Without a doubt, propaganda is one of the most powerful forms of advertisement. It operates with the sole purpose of influencing the beliefs and opinions of a large group of individuals. Merriam-Webster Online (2007) operationally defines it as “the spreading of ideas, information, or rumor for the purpose of helping or injuring an institution, a cause, or a person.” Propaganda can take several different forms. There can be truth in propaganda or it can be a blatant attempt at deception. Its importance does not lie in its truth value. What is important for propaganda is that it provides clearly biased information as a way of influencing the actions and beliefs of a large group of individuals.
In keeping with the goal of propaganda—to be a social influencer, propaganda operates to present a message which dictates a change in behavior or attitude. In order for it to be effective, the message has to be received by the individuals it is aiming at influencing. In so doing, it has to utilize a medium for mass communication. This medium can be television, newspapers, books, flyers, posters or the Internet. Whatever the medium utilized, the message must be powerful enough to persuade the receivers and it has to be capable of being incorporated an individual’s conscious thought process. When the message is incorporated within the individual’s thought processes, it causes a change in beliefs or may cause a change in behavioral patterns (McDonald & Palmer, 2003).
Main Text
Rutherford (2000, p. 260) delineates the difference between propaganda and intellectual forms of persuasion as one which is based on the truth value of claims made. He is of the opinion that lies comprise the lion’s share of propaganda and describes it as a very powerful tool utilized in the arena of politics. He feels that the only aim of propaganda is to benefit the sponsor. In benefiting the sponsor, many individuals may be harmed. The fact that it may harm innocent individuals is not a concern in propaganda.
Propaganda can further be differentiated from intellectual forms of persuasion in that the goal of intellectual forms of persuasion is to provide individuals with the knowledge necessary to make intelligent and informed decisions. In presenting the information to individuals, they make a powerful statement that can be supported by a body of empirical research or other grounded facts. It is the aim of intellectual forms of persuasion to inform not to deceive.
The true power of propaganda can be seen in the WWII mass media campaigns aimed at women. The circumstances were such that the United States government was faced with an unprecedented problem. That problem involved the recruitment efforts aimed at benefiting the economy and the government by the enticing women to enter the workforce. The government faced a monumental challenge which was facilitated, to a large degree, by the massive deployment of troops during the war.
This caused a great economic problem in that the men who previously held factory jobs were now forced to fight in the war. This left the government in a precarious position—how are they to fill those positions and ensure economic viability? As a direct result, the government engaged in propaganda by mass distributing posters which depicted women in non-traditional work and engaging employment outside of the home (See Figures, 1, 2 & 3). Additionally, wartime propaganda for women flourished everywhere, and within a relatively short time, the female war worker was given a new place of honor in the media (See Figure 4).
Although when the war began, 95% of the women who went to work planned to relinquish their jobs, women quickly acclimated to their new roles in industry. They liked the work and the pay, and they were not eager to revert to their prewar lifestyles. (Hartman & Wood, 1995). As a result, when the end of the war was in sight, new “reversed” propaganda campaigns were created and deployed to convince this same group of women to leave their jobs and instead make a post war vocation of homemaking and consumerism for the good of their country. (Lewis, 2000). In addition, during WWII, conserving material resources was imperative.
Campaigns to garner and maintain public support in these conservation efforts were spearheaded by the U.S. government. In this state of emergency, the government relied heavily upon propaganda campaigns to quickly instill new habits in the American public. After the war, however, an unprecedented high level of mass consumerism was required to support the economy. To help America successfully convert to a peacetime economy, media campaigns were again created to actively encourage consumption by equating this new lifestyle with patriotic ideals. The American housewife was required to make several diametrically opposed changes in her lifestyle, values and habits in a very short period of time, and the U.S. Government needed to utilize the media to full effect to make this happen.
Propaganda holds a very powerful place in American society. It has been utilized as a tool for political persuasion and to influence the masses. It is extremely crucial when the nation is engaged in a war. Historically, it has been used to bring about systematic changes such as those witnessed during WWII wherein there was a dire need for women in the workforce. It was utilized to entice the women to enter into the workforce as well as to encourage them to return to their traditional roles as homemakers at the end of the war. The fact that it can be utilized for very contradictory reasons illustrates its very powerful and dangerous nature. Realizing its inherent power, it should be used responsibly and very sparingly.
Each time I see the Army recruitment posters depicting Uncle Sam and stating that “Uncle Sam Wants You!!!” I am reminded of the deceptive nature of propaganda utilized by the Armed forces to recruit so many of the nation’s young people. It is truly enraging when one realizes that the deception present in this propaganda is blatant and there are still individuals who believe it.
Propaganda is a method of communication which is used to influence the attitudes of specific groups of individuals towards a particular cause or position (Propaganda, 2010).
In essence, instead of a sense of impartiality propaganda actually presents information in such a way so as to influence an audience through selective dissemination of information in order to create an emotional rather than a rational response to certain issues (Propaganda, 2010).
For example in the case of the Australia’s cancellation of the Fuel Watch program Senator Xenaphon utilized propaganda stating that Fuel Watch was not an effective means of helping consumers stating the need to tackle the big four oil companies using another method, what most people fail to notice is that he omits the details the successes the Fuel Watch program actually had which indicates possible ulterior motives on his part (Battersby, 2008).
His actions resulted in the end of the National Fuel Watch scheme which to an extent could be considered a step back from giving consumers more control over how they purchase gasoline (VACC, 2008). What must be understood is that propaganda utilizes elements such as loaded questions, partial synthesis or even lying by omission in order to gain the desired response (Wilcox & Cameron 2009).
One use of effective propaganda can be seen in the online article “Cultural Cringe where the writer selectively introduces facts which lambasts and derides the Australian video presentation for its World Cup 2022 bid (Hunter, 2010).
Throughout the article there is little mention of the creativity that went into the video, the unique approach that Australia took or the overwhelming positive response viewers had for the commercial, rather, what is mentioned is nothing more than a continuous tirade focused against commercial itself (Hunter, 2010).
It must be noted though the use of the term propaganda, as stated by Wilcox, has been connected to falsehoods, lies and deception (Wilcox & Cameron, 2009). It is true though that propaganda used by various PR departments have been utilized in various political campaigns as a form of political warfare where detrimental facts on rival candidates are released to the general public (Propaganda, 2010).
On the other hand propaganda is also used in various public information campaigns by governments for positive effects such as the Australian governments fight against illegal downloads connoting their use with stealing and its use by the U.S. during the invasion of Afghanistan and Iraq as a supposed “war on terror”. In essence the use of propaganda and its effects can be associated with the ethical reasoning behind its usage.
The ethics of persuasion
Wilcox states “perception is interpreted as being used in the following manner: to change or neutralize hostile opinions, to crystallize latent opinions and positive attitudes, and finally to conserve favorable opinions” (Wilcox & Cameron, 2009). As such the importance of persuasion to successful contemporary public relations all boils down to its ability to influence individuals towards a certain train of thought.
As such it can be stated that persuasion shapes perceptions and thus the way people interpret and accept information. As seen in the examples related to propaganda, persuasion should always attempt to follow a certain ethical guideline when used in Public Relations.
The concept of corporate social responsibility should be considered an integral part of most PR practices due to its ability to sway public opinion either in favor for or against a particular company (Berenbeim, 2006). For PR departments what should be considered good for the company should also be directly proportional to what is beneficial for consumers.
In such cases where the good of the company is put above that of the consumer that in itself is in direct violation of the ethical guidelines of persuasion (Messina, 2007). One example of honest and effective persuasion can be seen in the Bowen article summarizing the necessity for the fuel watch scheme and outlining exactly what it entails (Bowen, 2008).
On the other hand an example in Australia of the ethical violation of persuasion is the production and sale of vitamin water by Glacéau in which the company states that the water being sold has been “enriched” with vitamins in order to aid people attain a healthy lifestyle (Adam, 2008).
Far from actually contributing to a person’s health and well being vitamin water and its additives could potentially cause health problems in the future, especially if the product is consumed on a regular basis as a replacement for water (Glaceau lands Coke in deep water, 2010).
On average a single bottle of vitamin water produced by Glacéau contains 32 grams of crystalline fructose which is nothing more than a derivative of high fructose corn syrup which numerous scholarly articles and independent journals have linked to the rapid onset of obesity in various populations.
In this case not only is the company marketing drinks with vitamins which might not even be absorbed but the amount of sugars present in each drink is actually detrimental for the future health of a person especially if they replace ordinary water with vitamin drinks.
This example is a clear case of what not to use persuasion for, not only is it in direct violation of corporate social responsibility but convincing people to think that a drink is healthy when in fact it could cause health is problems is highly unethical by most standards.
Persuasion should be done when either trying to establish an idea, state relevant facts or modes of thought, it should not be used to directly lie to an audience and convince them to do something which could possibly endanger their well being (Messina, 2007).
Conclusion
Based on the information presented it can be stated without question that effective persuasion truly does shape perceptions and thus the way people interpret and accept information which makes it an important tool in contemporary public relations. It must be noted though that just because a persuasive argument is effective does not make it ethical.
Examples such as the case of vitamin water show that at times persuasive arguments are used in such a way that their results are actually detrimental towards people. It is up to people taking PR whether to discern through proper ethical reasoning whether what they use persuasive skills for will result in either beneficial or detrimental results.
References
Adam, C. 2008, Coke uncorks water brand in Australia, B&T Magazine, 58, 2646, p. 3, Business Source Premier, EBSCOhost.
Berenbeim, R. E. 2006, ‘Business Ethics and Corporate Social Responsibility’, Vital Speeches of the Day, 72, 16/17, pp. 501-504, Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost.
Bowen, C. (MP) 2008, A national fuelwatch scheme, joint media release with Hon. Kevin Rudd MP, Australian Government Treasury, p. 1. Web.
Glaceau lands Coke in deep water 2010, Marketing Week (01419285), 33, 31, p. 12, Vocational and Career Collection, EBSCOhost.
Messina, A. 2007, ‘Public relations, the public interest and persuasion: an ethical approach’, Journal of Communication Management, 11, 1, pp. 29-52, Business Source Premier, EBSCOhost.
Propaganda 2010, Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th Edition, p. 1, Literary Reference Center, EBSCOhost.
VACC 2008, VAAC welcomes the end of the national Fuelwatch Scheme, media release, p. 1. Web.
Wilcox, D. L. & Cameron, G. T. 2009, Public relations: strategies and tactics, 9th edn, p. 229 – 242,(international edn), Pearson Education, Boston, Massachusetts.
Although the term “propaganda” has been in the public domain for several centuries now, its use increased substantially during World War 1 and World War 2 when nations attempted to disseminate ideas, information, and rumors in an organized and deliberate endeavor to influence the public opinion.1 In contemporary times, various players continue to use propaganda in a multiplicity of contexts with the view to influencing the public discourse through an organized and deliberate transmission of ideas and values. The present paper presents evidence and documentation to demonstrate that propaganda is indeed a social phenomenon.
