clients. In a study carried out among the U.S. prostitutes, 47% of those interviewed revealed that their clients expected sex without a condom, while 73% said that they got higher payments without using condoms (Raymond, 2003). Another 45% admitted to physical violence on insisting on the use of condoms. It is a fact that legalization allows authorities to enforce the condom policy but many prostitution establishments had condom policies on paper which were however not enforced. In fact, many pimps pressured women not to use condoms in pursuit for higher pays. Furthermore, the safety policies employed by the brothels did not work to protect the prostitutes. Security officers on duty did not enforce the use of condoms as they were more interested with security of the business while the prostitutes was relegated to second place.
Legalization/decriminalization of prostitution increases the demand for prostitution
Although it appears valid that legalization reduces the attractiveness of prostitution, in reality it motivates men to overindulge in the procurement of sex in a socially acceptable setting.
Many men who would not risk buying women for sex would now see prostitution as acceptable
Decriminalization of sex makes it acceptable to those men who would not have otherwise risked soliciting for it. Legal legitimization of prostitution paves way for a broader social and cultural legitimization of marginalization of women as sexual commodities. This tends to have a negative socialization effect of each coming generation of men who adapt to the prevailing societal perception. The growing boys have the urge to experiment with the prostitutes due to rampant exposure through explicit publicity. This inclines them to the vice which they deem normal as they grow and easily follow their predecessors into brothels. Further, with legalization comes excess supply which further pushes down the prices for the sex services hence increasing affordability which in turn encourages more men to indulge.
The disabled persons in legalized countries are also accorded sexual services by being taken to brothels by government employed workers. For example in Victoria in Australia, sex is advertised along highways just like any other commodity while hotels and club encourage businessmen to host their corporate meetings in them where they are served women between breaks (Sullivan & Jeffreys, 2001). Sweden just like Canadas current law prohibits and punishes any pedaling or purchase of sexual services which helps to curb the demand for sexual services.
Women will have to compete to provide services by engaging in unsafe activities with clients.
Due to excess supply of sexual services, women are forced to enhance their service offering through differentiation by engaging in anal sex and sex without condoms, sexual bondage and domination among others (Raymond, 2003). Some engage in unprotected sexual orgies with multiple partners who increase their risk of contracting HIV/AIDS and other sexually transmitted diseases. Oral sex among prostitutes with clients also increases their vulnerability. Competition from brothels that had no mandatory requirements for condoms also made the brothels abandon condom use to attract more customers, a situation that put the women at a high risk of contracting HIV/AIDS and other diseases.
Thesis Conclusion
Its no doubt that although legalizing prostitution could somewhat protect women by allowing them to conduct business indoors in safer, healthier conditions, prostitution should remain as it is under the Criminal Code of Canada and not be legalized for two main reasons. First, current laws prevent the commercialization of prostitution and protect women involved from violence and human trafficking. But most importantly, decriminalizing prostitution could cause women to view it as a career and lead to red light districts across the country.
Reference List
Altink, S. (1995). Stolen Lives: Trading Women into Sex and Slavery, London. Scarlet Press.
Anonymous. (2004). Prostitution laws: health risks and hypocrisy. Canadian Medical Association. Journal , Vol. 171 ( Iss. 2), p. 109, 111 (1 pp.).
Cheston, P. (2008). Forklift driver in court over serial killing of prostitutes. Web.
Chuang, J. Redirecting the Debate over Trafficking in Women: Definitions, Paradigms, and Contexts. Harv. Hum. Rts. J. 11 (1998):65-107.
Derks, A. (2000). Combating Trafficking in South East Asia: A Review of Policy and Programme Responses. International Organization for Migration Research Series. Web.
IOM (International Organization for Migration) (1995). Trafficking and Prostitution: the Growing Exploitation of Migrant Women from Central and Eastern Europe. Budapest: IOM Migration Information Program.
Potterat JJ, Brewer DD, Muth SQ, Rothenberg RB, Woodhouse DR, Muth JB, et al. Mortality in a long-term open cohort of prostitute women. Am J Epidemiol 2004; 159:778-85.
QADEER, N. (2003). Canada take note: a comparative perspective on trafficking. Canadian Woman Studies, Vol. 22 (Iss. 3/4), p. 72-77.
Raymond, J.G. (2003). 10 Reasons for Not Legalizing Prostitution. Web.
Sullivan, M. and Jeffreys, S. (2001). Legalizing Prostitution is Not the Answer: the Example of Victoria, Australia. Coalition Against Trafficking in Women, Australia and USA. Web.
Tiggeloven, C. (2001). Child Prostitution in the Netherlands. Web.
Young, A. (2008). The state is still in the bedrooms of the nation: The control and regulation of sexuality in Canadian criminal law. The Canadian Journal of Human Sexuality, Vol. 17 (Iss. 4), p. 203-220 (18 pp.).