The debate on whether propaganda is a technique or a phenomenon has been ongoing in many scholarly and practitioner-oriented forums, with the outcomes showing little probability of achieving a middle ground. It is important to note that this paper uses Randal Marlin’s definition, which describes the concept as “the organized attempt through communication to affect belief or action or inculcate attitudes in a large audience in ways that circumvent or suppress an individual’s adequately informed, rational, reflective judgment.”2
This definition not only shows that propaganda is essentially a social phenomenon which is in large part experienced in social contexts3 but also demonstrates particular characteristics (e.g., organization, ideological underpinnings, use of communication, mass uniformity of belief or behavior, circumvention of the reasoning process through heavy reliance to emotional appeals) that qualify propaganda as a social phenomenon.4
Available literature demonstrates that “propaganda is a way of mediating our response to social phenomena and our relationship with society.”5 Unlike a technique which denotes a way or methodology of carrying out a particular task or procedure, propaganda is a far more diversified and multifaceted phenomenon that can never be viewed or analyzed in the absence of the larger society and its people.
Propaganda may qualify as a technique if it is evaluated in terms of a way or methodology which is often used to generate certain psychological effects (e.g. crystallization, alienation, dissociation, mithridatization, and sensibilization) or sociopolitical effects (e.g., ideology, public opinion, grouping, in a democracy) among a particular group of the population.6 However, propaganda is deeper in context and scope than being a mere technique as it is interpreted by individuals within the social context and also exploits social grievances to get the message across.
Of course some scholars have preferred to perceive propaganda primarily as a technique not only due to its deliberate and systematic nature, but also because of the widespread understanding that a technique, rather than a social phenomenon, is largely responsible in qualifying propagandists as instrumental and intentional actors.7 Jacques Ellul, comprehensively cited in propaganda literature, buys into this debate and argues that propaganda is itself a technique resulting from the application of the social sciences to the technology domain with the view to promoting acceptance to other techniques.8
However, such a predisposition is only valid to the extent that various technological inventions being experienced today are requiring the adaptation of human beings to the requirements of such inventions rather than adapting the inventions to human needs, practices and capacities. Furthermore, a technique may be unable to shape the perceptions or manipulate the cognitions of the targeted population in the absence of a social context, hence the need to view propaganda as a social phenomenon.
Without the social context, it is increasingly difficult for any propagandist to distribute certain cognitions and sensitivities with the view to generating behavior that the propagandist views as desirable, or to develop and reinforce certain messages whose effects are much more long-lasting over decades, if not longer.9 For example, a firm may employ advertisement to replace an effective automobile gearbox with a new product that appears to accomplish the same effectiveness with minimal investment, but actually it does not.
This example may use visual propaganda (advertisement) as a technique to pass the message on to the customers with the intention of creating a particular human need for the new product. However, the visual propaganda will definitely fail if it is not located within the social context and if it does not make use of the various tenets of propaganda as described in the beginning of this paper, implying that propaganda is much more deeper than a mere technique.
Lastly, the many elements contained in the term “propaganda” qualify it as a social phenomenon rather than merely a technique. Edgar Henderson, also comprehensively in propaganda scholarship, argues that propaganda is basically a social phenomenon owing to its objectivity and capacity to appeal to the psychological or sociopsychological dispositions of individuals.10 As demonstrated in the literature, propaganda covers more than a technique, particularly in terms of the central role it plays in society to the extent that no meaningful economic or political development can be achieved without the influence of its immense power.11
Overall, this paper has used facts and documentation to demonstrate that propaganda is a phenomenon rather than a technique, and that the social context must be taken into consideration for various experiences to be termed as propaganda. Although several scholars have evaluated and analyzed propaganda as a technique, it is evident that the concept is much deeper in scope and nature than what could be explained in simple terms as a technique.
When attempting a retrospective on the history of United States of America, the nature of American statehood becomes quite apparent. The fact that the greatest portion of its existence America has been exploiting slave labor, marking it as its greatest pillar of its economical success, can be made clear by anyone studying history with an unbiased vision. However, the so-called “Jim Crow” era might pose even a greater interest, since it is particularly at this time the true face of supposed American democracy shows through. In the following presentation, visual evidence along with factual information pertaining to the era is offered – and, albeit being incredibly assuring, it allows for an independent, objective decision to be made.
Erwitt, E. (1950). North Carolina. Magnum. Web.
“A picture is worth a thousand words” – and these words even more compelling if it is a photograph. This one – which might be the most famous representation of Jim Crow’s blatant inequality, is of a man drinking from a segregated water fountain. The quality of the services offered to “colored” people, It comes as no surprise, that all public facilities and spaces were segregated, particularly in the Southern states. The jumpstart for racial segregation of Jim Crow is traditionally from a 1892 court case, Plessy v. Ferguson, “concerning whether racial segregation laws requiring African Americans and whites to use different public facilities were constitutional” (Hussey, 2016, p. 28).
Wolcott, M. P. (1939). Negro going in colored entrance of movie house on Saturday afternoon. Library of Congress. Web.
Naturally, the propaganda of Jim Crow spread into numerous areas of American lifestyle – from advertisement and media to the functioning of public spaces, healthcare faculties, movie theatres and amusement parks, public pools and housing. Movie theatres, like many other faculties like cafes and restaurants, were enforcing the racist regime of segregation out of sheer will – and the appeal of economic profits – while not being guided by law directly. According to Gil & Marion (2019), “segregation in public accommodation persisted in many parts of the country”, and while Southern states legislated the separation, “segregation was often practiced by choice of businesses” such as movie theatres. Some movie theatres refused to serve black customers at all, while others offered segregated seats farthest from the screen. As evidence shows, this decision was not depriving of profit the owner: since its stakeholders, whose majority constitutes whites with racist prejudices.
Wolcott, M. P. (1939). A doctor’s office in Merigold, Mississippi. Library of Congress. Web.
Segregation was denying them adequate fulfillment of their civil and human rights. Such is the case with healthcare – and schooling, for that matter – during the times of Jim Crow. As Newkirk writes, “segregation is baked into the way people and institutions discuss healthcare”. The effect of the restrictions put on healthcare, arguably, can still be seen in the modern times when inspecting the sociological condition of African-Americans. In the times under discussion, Jim Crow outlawed any form of integration of healthcare, making it completely separated for black and white population. Many hospitals “maintained separate wings or staff that could never intermingle” (Newkirk, 2016). As education was also rigidly segregated, the black hospitals experienced the deficit of medical professionals of African origin (Newkirk, 2016). General poorer healthcare of black people, however, is a result of conditioned living in more dangerous and unhealthy ways – and while some deaths are attributable to being denied medical services, most come from a cumulative factors.
Blackwell, F. (1963). A sit-in demonstration at Woolworth’s lunch counter in Jackson, Missisipi. The Washington Post. Web.
While later, black people efficiently used parks as spaces for social protest, there was another place where colored people frequently protested. These places are diners, cafes, restaurants – where black people were often prohibited to sit at the lunch counter and we expected to stand and eat instead (Hussey, 2016). A group of revolutionary students, however, was determined to change that. Franklin McCain, , David Richmond Jibreel Khazan and Joseph McNeil – known as the Greensborough Four – conducted a peaceful protest sitting at the lunch counter. The demonstration was torturous for the students as the gathered crowd assaulted the protesters in many ways (Civil Rights). However, these lunch counter sit-ins had a wide media coverage nationwide and as a result, a number of Southern restaurants started to integrate (Nolan). In that sense, this form of protest can be considered a spark for the Civil Rights Movement.
Parks, G. (1956). Outside Looking In; Mobile, Alabama. Gordon Parks Foundation. Web.
Coming back to the topic of entertainment and relaxation, one must say that amusement parks and playgrounds were segregated as well. They, like all other aspects of social life of black population were majorly suppressed. For instance, in New Orleans, three parks in particular – Dixie Park, Lincoln Park, and Johnson Park – became a symbol of black initiative in arranging a recreational space for the community. This was done not only out of enthusiasm – but out of necessity, when African-Americans realized their efforts to petition the government to appoint black parks, were in vain (McQueeney, 2019). In the beginning, parks were whites-only spaces since “the late 19th and early 20th centuries” (McQueeney, 2019, p. 445). The same happened in other cities, like Atlanta, Houston and Memphis – around the same time period (McQueeney, 2019). Thus, parks were one of the most segregated public spaces, however, black people were still able to integrate them, despite in insufficient numbers.
Advertisements of the era
The topic of ads of Jim Crow era is particularly interesting, and perhaps, one of the most repugnant to a sane person. Ads, posters, household items and toys were used for a variety of reasons from conditioning whites to despise black people to exploiting the stereotypes to sell a product (Hix, 2016). All this riotous imagery was used precisely for reinforcement of the racial regime. To say the least, “If you believed that black men were Sambos, childlike buffoons, for example, then why would they be allowed to vote?” (Hix, 2016, p. 11). Essentially, “caricatures, and the stereotypes which accompanied them, became rationalizations for keeping blacks at the bottom” of social order (Hix, 2016, p. 14). The stereotypes portrayed different aspects – one, the idea that African-Americans are natural servants; or – oversexualized women known as Sapphires. (Hix, 2016).
References
Blackwell, F. (1963). A sit-in demonstration at Woolworth’s lunch counter in Jackson, Missisipi [Photograph]. The Washington Post. Web.
Erwitt, E. (1950). North Carolina, 1950 [Photograph]. Magnum. Web.
Gil, R. &Marion, J. (2019). Why did firms practice segregation? Evidence from movie theatres during Jim Crow. UCSC. Web.
McQueeney, K. G. (2019). More than Recreation: Black Parks and Playgrounds in Jim Crow New Orleans. Louisiana History: The Journal of the Louisiana Historical Association, 60(4) , pp. 437-478
Parks, G. (1956). Outside Looking In; Mobile, Alabama. [Photograph]. Gordon Parks Foundation.
Schenck’s Seaweed Tonic. (1885). Boston Public Library via Digital Commonwealth. Web.
Unknown poster, (n.d.). Jim Crow Museum of Racist Memorabilia
Wolcott, M. P. (1939). Negro going in colored entrance of movie house on Saturday afternoon [Photograph]. Library of Congress. Web.
Wolcott, M. P. (1939). A doctor’s office in Merigold, Mississippi [Photograph]. Library of Congress. Web.
The article reviewed in this paper, titled Propaganda: How Not to Be Bamboozled, written by Donna Woolfolk Cross, talks about basic propaganda techniques. The article itself relies heavily on the use of Logos, with increments of Pathos and Ethos to support its claim and deliver desired messages. Pathos is utilized to showcase the effectiveness of certain propaganda techniques. Pejoratives like “two-faced liar” or words associated with virtue and goodness, like “The American Way,” are used as examples to demonstrate how words may shape the emotional connotation of what we are reading (Cross). Ethos is practically nonexistent, as there is no direct reference to authority.
The majority of the article is dedicated to Logos, however, presenting logical arguments and examples. The author stipulates that Propaganda in itself is neither good nor bad, as it can promote different ideals (Cross). She offers examples of real-life rhetoric to demonstrate and allow the audience to perceive how they are being manipulated by various fallacies and demagoguery.
Perhaps the most fascinating part of the article was that, despite the subject being propaganda, it also attempts to sway the reader subtly, by implementing an association fallacy. The majority of examples (excluding one with a quote from Lenin) were right-wing talking points: “The American Way,” “Constitutional rights,” “American Birthright,” “Now I’m a businessman like yourselves,” “‘Community’ and ‘Communism’ look an awful lot alike!” and others (Cross). When examples of negativity can be largely attributed only to one side, the folly occurs as follows: Subject A is generally considered negative. Group B is presented to implement subject A regularly. Group B is, therefore, painted in a negative light. While all of the examples offered were, indeed, propaganda, the lack of representation for the opposing side utilizing the same techniques makes this a politically charged article, and, ironically, a tool for propaganda.
Work Cited
Cross, Woodfolk Donna. “Propaganda: How Not to Be Bamboozled.” Web.
Communication is one of the major pillars of the development of human societies and the progress of humanity. People share knowledge and experience to inform newer generations or other groups about the most effective ways to address challenges. However, communication has also been aimed at making others behave in particular ways or make certain decisions.1 In many ways, persuasion has had a favorable effect on the development of society. Rhetoric has been one of the oratory instruments employed to persuade the audience. Rhetoric is also referred to as the art of persuasion as speakers utilize skillful means to achieve their objectives. Propaganda is also associated with the persuasion that can target diverse spheres of people’s lives.2 This paper dwells upon the difference between rhetoric and propaganda with a focus on the political agenda.
Defining Rhetoric
In order to understand the essence of the two terms, it is important to consider the available definitions and meanings assigned to rhetoric and propaganda in the modern world. The term rhetoric was coined by Plato in response to Sophists’ philosophy that was different from the philosopher’s paradigm.2 The word is derived from the Greek word rhetoric meaning the virtuosity of orator.2 Plato introduced the word to refer to “relativistic language games that he accused Sophists, such as Protagoras, Gorgias, Antiphon, and Isocrates of pursuing”.2 (p156) Plato saw his opponents’ methods as instruments to persuade and impress with the focus on the form rather than content. The philosopher insisted that Sophists tried to persuade people and make them believe in their postulates that were devoid of meaning and corrupted young people’s minds. Ironically, he utilized similar tools against Sophists such as the so-called strategy of naming and shaming that depreciated other philosophers’ arguments and their personal characteristics.
However, Plato’s approach was rather reconsidered by his famous student and follower, Aristotle, who had a more positive view of rhetoric. Aristotle concentrated on rhetoric as a means to provide sound arguments to support claims.3 While Plato saw rhetoric as the dangerous power of words, his student believed words’ power could have a positive influence on society as it would enhance reasoning and making correct decisions and choices. Aristotle stressed that rhetoric could be used to reveal the truth in a clearer way “through the construction of persuasive argumentation”.2 (p. 157) In simple terms, the Aristotelian approach is positive and focused on the provision of clear and effective arguments to support the speakers’ claim to make it understandable for the target audience. The major goal of rhetoric is not to deceive or confuse but support with evidence and bring the central point to the fore. This stance of a good person speaking well was the central component of rhetoric, as seen in the Medieval world.2
It is noteworthy that the Middle Ages and the epoch of Enlightenment could be characterized by the Aristotelian model with specific stress on morality. For example, George Campbell, who was one of the influential thinkers of the eighteenth century, paid substantial attention to the moral facet of rhetoric and its positive effect. He stated that rhetoric attempted to present “a lively and beautiful representation of a suitable object” and awaken “all the tenderest emotions of the heart”.1 (p. 93) However, Campbell’s vision of rhetoric is defined by the peculiarities of that age, although in practice, people used rhetorical tools without minding “tenderest” emotions.
Orators, be it a politician or even a clergy person, tended to evoke rather negative feelings, including but not confined to fear, reproach, and disgust. The gap between theory and practice has persisted into modernity. The Aristotelian interpretation has prevailed for centuries and still remains the primary perspective on the matter. At the same time, in practice, some conventions are not followed, which is specifically illustrative in the case with such type of rhetoric as propaganda.
Modern views on rhetoric are mainly linked to Aristotle’s framework. Kenneth Burke, an influential thinker of the twentieth century, who developed the modern model of rhetoric, concentrated on reasoning rather than deceit. Burke claimed that rhetoric was “a grammar that models the dynamic aspect of creative expression”.4 (p. 51) The philosopher emphasized that rhetorical means were employed to convey messages in an imaginative and effective way. Rhetoric was one of the ways to reach the audience and make the speaker’s appeal clear and persuasive. The power of persuasion has a positive meaning as it is utilized with an intention to unveil the truth and help people behave in proper ways, equipped with knowledge. Such positive perspectives regarding rhetoric are generally accepted in a modern global society. People see it as common and natural to use diverse devices and rhetorical instruments to inform and persuade people in different spheres of social and personal life.
Defining Propaganda
Propaganda is mainly associated with rather negative connotations, although many researchers note that it can be seen as a neutral concept under certain circumstances. Miles2 asserts that propaganda is, by all means, rhetoric due to its focus on persuasion. One of the definitions of this term includes such aspects as persuasion and its purpose. Thus, propaganda can be seen as an intentional effort to persuade individuals to think and act in the ways desired by the speaker using diverse means and media.2 The purpose is placed to the fore, so the speaker concentrates on persuasion rather than the truth.
Notably, propaganda is often misleading and can even be deceitful. Compared to rhetoric that aims at bringing the strongest proof to support claims, propaganda is associated with providing disinformation.2 The speaker can also manipulate data and try to evoke certain emotions (usually negative). The principal objective is to persuade, and any means is seen as appropriate. All these methods are used to make the audience share some values and make certain choices.
It is acknowledged that propaganda can be traced in various areas of modern life, including but not confined to politics and business.5 Political propaganda has attracted much attention in academia due to its fundamental effects on countries and the entire world, which was specifically visible in the twentieth century. It is noteworthy that the negative connotations of propaganda were questioned in the first part of the twentieth century. Edward Bernays stated that the morality or overall evaluation of propaganda depends on the worldview of the evaluator.5 For instance, a politician’s address can seem propaganda, a negative and manipulative, as well as immoral, claim for a person who does not support the corresponding views. However, the politician’s supporters would find the same message as positive and moral.
Different definitions of political propaganda exist and highlight diverse aspects of the phenomenon. For example, political propaganda can be defined as “propaganda activities that are held for political purposes or interests”.6 (p. 7) Clearly, the purpose and outcomes are seen as central elements of propaganda. Another definition produced in the 1930s is more comprehensive as it sheds light on some instruments as propaganda is regarded as “the management of the attitude of others through the manipulation of symbols”.6 (p. 7) The moral evaluation is not included, but the means of persuasion are explained in a straightforward manner. Political propaganda is widely accepted as a type of rhetoric from Plato’s perspective.
Modern researchers are still debating as to the essence of propaganda and whether the term can be applied to spheres other than politics. Some try to narrow this concept down stating that propaganda is “a subcategory of persuasion” that tries to “convey an ideology to an audience”.7 (p. 2) Hence, ideological components make political propaganda stand out against other types of rhetoric activities.
Contemporary researchers see political propaganda mainly as the primary instrument of authoritarian regimes, while democratic societies also resort to this type of rhetoric in their political activities. On the one hand, authoritarian regimes employ propaganda (and often hard propaganda) to strengthen their power or show their ability to suppress.8 Therefore, the focus of this type of activity is on manipulation. Platonian concepts of rhetoric prevail, and speakers try to persuade and even deceive receivers.2 On the other hand, politicians in democratic societies may also use some elements of propaganda, but they utilize a more Aristotelian approach.5, 9 In both cases, speakers concentrate on outcomes and are ready to use diverse means (including manipulations) to achieve their goals.
Instruments and Media
Campbell’s Four Goals of Rhetoric
One of the major similarities between rhetoric and propaganda is the model both types of persuasion are based on. This framework was suggested by George Campbell, who contributed considerably to the theory of rhetoric.1 The thinker identified four goals of rhetoric: enlightening understanding, pleasing the audience’s imagination, moving the passions, and influencing people’s will. The primary difference between rhetoric and propaganda lies in the focus and the use of facts.
In rhetoric, the four goals are achieved through the provision of facts and the focus on reason, as well as emotion. For instance, democratic leaders tend to use accurately when pleasing their voters’ imagination and enlightening understanding. Otherwise, one of the pillars of effective rhetoric will not be followed as the credibility of the speaker may be corrupted.1, 5 In contrast to this, propaganda is characterized by the manipulation of facts and the emphasis on the emotional aspect. Autocratic leaders and dictators, for example, do not pay attention to credibility or rather ensure it without using facts. They mainly provide one-sided information and even insult their opponents in different ways and make sure that people have no access to another perspective.2, 6, 8 It becomes clear that although identical frameworks can be used in two types of persuasion, the means are very different, which leads to quite different outcomes.
Words for Rhetoric
Language remains the primary means of communication between people. So, speakers utilize words to persuade their listeners and articulate their messages clearly. Modern rhetoric is associated with the use of certain structures and devices that are mainly grounded on five canons of rhetoric (including “invention, arrangement, style, delivery, and memory”) and Aristotle’s model of proof.1 Invention is the first stage that involves the identification of the topic and the materials to support the claims. Arrangement refers to the structure of the speech, and style is associated with the language and diverse devices utilized to reach the audience. Delivery is an important aspect that refers to the presentation of the speech. Verbal and nonverbal instruments are employed to make the delivery effective. Finally, memory was initially an important component of rhetoric as orators were trained to memorize considerable amounts of information to be successful. For instance, Aristotle does not include this canon in his discussion of rhetoric.1 The major focus of orators was on the use of language and numerous verbal tools.
Aristotle paid specific attention to the provision of proof as he emphasized the role rhetoric played in oratory art, which was making the truth vivid. The philosopher described three artistic forms of proof, such as ethos, pathos, and logos.1 These three elements are widely used in the modern world, and speakers make sure all these components are included to ensure the effectiveness of their messages. For example, U.S. presidents have been using these instruments to appeal to the nation.10
Aristotle believed that the major goal of speaking was to “connect emotionally with the audience”.10 (p. 1) Thus, the central aspect was the ethos, which is the credibility of the speaker. Pathos was another major point to focus on when addressing people. The ability to understand the emotional state of the audience and use the right mood was the core of the success. Finally, the logos could be seen as the media to resonate with the audience’s mood. These were words and diverse literary devices, making speech more effective. Thus, emotions, credibility, and the choice of the right words could be seen as the linguistic pillars of rhetoric.
Words for Propaganda
As mentioned above, propaganda is a form of rhetoric, so it is but natural that similar tools are utilized. Language is also the primary means of communication for speakers trying to inflict their views and make their audience behave in particular ways.2 However, due to the different goals, propaganda differs from rhetoric. The focus is also on ethos and pathos, while logos serve as the means to address the former two aspects. At that, manipulation, disinformation, and even aggression can be utilized in political propaganda. The degree of deceit increases with the intensification of the authoritarian regime.8 The polarization of rhetoric is a feature of political propaganda.
For example, authoritarian regimes concentrate on the negative sides of their opponents, conceal their own flaws and sometimes crimes, use emotionally loaded speeches, and often insult the target of their verbal (and sometimes military) attacks. The leaders of North Korea have employed such tactics for decades.11 They have tended to verbally insult American leaders and the representatives of the western world. They have concentrated on the creation of an atmosphere of hatred to achieve their goals.
An illustration of such hatred-based political propaganda (English-language propaganda) in North Korea deserves specific attention. North Korean leaders articulate messages in English, addressing both their own nation and the rest of the world.11 Their propaganda ranges “from insulting to bellicose to ludicrous”.11 (p. 97) North Korean politicians verbally insult American presidents and many other western leaders, which aims at delivering their message regarding the might of their political regime as opposed to democratic approaches. Their speeches are emotional and highly negative, the truthfulness of provided facts is not their concern.
Another vivid illustration of the peculiarities of such negative political propaganda is Hitler’s speeches and addresses to the German people. The Nazi dictator manipulated facts, deceived listeners, appealed to such negative emotions as fear and hatred, as well as tried to enhance his credibility in diverse when addressing different target audiences.3 Hitler changed the vocabulary in his speeches depending on the target audience just as he did with the topics chosen to resonate with his listeners’ stance.
The Media
In addition to language, it is important to analyze the peculiarities of rhetoric and propaganda, depending on the channels employed. The modern world offers numerous types of media for speakers making their audiences closer. Television, print media, and, of course, the Internet are the major sources of information and channels of communication.1 Rhetorical instrument are utilized for communicating messages through these platforms. Political propaganda is widely represented in all forms of media as politicians and people trying to affect the masses try to employ any means to achieve their goals.
The Internet can be regarded as one of the major domains for appealing to the target audience. Borcher and Hundley examined the role Internet plays in modern communication through the lens of Foucault’s perspective of power.1 The renowned thinker stated that there was no single center of power, but rather local centers of power, which can be illustrated by the influence different websites have on the public. Although governments and large corporations have a significant effect on the masses, anyone having access to the Internet can exercise power as well. Discourse is central to the production of power as seen by Foucault.1 Since the Internet can be seen as a platform for sharing ideas and information, it is the media for creating, contributing to, or destroying discourses.
This terrain is specifically lucrative for political propaganda as the use of artistic forms defined by Aristotle can serve the speaker to the fullest.2, 5, 10 It is easy to deceive the receivers of the message regarding the speaker’s credibility, and it is easy to manipulate data due to the peculiarities of the Internet.7 This peculiarity of the digital world, makes people cautious as to the information they consume, so the use of rhetoric in the Aristotelian way is somewhat problematic. The speaker should ensure the ethos is properly established to be able to utilize pathos and logos effectively. Nevertheless, there is quite a limited difference between rhetoric and political propaganda as related to the media utilized to appeal to the audience. Both forms are present in different societies reaching audiences through various channels, with the Internet being the primary media nowadays.
Visual Forms
In addition to language, visual means of communication have been widely used for communication for centuries. These tools are not void of rhetoric aspects, so it is important to consider this instrument of persuasion as well.12 Visual messages are characterized by the use of the artistic forms described by Aristotle. The sender of the information uses their credibility, creates an emotional load, and provides some factual content. It has been acknowledged that visual rhetoric is associated with a stronger emphasis on emotions rather than rational components.12 It may seem that some visuals are free from any artistic forms other than logos as a photo of a person or an event is nothing more than a reflection of reality. Nevertheless, even a photograph is shaped by the photographer’s perspective, as well as the angle to look at it. Moreover, any picture can only depict a moment that tends to have multiple meanings that are beyond the scope of that particular visual.1
Although images can articulate and shape meanings, speakers (or message senders) tend to combine visuals and textual data. For instance, when analyzing images that are used in newspapers, it is clear that they rarely, if ever, have a neutral effect.13 In many cases, these visuals serve as an enhancement for a certain idea or theme conveying quite particular ideas. In politics, these effects are also employed frequently as politicians try to create their images with the help of visuals.1 In propaganda, visual messages tends to be more one-sided and emotionally loaded. The focus is on the creation of a positive image of the regime or the necessary ideas.8 At the same time, negative and often non-existent features of the regime’s opponents are depicted.11 Again, rhetoric is associated with the focus on rational elements, and political propaganda is linked to emotional aspects. It is possible to note that images employed in rhetoric are more factual and neutral, while visuals utilized in propaganda are related to emotions.
Outcomes
Obviously, the major outcome of rhetoric and propaganda is the target audience’s required behavior. However, the effects of the two types of persuasion differ in a significant way. When it comes to propaganda, it can lead to quite prompt and intense reactions as people are wired to follow the speaker.2, 6 For instance, Chinese society is exposed to hard and lasting propaganda that resulted in their readiness to work hard, to endure hardships, and stand up to foreign enemies.14 The audience is willing to react in a way expected by the speaker, but this effect is quite short-term.8 Research shows that people exposed to hard propaganda may be affected and display the necessary behavioral models, but in the long run, they disbelief propaganda and stop being persuaded. This effect is not found as related to rhetoric because people’s reactions are not as extreme and are not prone to rapid and dramatic changes.
This difference can be explained by the fact that rhetoric is grounded on the truth and helps people see the truth more (or less) clearly. Nevertheless, propaganda is often far from reality, so there are no or hardly some reasonable grounds at all.6 According to positivists’ and rationalists’ views, when people see the truth, they “do not need to be persuaded of anything” as persuasion is important when “there is neither formal truth nor objective fact”.15(p. 25) It is possible to argue that masses may be driven from the truth by rhetoric or propaganda or fail to see it due to the lack of access to information or their peculiarities of cognition. However, the world built on lies and manipulations inevitably fades away, which has been proven many times by the fall of dictatorships and diverse political and economic regimes that were not based on the truth. Irrespective of hard propaganda and the creation of alternative reality, people managed to see and understand the truth.
Is Nudging Appropriate?
In view of the outcomes of propaganda and rhetoric, it is possible to briefly consider some aspects related to nudging. Nudging has become a new element of persuasion utilized in different spheres. This can be seen as a new level of pathos when applied to rhetoric. Nudging is associated with influencing people’s decisions, and behaviors based on people’s psychological features.16 It has been noticed that some words or images (as well as colors, postures, and even intonations) have a particular effect on individuals’ minds.17 These pre-programmed reactions are utilized to achieve established goals. For example, a smile is perceived as something positive, and it evokes the corresponding feelings leading to particular reactions.1 Rational choice are substituted by those based on emotions and even instincts.
Propaganda is characterized by extensive use of nudging due to the focus on emotions and irrational choices. An illustration of the use of nudging as related to propaganda is Chinese society, where people are motivated to use specific technologies.18 The current trend signifies increasing attention to nudging, even in democratic societies. Officials and researchers are trying to introduce nudge-based incentives aimed at addressing some of the most burning issues. It is suggested that people could be encouraged to have healthier lifestyles and responsible behavioral patterns through nudging. For instance, healthy eating can be facilitated by displaying goods in certain ways, so restrictions and bans will be unnecessary.16 Consumers can be guided to the right choice by affecting their minds in different ways. The opponents of such views argue that nudging restricts individual freedoms, so it is unacceptable in a democratic society.
Apart from this argument, it is necessary to draw people’s attention to short-lived outcomes to such a focus on irrational aspects. As mentioned above, when people’s actions are grounded in emotions and lies, individuals learn the truth quite rapidly, and the effect can be quite the opposite. Even if people are motivated to be more responsible for a comparatively short period of time, they may choose irresponsible ways, responding to manipulations. Hence, the central difference between rhetoric and propaganda makes it clear that some persuasion means can hardly be applied in this or that context.
Conclusion
On balance, it is possible to state that the primary difference between rhetoric and propaganda is related to the use of facts and emotional load. Rhetoric is characterized by the focus on facts and helping people to see the truth clearly, but some deviate from this approach. Many speakers may use diverse rhetorical devices to achieve their goals, paying little attention to the truth. The most extreme deviation is closely linked to propaganda that aims at reaching particular goals by manipulating facts and evoking strong (often negative) emotions. Political propaganda is often associated with the most striking examples of deceit. Dictators and autocratic leaders try to use propaganda as the major tool to hold power. Although it may seem that propaganda has a more considerable effect on people, rhetoric is still more effective. Propaganda can lead to immediate required reactions, but this effect is not lasting. People are more willing to make rational choices, so when they see manipulations, they try to choose options other than expected.
References
Borchers T, Hundley H. Rhetorical theory: an introduction. 2nd ed. Long Grove: Waveland Press, Inc.; 2018.
Miles C. Rhetorical methods and metaphor in viral propaganda. In: Baines P, O’Shaughnessy N, Snow N, editors. The SAGE Handbook of Propaganda. Thousand Oaks: SAGE; 2019. p. 155-170.
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Persuasion and propaganda are so close in meaning that many people use them interchangeably and most people could not begin to define the difference beyond that propaganda is bad, Of course, that statement stems from propaganda, very successful propaganda, and there is a difference between that and persuasion. Essentially, there are two major differences and one difference of perception. Persuasion is a transactional process and generally appeals to both logic and emotion. Propaganda is unidirectional and only appeals to emotion. The difference of perception is that propaganda is seen as inherently bad or even evil, while persuasion is seen as “friendly”. The two ads from Dove could be seen as propaganda if we only considered the emotional appeal and as persuasion if we only considered intent. However, we must consider both method and intent and even the intended audience in order to decide that these ads are, indeed, very powerful persuasion.
“Persuasion is interactive and attempts to satisfy the needs of both the persuader and the persuadee.” While propaganda is a form of persuasion, not all persuasion is propaganda. Persuasion is based on discourse and dialogue; propaganda is intended to be one-sided” (Cain, Bonnie Ann, 2006)
Some researchers, such as Cain (2006), look at any piece of media communication according to the ten points identified by Jowett and O’Donnell (1992)that can measure if the communication is persuasive or propaganda, it is really only necessary to look at those key points which differentiate the two: the appeal to reason or logic (persuasion) or the push for emotional response (propaganda); whether the process is a transaction or unidirectional; the expected cognitive response and the intent of the communication upon the target audience.
Cognitive responses refer to “all the thoughts that pass through a person’s mind while he or she anticipates a communication, listens to a communication, or reflects on a communication” ( Petty, Ostrom, & Brock, 1981, p. 7). (Perloff 1993:108)
While persuasion recognizes and often makes some use of, cognitive response to establish emotional connections and stimulate a response, propaganda avoids reason and logic, only seeking to stimulate a cognitive response. If people react only upon the cognitive response, they will not be likely to examine their motives or the logic of the communication.
The Dove commercials both attempt to stimulate a cognitive response in the target audience, which is different for each. Dove Pro-Age is aimed primarily at the 50 plus female audience, though it certainly gets attention from males of all ages too. By the most common standards, all of the models are very attractive, even beautiful. This even has a certain appeal to younger women. If we look at the likely cognitive response, we will likely find some surprise, some pleasure, some admiration, and some titillation. Older women will be likely to have the strongest response, pleasure at seeing some beautiful older women as nude models. They will also feel some admiration for the daring of the company in presenting this ad. They will read the repeated question: Think you are too old for an anti-aging commercial? and feel a touch of mirth. Then the final line: But this is Pro-age, will solicit a strong pleasure response and a reaction to subtle humor. Other cognitive responses in young women and all men will be positive, but not with the strong recognition factor.
So the cognitive processing factor is there, but there is also an appeal to logic and reason. If we can see these women as beautiful, then aging can be beautiful. The ad’s statement that the ad is “pro-age” is absolutely true. The real message of the ad borders on propaganda in that it attempts to associate the Dove brand with beauty, feminism, socially acceptable images, and with current politically correct ideals about women and aging. The real intent of the ad, as is true of most ads, is to create a favorable response to the brand: Dove is Pro-age. All other responses are incidental and they are different, according to the audience.
The evolution ad is targeted at young women and somewhat at their parents. It also pushes the viewer to certain expected cognitive responses. However, they have to be a bit mixed. The video first shows the model, who is pretty to begin with but not stunning, going through a make-over with hair and make-up. Then it shows her image enhancing with digital photo-editing. The most surprising part is when the photo-editor is used to make her face leaner with a more pronounced bone structure, her eyes bigger than is really possible and her neck impossibly long. In fact, while we cannot really see how the photo would look if her body were attached, we suspect it would no longer match very well.
The message here is that our perception of beauty may not be all our own and may not be realistic, due to the manipulation of the media. The ad seeks to identify itself with a campaign to teach young women to see themselves more positively and not to measure themselves against the false images in ads. It even uses the word “our” to make us believe that the company is part of our group, whichever that is. The Campaign for Real Beauty is an actual initiative of the company. Whether this is because the company truly wants to benefit the community or just wants to be seen doing so does not really matter. The results are the same. We will associate the brand with positive social programs. While some, like the New Socialist (Dzuba, Nicole 2008), will certainly question Dove’s motives, there really is no need. Company motives aside, they are doing a good thing.
While these ads are perilously close to being propaganda, they are transactional and the benefits fall on both sides. The discourse also is bidirectional. The ads ask questions and make statements and the visuals support what they say. They are seeking a cognitive and emotional response, but it is evident that they also seek to stimulate thought, questions, and investigation. The two most salient and identifiable attributes of propaganda are that it is one-way communication and that it depends only upon cognitive response. These ads are definitely transactional, seeking to establish a dialogue with the audience., They transact in the true sense described by Rosenblatt (1978), in that they expect each person to bring something different to the work. They also go way beyond the attempt to stimulate a cognitive response in seeking to stimulate thought and learning. They invite us to change our perception.
References
Cain, Bonnie Ann, 2006, AEJ 06 CainB ETH PROPAGANDA ANALYSIS: A CASE STUDY OF THE U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION’S MINORITY OUTREACH CAMPAIGN PROMOTING THE NO CHILD LEFT BEHIND ACT, Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication in San Francisco August, Oklahoma State University, Web.
Dzuba, Nicole 2008, The New Socialist: Ideas for Radical Change, Web.
Jowett Garth S., and Victoria O’Donnell.1992, Propaganda and Persuasion. Newbury Park, Calif.: Sage, 1986. 2d rev. ed., 1992.
Perloff, Richard M. 1993. The Dynamics of Persuasion. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Rosenblatt, L. (1978). The reader, the text, the poem: The transactional theory of the literary work. Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois Press; (1994). Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois Press.
Persuasion and propaganda are two powerful tools used by media to influence the ideas, ideals, and opinions of target audiences. Both of these concepts motivate people into action by influencing beliefs and desires. It is not enough just to change beliefs. It is important to form a new opinion and attitude towards a particular event or phenomenon. Media emphasizes that reaching the target audience and establishing visibility with them is a necessary condition for success. However, it is not a sufficient condition since much depends on the persuasiveness of what is conveyed. The main difference between persuasion and propaganda is that they use different approaches of influence and have a different impact on a person.
Persuasion is defined as “a conscious attempt by one individual to change the attitudes, beliefs, or behavior of another individual or group of individuals through the transmission of some message” (Bettinghaus & Cody 3). In persuasion, if message recipients perceive that they are free to reject the advocated position, then, they are free; and the influence attempt is regarded as “persuasive in nature” (Walton 117). On the other hand, if recipients feel that they have no choice but to comply, then the influence attempt is defined as propaganda. Propaganda is defined as the “management of collective attitudes by manipulation of significant symbols” (Carey 4).
The main difference between propaganda and persuasion is their impact on the receiver. In contrast to propaganda, persuasion is characterized by private acceptance of the position advocated in the message. By contrast, in the case of propaganda, people publicly comply with the behavior urged of them, but, privately, they reject the position advocated in the message (Baker 4). For instance, in advertising, every ad aims to make the target audience respond to it in the way intended. However, while every communication invites a certain understanding, this invitation can be refused. Following Herman (1999, 62) it may be refused because the target audience does not have the necessary perspective to be receptive to it. If this perspective is missing, persuasion has to be directed at inducing the ‘right’ perspective. Critics underline that all persuasion is self-persuasion in that people are unlikely to be persuaded unless they understand the meaning of the communication. In contrast to propaganda, persuasion is based on emotional messages that have an impact at every stage in life (Herman 23). For instance, people are influenced by emotional messages communicated through the TV screen. Emotion is a major factor in persuasive advertising that aims to change viewpoints and not simply to demonstrate the logical implications of data. Social scientists have emphasized that there are important differences between persuasion and these other concepts (Baker 32).
In contrast to persuasion, propaganda is based on mind control aimed to condemn the recipients of a particular persuasive message rather than to clarify or explain the persuasion process. The propaganda limited alternatives and choices either by outlawing their consideration or by rejecting them on specious grounds; new propaganda embraces alternatives and encourages choices. According to Jowett and O’Donnell (1999) propaganda can be seen as “the deliberate and systematic attempt to shape perceptions, manipulate cognitions, and direct behavior to achieve a response that furthers the desired intent of the propagandist” (cited Kendrick and Fullerton 297). For instance, advertising, publicity, and public relations can also be characterized as propaganda. They become propaganda if each is purposive and one-sided. But their defenders pointed to them as commercial rather than political and said that because of this they are not propaganda. In contrast to persuasion, propaganda is controlled, controversial, emotional, and intentional. It involves masses of people and maintains power (Bernays 18). Usually, propaganda is nonscientific and not truthful, one-sided, and systematic. Advertising was considered to be propaganda because of its tendencies toward mass deception and exploitation, but it also provided information on behalf of socially important causes and helped satisfy personal needs, which deemed it not to be propaganda. Persuasion is characterized by the attempt of one person to change the mental or emotional state of another person. One way of differentiating persuasion from other forms of communication is that, in persuasion, a source intends to influence a receiver (Bernays and Miller 16).
The information mentioned above allows saying that persuasion and propaganda use different approaches to influence the person. Every communicative activity can legitimately be called persuasion. One of the main differences between propaganda and persuasion is that, in the case of propaganda, an individual publicly performs a behavior without private acceptance, employed only coercive techniques (for instance, brainwashing). Scholars (Carey 47) have noted that both persuasion and propaganda use the same social influence strategies (e.g., peer pressure, emotional manipulation, and conformity pressures). In contrast to propaganda, persuasion implies a free choice. The individual must be capable of accepting or rejecting the position that has been put of him or her. There is an opinion that persuasion is an activity or process in which a communicator attempts to induce a change in the belief, attitude, or behavior of another person or group of persons through the transmission of a message in a context in which the person has some degree of free choice (Carey 47).
Certain factors can enhance the impact of evidence of persuasion and propaganda. These factors can be either internal or external to the information contained in the message. Internal factors include the credibility of the source of the evidence, evidence quality, and novelty. Evidence is more persuasive when attributed to a highly credible communicator than to a low-credible source. Evidence is also more likely to change attitudes if it is of high quality “is plausible, and is novel rather than “old hat” (Bettinghaus and Cody 28). In both, propaganda and persuasion, evidence-based arguments are often pitted against vivid, graphic message appeals, and the two could not be more different. “When definitions are argumentative, as they often are, then according to the new dialectic they should be judged as arguments, in the way that other arguments are evaluated dialectically” (Walton 117). According to Kendrick and Fullerton (2004, 297), the evidence contains facts and numerical data, vivid messages use colorful pictures, concrete descriptions, jarring images, and personal anecdotes to make their points. In contrast to persuasion, propaganda can use fear appeals to induce individuals to accept the message recommendations.
In sum, propaganda and persuasion influence attitudes and opinions of the audience, form its ideals and views. The main difference is that propaganda uses one-sided arguments aimed to maintain power and control public opinion. Persuasion is aimed to inform the audience about a particular issue and give a piece of advice to the audience. It is important to note that persuasion similar to propaganda is a powerful instrument of social control.
Works Cited
Baker, Brent H., How to Identify, Expose, and Correct Liberal Media Bias Alexandria, VA: Media Research Center, 1994.
Bernays, Edward L., Miller, M.K. Propaganda Ig Publishing; New Ed edition., 2004.
Bernays, Edward L. Public Relations. Kessinger Publishing, LLC, 2004.
Bettinghaus, E.P., Cody, M. J. Persuasive communication. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1987.
Carey, Alex., Taking the risk out of Democracy. University of Illinois Press, 1996.
Herman, Edward S., The myth of the liberal media Peter Lang Publishing, 1999.
Herman, Edward, Chomsky, N. Manufacturing Consent, Pantheon, 2002.
Kendrick, A., Fullerton, J.A. Advertising as Public Diplomacy: Attitude Change among International Audiences. Journal of Advertising Research 44 (2004): 297.
Walton, D. Persuasive Definitions and Public Policy Arguments. Argumentation and Advocacy 37 (2001): 117.
Globally, western forces define Hezbollah as a terrorist organization (Peate 1). However, in some sections of the Muslim world, people consider Hezbollah as a resistance movement that protects Muslims against the “excesses” of the western world. The group’s main base of operation is in Lebanon. Its popularity in Lebanon, and some parts of the Muslim world, stems from its role in resisting Israeli aggression in Lebanon.
Iran and Syria are the primary supporters of Hezbollah because Syria provides logistical support for the organization, while Iran provides financial support (IDF 4). A key goal of the Hezbollah movement is the complete “destruction” of Israel. Hezbollah has also affirmed its commitment to Islamic rule and the elimination of any imperialist power in Lebanon.
The sheer size and influence of Hezbollah in Lebanon has caused many observers to fear that the movement’s influence and powers surpass the Lebanese army (Barnard 11). However, this has not been the case. Hezbollah started as a small resistance army of young men willing to fight and risk their lives for the protection of Lebanon (Horowitz 5).
Quickly, the movement gained support in the country (especially among Shi’a Muslims) and today exists in many aspects of the Lebanese political, social, and economic spaces (Horowitz 1). For example, Hezbollah has representatives in the Lebanese government and media. Its ability to mobilize thousands of people to demonstrate against political and social issues in Lebanon demonstrates its power and influence in Lebanon. A key pillar of Hezbollah’s success has been propaganda.
Propaganda is Hezbollah’s auxiliary strategy (besides military combat) to advance its ideologies. Most of its propaganda war aims to undermine Israel and western powers. Particularly, Hezbollah has published thousands of news articles and produced many videos that contain hateful messages about Israel and America.
The same campaigns support and preach the importance of Jihad and martyrdom in the Middle East (Lyon 5). Interestingly, little propaganda refers to Lebanon (which the movement alleges to protect). This paper examines Hezbollah’s propaganda strategies by highlighting notable strategies of Hezbollah’s propaganda campaign.
These strategies include the construction of a propaganda theme park, the establishment of a Hezbollah television station (Al-Manar), the development of anti-Israeli video games, and the production of varied merchandise that promote Hezbollah’s ideas and values.
Theme Park
Hezbollah has built a theme park on top of a mountain, overlooking South Lebanon, as part of its campaign to celebrate its victories over Israel. The theme park provides its visitors a fun-filled day for all family members, as they learn about Hezbollah’s victories and successes in their anti-western campaign.
Dozens of buses filled with school children drive into the park daily to learn about Hezbollah’s activities (Duffy 1). Some anti-western campaigners have also visited the site to popularize it. To depict Hezbollah’s radical nature, the organizers allow everybody from all over the world except Israelites to visit the site.
A trip to the theme park starts by highlighting the history of Hezbollah. One section of the park shows a part of the combat history of Hezbollah with a display of weapons and open footprints to symbolize the withdrawal of Israeli forces from Lebanon. The organization also displays its military intelligence by displaying a map of Israeli’s military structure in one museum at the park (Duffy 4).
In the same section of the museum, Hezbollah displays its technological sophistication by showing its sophisticated military arsenal. In contrast, outside the museum (at the site of an exploded Israeli bomb), Hezbollah has preserved a damaged military tank (belonging to Israeli forces).
Lyon (12) says this site represents the organization’s triumph over Israel. At the same site, real-life depictions of Hezbollah fighters exist in a forest. Some fighters fire rockets, while others take cover. The site is a dramatic representation of Hezbollah warfare. NOW (5) says because many people come to visit the museum, annually, plans are underway to build hotels and modernize transport within the park (Lyon 7).
Overall, Hezbollah aims to let everybody learn its history and achievements at the park. However, the organization has carefully designed its messages to omit its misgivings to the society. Notably, the Hezbollah theme park only strives to highlight Hezbollah’s success without informing its audiences about its “ugly” side. For example, the organization does not highlight several airplane hijackings that it has conducted.
Moreover, there are no evidences of the organization’s participation in suicide bombings around the Middle East and other parts of the world. Certainly, although hijackings and suicide bombings characterize a significant part of Hezbollah’s history and growth, the audience does not have an opportunity to learn about this.
For example, Hezbollah’s invasion in Beirut in 2008 forms a significant part of Hezbollah’s history, but there is no evidence of such information in the theme park (Lyon 7). Mass murders in Argentina and Saudi Arabia also form part of Hezbollah’s history, but such information is conspicuously absent at the theme park. Referring to the deliberate attempt by Hezbollah to “whitewash” its “ugly” history, Totten (17) says,
“Visitors are not told about the kidnapping, torture, and murder of Americans in the 1980s. A real Hezbollah museum would have a wax figure of a journalist chained to a radiator. No history of Hezbollah is complete without noting that the Party of God kidnapped the CIA’s Beirut station chief William Buckley and tortured him to death, but Hezbollah wants everyone to forget about that” (Totten 17).
To paint a clearer picture of the atrocities committed by Hezbollah, it is also important to point out Hezbollah’s failure to include its destruction of American and French bases in Beirut.
Since Hezbollah has failed to include the most significant parts of its history in the theme park, it is correct to say, the organization aims to manipulate its audience by forcing them to believe Hezbollah is a peaceful movement. Totten (16) also says they understand that what they have done may not appeal to many people and therefore they do not highlight it in their propaganda campaign. Indeed, like other terrorist groups around the world, they seek legitimacy and popularity.
Hezbollah’s strategy to control how the world sees it has replicated in other events where the organization interacts with the media. For example, in one visit to a Hezbollah-controlled neighborhood by CNN’s Cooper (1), Hezbollah prevented the journalist from talking with people in one neighborhood. However, it permitted him to talk to other people in another neighborhood. This incident shows how Hezbollah controls information outflow by dictating where the source of information should be.
The same strategy replicates when Cooper (8) and another journalist film outside “acceptable zones” of doing so. Hezbollah men took their cameras, perused the films and later allowed them to proceed with their journey, after ascertaining that they did not film what they should not (Cooper 8). Broadly, these incidents show that Hezbollah wants to present a biased understanding of its activities by denying journalists their independence when reporting.
Chomsky (11) believes that the quest to control a media source is an attempt by organizations to subvert the spirit of democracy. To understand this statement, Chomsky (5) first embarks on explaining democracy as, “One in which the public has the means to participate in some useful way in the management of their own affairs and the meaning of information is open and free” (5).
Hezbollah’s control of information subverts the meaning of democracy because it uses this strategy to “manufacture” consent and manipulate people to believe their ideas. Chomsky (11) equates this attempt to “a revolution in the art of democracy.” He also equates this attempt to a strategy of “manufacturing” consent because it forces people to agree with some issues that they are not a part of (Chomsky 12).
An interesting observation about Hezbollah’s campaign strategy is its failure to target western people as the main audience because it still struggles to achieve local support. Totten (16) says Hezbollah’s strategy to sell itself as a patriotic militia group in Lebanon is a vital strategy for its survival because many people are starting to think of the organization as a foreign-backed militia with a biased representation of Muslims.
Moreover, many people are starting to see the organization as a bully that disrespects other groups. Such negative sentiments come from the view that Hezbollah has created many unnecessary internal conflicts. So far, its involvement in the Syrian war is threatening Lebanese peace as well because its participation in the war may have a spillover effect in the country (Barnard 10). Such recent activities by Hezbollah show that the organization may be equally monstrous In Lebanon as it is in other parts of the world.
Hezbollah Television (Al-Manar)
IDF (1) believes that Hezbollah’s presence in television media would not suffice if it were not for the funding received from Iran. In return, Hezbollah promotes many Iranian ideologies in its media stations. For example, Hezbollah has supported the Iranian revolution. It also emphasizes Iran’s ideologies in the largely Shi’a Lebanese country. So far, its television media propaganda campaign has been largely successful in creating a negative perception of Israel and America.
One strategy that the organization has used to achieve this objective is “demonizing” its enemies. For example, Al-Manar often refers to Israel as a “Zionist entity” to dehumanize it among Muslim followers (IDF 3). Using the same strategy, Hezbollah refers to America as the “enemy of Islam”, thereby hoping to reinforce the idea that the US is against Islamic beliefs. The same strategy aims to reinforce the idea that the US is the main source of all global evil.
The station also camouflages extreme terrorist actions, such as suicide bombings, by using more Islam-friendly words (like Jihad) to speak to its audience. The station also creates a positive spin to terrorism by using Islamic words, like Shahadah (IDF 3). For example, the television station often reinforces the belief that suicide bombers that dedicate their lives for the achievement of Jihad goals get a reward in heaven.
The station also commits itself to glorifying Jihad activities, such as suicide bombings. For example, in 2001, the station praised Muhammad Mahmoud Bakker Nasr for blowing himself in a restaurant and injuring dozens of people (because they wanted its audience to understand that such an action was a noble activity that warrants praise) (IDF 4).
Tactfully, the station conveys these messages to specific demographics (audiences), depending on the nature of their audiences. Mainly, Al-Manar tailors its propaganda to appeal to Arab audiences, western audiences, and Lebanese audiences.
Lebanese Audiences
The main message conveyed by Al-Manar to Lebanese audiences is that it is Lebanon’s main defender against calculating forces (Israel and the US). IDF (3) believes most of the messages presented by this media outfit aim to make the Lebanese audience believe that the terror outfit is independent and nationalistic.
Although the television station aims to make its people believe these falsehoods, it mainly fosters the ideas of Hezbollah’s leader, Hassan Nasrallah through the station. IDF (3) associates the ideas of this leader to the creation of the state-of-the-art theme park in South Lebanon, as a direct way for Hezbollah to teach people its ideas and beliefs.
Many observers believe the perception of the terror outfit as a nationalistic movement is a clever cover-up by Hezbollah’s leadership to conceal its main activities (terror). IDF (4) dissects this truth by saying Hezbollah’s existence does not stem from the support it gets in Lebanon, but the financial support it gets from Iran and the political support it gets from Syria.
The organization therefore uses the Lebanese people as a shield to gain legitimacy and undertake its terrorist activities. For example, the IDF (4) reports that the organization has used the Lebanese people as human shields during combat.
Unfortunately, Hezbollah’s propaganda movement does not spare young and innocent Lebanese children because it inculcates them into a culture of terror and intolerance to diverse views as well. The creation of Iman Al-Mahdi scout movement is one example that shows Hezbollah’s initiative to recruit young boys into its movement. Besides the Lebanese audience, Al-Manar also aims to appeal to a wider Arab audience.
Arab Audience
To appeal to Arab audiences, Hezbollah often strives to associate its goals to the Arab contempt for the western world. The hatred for Jews, Israel, and America are therefore common denominators that Hezbollah exploits when interacting with Arab audiences. A common message that has appeared in Hezbollah’s television station is the comparison between Israel and Nazis. Here, Al-Manar advocates the view that Israel is worse than the Nazis.
The television station has also run a television series that conveys the same message. For example, Al-Manar ran an anti-Semitic television series titled, Al-Shatat, which conveys an anti-western idea of global politics (IDF 4). Usually, such series run during Ramadhan and aim to create intolerance towards Jews and America. This way, Hezbollah strives to appeal to a wider Arab audience by exploiting their anti-Western sentiments. However, when appealing to Western audiences, Hezbollah uses a different strategy.
Western Audiences
Unlike its Middle Eastern audience, Hezbollah adopts a different tone of broadcast whenever it addresses a western audience. The main message conveyed to this audience is that of reconciliation and understanding. Hezbollah strives to achieve this objective by justifying its terrorist acts to its western audience by highlighting Israel’s shortcomings.
At the center of this messaging is the portrayal of the Lebanese people as victims of Israeli aggression. Sometimes, Al-Manar uses photographs of injured, or dead, Lebanese people (mostly women and children) to show how Israeli forces cause harm to Lebanon.
Hezbollah’s propaganda campaign draws significant similarities with the American propaganda machinery during the Woodrow Wilson administration. In 1916, Woodrow Wilson was committed to engage in World War II, but the reluctance of the American public to engage in a European war dampened the hope of participating in the war (Chomsky 7). The government thereafter established the Creel Commission, which engaged in widespread propaganda to change public opinion regarding the war.
This commission engaged in Hezbollah-like campaigns of demonizing Germans (similar to the way Hezbollah demonizes Israel). In a few months, public opinion regarding America’s involvement in the war changed and many Americans supported its government’s commitment to participate in the war.
Chomsky (8) says that the British government also participated in the same propaganda campaign by persuading American intellectuals to disseminate the same propaganda to its citizens. This campaign worked very well to involve both countries in the war.
Courtesy of the constant supply of money from Iran, Hezbollah has reached many western audiences because of the expanded coverage of Al-Manar beyond the Middle East. For example, the IDF (4) says, Al-Manar broadcasts in many European countries. Many of these countries have successfully shut down Hezbollah broadcasts in their region, but the organization still reaches thousands of people in the western world, through the internet and unregulated broadcasts.
Overall, Hezbollah uses Al-Manar and other media broadcasts to advance its goals in Lebanon, Middle East, and the rest of the world. Based on the contents of its broadcasts, it is also important to point out that Hezbollah’s media does not hesitate to use horrific imagery to manipulate its viewers to support, or legitimize, its activities.
Efficacy of TV propaganda
Hezbollah’s propaganda war stems from different elements of television viewership that influence human behavior. At the center of this understanding is the spread of consumerism among audiences who consume television messages.
Miller (327) says this process occurs subconsciously because even as people struggle not to have pre-conceived ideas, or prejudices, regarding other people, they live up to the standards set out in television messages (subconsciously). This explanation explains why Hezbollah’s television campaign has been effective.
Merchandising
Hezbollah’s propaganda campaign has transcended media and political campaigns to venture into the production of merchandise. Most of these merchandises aim to popularize the organization’s leadership. Particularly, the face of Hezbollah’s Secretary General, Hassan Nasrallah, appears in many types of merchandise produced by Hezbollah.
For example, Utz (1) says, “Step into any shop in Dahiya, the Hezbollah-controlled suburb of Beirut, and you are bound to find a variety of peculiar souvenirs portraying the face of Hezbollah’s Secretary General, Hassan Nasrallah” (Utz 1). Some of these merchandise includes cups, air fresheners, stamps, key chains, lighters, colognes, door bells, rings, and keys (Utz 1). These types of merchandises have the picture of Hezbollah’s leadership.
Utz (1) says the organization has effectively used this strategy to popularize the movement, as it does not differ from the political strategy used by politicians in America (or any other part of the world) to popularize their parties. By having different types of merchandise, Hezbollah is everywhere. People see Hezbollah in their homes, schools, streets, cars, and similar places. It is therefore difficult to ignore its existence in the region.
A deeper analysis into Hezbollah’s merchandising campaign shows that the organization’s key messages (that it is a nationalistic movement fighting for the freedom of Lebanon) are false. Propaganda is the best way to explain this misinformation because Hezbollah’s activities in the last three decades show that the outfit has only helped to further Iranian interests in the Middle East.
Al-Rashed (7) paints a more accurate picture of this view by saying Hezbollah’s activities have eased Iran’s struggles with Lebanon, Israel, and the wider Arab world. Notably, Hezbollah and Iran have successfully destroyed Palestinian and Lebanese national powers by eroding the legitimacy of existing powers and replacing them with ad-hoc authorities.
Observers say Hezbollah has carved out an image of a winner in Israeli-Arab conflicts by distorting facts and playing with people’s psychology (Al-Rashed 7). For example, in 1985, Hezbollah fought alongside Iranian forces to destroy Palestine (Al-Rashed 8). Instead of Arab media calling the war a massacre, it supported Hezbollah and Iran, as they committed widespread human atrocities on Palestinian camps.
Hezbollah also used propaganda in the Israeli invasion of Lebanon in the early 1990s (Al-Rashed 8). Although Arab media reported that Hezbollah won the war, facts show that the two warring factions reached a truce by signing a peace agreement (distortion of facts) (Al-Rashed 8). The same propaganda emerged in the Israeli withdrawal from South Lebanon in the early 2000s because Hezbollah claimed to play a significant role in this withdrawal, but it had nothing to do with Israel’s actions (Al-Rashed 8).
Hezbollah has also used propaganda to misinform the Lebanese public about its intentions for having weapons. However, history shows that instead of protecting the Lebanese people, Hezbollah has used most of these resistance arms in Lebanon. Proof of this fact exists in the widespread assassinations and violence that preceded the collapse of several Lebanese parties.
For example, Hezbollah used its weapons to assassinate Hariri and other notable political leaders in Lebanon (Al-Rashed 8). A broader analysis of this action shows that instead of protecting the Lebanese people, Hezbollah has used propaganda to foster Iranian interests in the region (notably, the domination of Lebanon).
Anti-Israeli Video Game
Alongside its theme park strategy of teaching young children the principles of Jihad and propagating ideological wars against Israel, Hezbollah introduced anti-Israeli video games for children to play with. These video games exist in one Hezbollah website where simulations of jihad missions exist. Using real-life missions (that Hezbollah has participated in) Hezbollah aims to foster a culture of resistance among young children, through the games.
For example, the organization has created virtual simulations of its 1982, 1986, 1996, and 2000 wars against Israel and other enemies (MLK 3). The video games provide a virtual exposure of young children to weapons. For example, the Anti-Defamation League (3) says the anti-Israeli games have only three levels of conquest.
Each level requires a player to use advanced and sophisticated weapons to fight. The games also require the players to disable their enemies by knowing how to slip under their radar and kill them. For example, the Anti-Defamation League (4) says, “In the 1986 game, players advance on a fortified hill to an outpost using a variety of weapons until they are able to kill all the Israeli soldiers, take control of the outpost and seize ammunition and equipment” (Anti-Defamation League 4).
Al-Manar television station has played a key role in developing these games because most of them feature videos produced by the television station. Overall, the production of such a video game is not an alien concept because the organization has produced several video games since 2003 (Anti-Defamation League 4).
The most popular games are special force one and special force two, which depict Israel as the enemy. The organization reported more than 10,000 sales of these games (Anti-Defamation League 4). It says its key markets are Middle East, Australia, Germany and Canada (Anti-Defamation League 4).
Type of Propaganda
Based on the evidences provided above, it is important to point out that Hezbollah uses social propaganda. Social propaganda mainly aims to unify a group of people behind a specific cause/issue. Unlike political propaganda, which aims to achieve a political goal, social propaganda wars aim to achieve a social goal (Ellul 63). The main similarity between Hezbollah’s propaganda and a social propaganda war is the organization’s effort to impose it on other people.
This paper already shows the strategies used by the organization to do so. For example, its nationalistic call is a strategy used by Hezbollah to rally the Lebanese people around a nationalistic goal of protecting the country from Israeli aggression. The spread of Christian propaganda in the middle age provides one example of this type of propaganda, because Hezbollah also uses Islamic undertones to rally its people behind its goals (Ellul 63).
Unlike other types of propaganda, a social propaganda war is often complex and multifaceted. However, distinctively, it differs from other types of propaganda because it supports specific ideological components, from a sociological perspective.
Social propaganda wars operate from a reverse psychology point of view because, as opposed to other types of propaganda, which use medial channels to convey a message, it uses sociological elements like (religion) to make people accept ideologies (Ellul 63). Such ideologies prompt people to act, or support an idea.
Effects of the Propaganda
Ellul (162) believes the greatest impact of a propaganda campaign is psychological crystallization. He says propaganda wars make the vague and unclear elements of an issue become important. Essentially, such campaigns reduce any objection that a person may have towards an issue, thereby aligning his thoughts to reflect a pre-determined system. This outcome is especially true of the series of campaigns propagated by Hezbollah against Israel and America.
Few researchers dispute the fact that these campaigns have reinforced prejudices against Israel and America (more so, in Lebanon). Ellul (162) investigates this phenomenon and says such an outcome is a common occurrence. Furthermore, research shows that the stronger the conflict, the stronger the prejudice that exists between the warring factions (Ellul 162).
Unfortunately, when propaganda proves to be successful and crystallizes people’s thoughts and opinions about an enemy, it becomes difficult for a person to reduce his animosities. The chance of realizing any compromise or tolerance also significantly reduces. A deeper analysis of this fact shows that propaganda wars provide people with a set of assumptions and judgments about people, which make it impossible to convince someone that what he believes is false.
Such convictions prepare people to experience anything. To sum the effects of propaganda on people, Ellul (163) says, “Propaganda standardizes current ideas, hardens prevailing stereotypes, and furnishes thought patterns in all areas” (Ellul 163). Overall, these are the effects caused by Hezbollah’s propaganda campaign.
Comparison to Soviet Union Propaganda War
Hezbollah’s propaganda war draws sharp comparisons with the propaganda wars of the Soviet Union in the early 1940s (at the height of communism). One notable similarity between the Soviet Union and Hezbollah propaganda war is the quest to undermine the west. The Soviet Union however undermined the west because of capitalism and its antecedents. Hezbollah undermines the west because of its affiliation to Israel and its support for Israeli wars.
The Soviet Union propaganda aimed to exploit America’s defeat in the Vietnam War (against communist North Vietnam). It also sought to exploit the defeats of other western powers in Africa (uprisings in Kenya) and Asia (Malaysia). At the same time, the French had failed to cement its rule in Algeria and South Vietnam. The Soviet Union propaganda war therefore aimed to exploit the failure of these capitalist powers by providing an alternative model of governance (communism).
Taylor (255) says the Soviet Union campaign machinery was elaborate because it included almost all types of media. Communist propaganda existed in the print media, television, and radio. Unlike the Hezbollah propaganda machinery, Taylor (255) says the Soviet Union propaganda machinery used words as a powerful tool for advancing communist ideologies.
He says Soviet Union used words to define peace, disarmament, independence, and liberation because these concepts largely differentiated the communist and capitalist systems. Taylor (255) also says the Soviet Union propaganda war led to the start of the cold war because America sought to erode the new boldness of communism by imposing capitalistic principles around the world. The main objective was to influence the international political system by setting the agenda for international discourse.
The Soviet Union propaganda machinery aimed to advance its objectives by creating fear about the west. The main target audience was third world countries because the Soviet Union perceived these nations to be most vulnerable to western influences. Moscow strived to have different countries supporting communism (independently), as opposed to the Soviet Union’s speaking for these nations. One fear used by Moscow in its propaganda war was the exaggeration of a possibility of nuclear wars by the west.
Taylor (255) says such propaganda wars aimed to exaggerate the military capabilities of the west and underplay the same capabilities in the Soviet Union. The same machinery aimed to exploit the influence that independent voices in the west would have in undermining capitalistic principles. For example, academicians and journalists participated in the propaganda war to provide internal resistance to capitalism in western countries.
The above strategy mirrors Hezbollah’s strategy of creating internal resistance in America by appealing to Western audiences through its official television station. As explained in earlier sections of this report, Hezbollah tailors some of its news to appeal to Western audiences by highlighting Israel’s “excesses.” They therefore strive to create sympathy for the organization by creating internal resistance in western countries.
The Soviet Union used this strategy well, as a “divide and rule” tactic for concealing its real intentions (changing international discourse in its favor). This campaign was elaborate because independent estimates show that the Soviet Union used about $2 billion, yearly, to sustain this campaign (Taylor 256).
America and other western powers countered the Soviet Union’s propaganda campaign by developing military, economic, and political power, to demonstrate to the free world that capitalism worked. The US therefore tried to instill faith in the capitalistic system by underplaying the doubts expressed by the Soviet Union (about capitalism and usefulness to the world). Overall, although Soviet Union’s propaganda war was global, it shares many similarities with Hezbollah’s propaganda war against the west.
Conclusion
After weighing the findings of this paper, Hezbollah’s propaganda war emerges as an elaborate campaign to influence Lebanese and global citizens to support the organization’s activities. Its dynamic campaign has spread through television, online gaming, merchandise production, and theme park development.
These campaign channels are the most vivid representations of Hezbollah’s strategy. However, other campaigns supporting the same objective also exist. A broader analysis of Hezbollah’s propaganda machinery depicts significant similarities with Soviet Union’s propaganda machinery during the cold war. Both protagonists share anti-western rhetoric.
Although Hezbollah’s venture into online gaming and theme park development is unconventional, both factions have realized tremendous success in their propaganda war. Resistance is the main goal that Hezbollah wants to inculcate among its followers. However, based on the organization’s activities and its affiliation to Iran and Syria, evidence to show that the organization fights for the rights of the Lebanese people is non-existent. However, its propaganda machinery serves to portray the organization as a nationalistic movement.
Taylor, Philip. Munitions of the Mind; A History of Propaganda from the Ancient World to the Present Era, Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1995. Print.
The issue of propaganda is of current importance because we hear such words we can face propaganda in every sphere of human life: political campaigns, propaganda of healthy way of life, propaganda in the sphere of sociology and sex equality. People try to harmonize their life and try to use any instrument for this.
The work is focused on the issue of propaganda in political campaigns. Actually propaganda is an integral part of policy of any state. Any type of political regime requires the presence of propaganda in order to regulate the attitude of people towards their country.
Nowadays the world society is becoming more and more informative and that is why the using of propaganda instruments becomes more and more easier and that is determined with the developing of modern technologies in the world. There role of propaganda is increasing with every day. This is connected with the fact that the volume of political information is constantly increasing, people need more information in order to understand all the processes which surround them. Nevertheless it is very difficult to cope with the great amount of information people get from TV, magazines, newspapers, and radio programs. Moreover people should formulate the analyses of the problems but not just gain the information. They should give their own interpretation to it. It is very difficult to avoid the intrusion of the interpretation of the events by other people.
The use of propaganda is closely connected with the mass consciousness. Sometimes propaganda is deeply hidden under the bright advertising and PR-actions. In additions many people associate the word ‘propaganda’ as the number of actions used for keeping old regimes. There is a widespread opinion that democratic countries never use propaganda because its instruments oppose to the free development of personality and individuality, and because this can give a pressure on people.
The idea of political propaganda
Speaking about the idea of propaganda in political campaigns it would be appropriate to give the definition of the concept ‘political propaganda’:
“Propaganda is the more or less systematic effort to manipulate other people’s beliefs, attitudes, or actions by means of symbols (words, gestures, banners, monuments, music, clothing, insignia, hairstyles, designs on coins and postage stamps, and so forth). Deliberateness and a relatively heavy emphasis on manipulation distinguish propaganda from casual conversation or the free and easy exchange of ideas. The propagandist has a specified goal or set of goals. To achieve these he deliberately selects facts, arguments, and displays of symbols and presents them in ways he thinks will have the most effect. To maximize effect, he may omit pertinent facts or distort them, and he may try to divert the attention of the reactors (the people whom he is trying to sway) from everything but his own propaganda”. (Encyclopedia Britannica)
The most important features of propaganda are systematic approach, aims, addressing to society, aggressive ways of influence, but nevertheless propaganda should be differentiated from such conceptions as PR, and advertising.
It should be admitted that the psychological features of propaganda were present in pre-historic society. The word-combination ‘political propaganda’ can be used while speaking about the first forms of state. Then there appeared the mass ways of replication, increasing mass consciousness, importance of the opinion of society in the life of any country.
In my opinion, for the understanding the phenomenon of propaganda it is not enough to concentrate on the theory of information because the changes in social, political, and economical conditions caused serious changes in this process.
According to Uudelepp, it is possible to speak about three levels of manipulation (UUdelepp, 2008, p10):
social-cultural context;
social level;
technological.
So, the first level is focused on different types of symbols and stereotypes, which are very important in every political campaign. The second level is based on the examples of behavior of famous people. For example, if a famous people support the process of political campaign. It can have a great influence on the psychology of people. Third level “is technological. It is based on either censorship or on manipulating with facts and with their interpretations. Between the two world wars it was agreed that successful propaganda is impossible without effective censorship” (UUdelepp, 2008, p10).
It is possible to divide propaganda into white, black and gray (Encyclopedia).
White propaganda gives true information that is taken from real sources; it operates with fact that had place in real life. In general, it is a kind of propaganda that is focused on truth. The next type of propaganda is black propaganda. Actually, it is focused on giving the false facts in order to disport the opinion of society. The third type is pretending to be neutral and it gives the facts that can not be confirmed, usually it is something which is like gossips. All these types of propaganda aimed to differentiate between the attitudes of people towards some political events and to formulate their own interpretation of them.
The instruments of propaganda in political campaigns
The government tries to use any instrument for the propaganda process. According to Philip Taylor “the Second World War witnessed the greatest propaganda battle in the history of warfare” (Taylor, 2003, p209). And it is really so, for example for Hitler this instrument was radio. The messages from the battle places were the most important. Usually these messages stopped all the programs and it was a sign that war was the most important event. In addition music played a great role there.
TV is one of the strongest instruments of political propaganda. An important place is occupied by the propaganda of the government’s work. It is very often when this information is connected with the work of the leaders of the government.
The essence and specific features of political propaganda is well reflected in its core functions. For example, its communicative purpose is that it seeks to establish contact between the government and society. Political propaganda, reflecting the essence of the political platforms of certain political forces adjusts the voters for their support, creates and implements the mass consciousness, creating the desired psychological installation of the vote. “Advertising, by its nature, takes positions. Commercials suggest that the advertiser’s product is better than a competitor’s or is important to the viewer’s well-being. Such a claim may or may not be true, and the question is not always so easy for the reader, viewer, or listener to evaluate. While the results of a bad choice about which brand of soap to buy may be inconsequential, a wrong decision about whom to elect to a position of public trust can have far-reaching consequences”. (Gottlieb)
Thus, it is some way relationship between them, using an accessible and adequate perception of the general population landmark system. Therefore, political propaganda has become a conduit for ideas, relay the images, symbols, myths, living and operating in the mass consciousness of society. But apart from the communicative functions of political propaganda also serves as an information function, as one of the challenges facing it, is to acquaint the mass audience with political parties and political movements operating in the political life of any society.
Political propaganda also presents various candidates to the electorate, their views, political actions and suggestions, their advantage over competitors, thereby complying informational function personified. It should be noted the implementation of its socio-focus, ideological functions, as political propaganda exists in the context of political competition and is designed in such circumstances to provide own communicative activities of others.
Propaganda in political campaigns includes the impact of the organization and conducting the activities within public relations, which will play a significant role in creation and dissemination of advertising. The program impact means the impact of program development of any candidate, means and methods of its organization and implementation: the preparation of the calendar, the creation of support groups, develop profiles of leadership, organizing rallies, choose the language of the pre-political propaganda, making political posters, leaflets and other promotional advertising products. Personal effects imply the creation of the candidate and his nomination.
It is a well-known fact that in addition to the expensive types of political advertising (radio and TV, newspaper and magazine publishing) various types of printing products are traditionally used. It is effective through the prompt delivery of the electorate and relatively inexpensive, compared with the cost of air time or newspaper space, and can be spread in several ways, notably through the streetsi, physical distribution, and mailing.
In the printing products of political propaganda it is possible to define one of the most popular and effective genres – political poster. It is an advertising product of large-format, the main impact of which are visual elements (photos candidate, icons, drawing, cartoon), and contains a minimum of verbal information in the form of slogan or appeal. This genre is aimed primarily at the emotional impact, and therefore must meet a number of requirements, which focused on the provision that the poster should amaze, intrigue, causing curiosity. Any political poster has the socio-cultural context (it was mentioned above).
There are different visual components of the poster to achieve the proper effect all. These include the requirement for achieving a clear, clear schematic of the political poster. One of the important conditions for the effectiveness of the poster is the dynamism of its design performance, which manifests itself in shifting the view from one element to another poster. It is also necessary to remember about keeping the balance in its composition, and the construction of meaning. For example, some posters can cause negative reaction of people (Lebanon bans political posters in bid to defuse sectarian tension).
Among the most mobile genres of political propaganda there is a political leaflet. Traditionally, political leaflet is a unilateral or bilateral printing, where as the main tool used text containing information on the events (the rally, political action), calls to action, or present to voters the main provisions of the program documents of political parties or their candidates. Characteristic features of the leaflets are relevance and accessibility of its content, democratic themes, compositional simplicity and style.
Potential impacts of printed products on voters in various political campaigns are not limited because of the rapid development of information technology. The specifics of communicative impact of political propaganda, including its printing, is primarily in terms of its subject matter and objectives clearly defined and outlined: in the short term in the strategy of an election campaign with maximum efficiency affect the specific target audience, addressing its specific political appeal.
Political propaganda, especially, has an active, strong influence and belongs to tactical instrument, since it is the most effectively and has the strategic ideas and develops a political campaign. But in order to impact the political mechanism of communication to work well, it is necessary to use the knowledge of the effects of many other factors that are objective and subjective.
Among the objective factors that determine the political choices of some voters are their ethnic and religious backgrounds and their political traditions, as well as local and political environment of a voter. Therefore, when planning political campaign they must take into account all those stereotypes, particularly the behavior, symbols, myths and traditions that define ethnic identity as a separate, distinct and sometimes opposing communities.
Ethnic factors influence the behavior of voters, coupled with socio-demographic and economic circumstances and religious traditions. At the behavior of voters greatly affect the presentation of most people in the place where he lives. But it would be better to take into account that “not all political propaganda is international and not all propaganda is political. Within the political field propaganda is practiced by parties and pressure groups of all kinds, each of them trying to persuade the public to support its cause” (Fraser, 1957, p4).
As an independent subjective factor it is possible to identify the factor of interest in politics. There is no need to prove that the electoral behavior directly depends on the extent to which the voter is included in the political life of society.
Interest in politics defines a number of other features, such as the level of political awareness among people, their perceptions of the status quo in the political life of society, the degree of voter confidence to the different political structures and a few others that make the very notion of “political culture “. Thus, a number of important and long-term operating factors influencing political choice, one of the major places are ideological positions and political culture. Interpretation of any political event or issue, an assessment of any policy document or a political leader of the voter relates primarily to a set of political values.
Conclusion
In conclusion, it is worth saying that the psychological impact plays a great role in propaganda in political campaigns. To my mind, the greatest attention should be paid to the use of different approaches to various age-groups: “The new propaganda is a product of the more egalitarian, participant forces that emerged in the post-World War II period. Unlike members of mass cultures, who were almost wholly dependent on their leaders for propaganda, members of the popular culture have gained the ability to initiate messages as well as respond to them… Through music, writing, and performance, they have been creating means to permit their participation in the popular culture” (Edelstein, 1997, p20).
Election campaigns are the most intense periods of political propaganda on TV. They are intensified by all the ways of a symbolic struggle. Changing the overall thrust of the programs of the campaign many acquiring entertainment publicist and transmission appear special election blocs.
With the advent of television campaigns have become an important component of the external characteristics of conduct. Changing and oratorical style: it was not required to initiate the mass of people gathered to hear the live speech, and remotely located viewers sit in their armchairs at home. Politician becomes even stronger actor who can make the audience laugh, and to convince voters that he can solve all their problems.
Actually, we even do not notice that our brain is occupied with the information the origin of which is unfamiliar to us. The greatest part of people do not actually know what is right and what is not, but they are governed by the information they get from TV channels, radio, newspapers, and magazines. Even movies can be the sources of the propaganda we do not want to get, but the modern ways of psychological impact are so highly developed that we do not feel when we get the information.
References
Encyclopedia Britannica. Web.
Encyclopedia: propaganda – types of propaganda. Web.
Edelstein Alex S., Total Propaganda: From Mass Culture to Popular Culture. Contributors: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ. Publication Year, 1997. Web.