Category: Prohibition

Abstract

The main aim of this article is to study and find out more about the prohibition of usury. Muslims are prohibited from taking any kind of usury. Usury has obviously been banned without any disagreement by scholars. There are some Quran verses and hadith prohibits usury. Therefore, usury must be avoided by Muslims. Usury used in buying and selling, loan and other transactions. Usury makes the borrowers more difficult if they make loan. Increasing interest rates allow borrowers to have financial problems. Some borrowers do not pay on a fixed date make the interest rate higher. Deregulation price produces negative external factors that make restrictions on usury. Question that always play people mind are; why usury should be prohibited? Why Islam does not allow prohibition? Which verse of the Quran describes usury is illegal? This qualitative research is using library research and using documentation. This approach is used so that loan transfers have no element of usury.

INTRODUCTION

Usury is the act of lending money at an exceedingly high interest rate, and this rate and this rate is normally regarded as illegal by law. Islam prohibits the acceptance and payment of usury or charged interest. Therefore, all operations of Islamic banking must be conducted without element of usury. A great majority of Muslim intellectuals are of the opinion that only is the practice of usury immoral, but that it also hinders the growth of society. Usury is seen to cause one’s wealth to erode, to be the source of immoralities and to create classes in society, thus creating friction. Usury may also bring about a situation where the rich become the rich become richer and the poor poorer. Why does Islam prohibit Muslims from accepting and giving usury? It seems that usury was a pre-Islamic business practice by which money or commodity lent to a borrower by a lender doubled and tripled itself with the passage of time so that the borrower had to pay to lender many times more than what he had borrowed. This caused great economy misery to the people who borrowed money or commodity to meet their vital needs. This pre-Islamic Arab society had a number of other usury bearing dealings, especially in the six commodities which are not covered by the Qur’anic ban on usury.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

To achieve the aim of this study, qualitative research has been using in this article. Besides, this data was taken through library research as a method for data collection. The data were analysis properly by the content.

In line with its function as the original and external source of Syariah law, the Quran neither defines usury nor provides any detailed explanation of usury (Ahmad,1992). The prohibition of usury is revealed in Quran which serves as a universal and fundamental guideline for Muslims. Hadith, on the other hand, is a source of reference which enables Muslims to confirm or to acquire further explanation on the rules stipulated in the Quran. The hadith reports prohibition of usury in numerous accounts. Sometimes there are slight differences among the narrators. Hadith related to usury can be classified into three areas, namely directive Hadith, explanatory Hadith and reminder Hadith. Directive Hadith is Hadith that prevents Muslims from dealing in any kind of usury. Explanatory Hadith is Hadith that explains the types of usury and the circumstances of trade that generate usury. Reminder Hadith is a Hadith that visualizes the consequences for those who associate themselves with usury. This classification is however not absolute. There is a possibility that some Hadith belong to more than one classification. For instance, the Hadith which says, “Gold for gold, silver for silver…” is suitable for both the directive and explanatory categories.

The interest on loan violets these two rule. Loan involves an exchange of money (commodity) but the exchange (payment) is deferred sometime in the future. This exchange violates the first rule. Next, the amount exchanged (future payment) is in excess of the principal amount, which violets the second rule. One may argue that usury represents as an opportunity cost to the lender, which they could earn by investing the same amount of money in other profitable ventures. However, the concept of opportunity cost in this context refers to a ‘chance’ to earn profit, without certainty. We cannot be sure that the lender will get to earn the exact rate of return (opportunity cost) if he were to invest his money elsewhere. Hence, earning a profit from a trade is not the same as an opportunity to earn a profit.

Then, how does interest on money capital (usury) differ from the exchange of trade? Trade generates profit, which is an amount of money add to the cost of goods is known as ‘mark up.’ The seller charges a mark-up price to cover his expenses and to compensate his effort and for taking risks to bring the goods or services to the market. Hence, profit is earned as opposed to interest on loan, in which the lender gets his interest without putting in any effort or putting the money into productive use. We can see here that usury and profit are different because each is earned in different ways. In addition, wealth can be generated from trading activities. Money however is not considered to be real wealth. It is merely a medium of exchange that facilities the flow of trade, a standard of value, a unit of accounting and store of value. Usury transactions deviate from these functions of money.

The following verses of the Quran expressly prohibit usury. We need to note the prohibition is unequivocal and the condemnation of the usury-based transaction is very strong and without compromise.

‘Allah deprives usury of all blessing charity; He loves not the ungrateful sinner’. (Surah Al-Baqarah, 2; 276)

‘O, believers! Fear Allah and give up what is still due to you from usury if you are true believers.’ (Surah Al-Baqarah, 2;278)

‘If you do not do so, then take notice of war from Allah and His Messenger. But if you repent, you can have your principal. Neither should you commit injustice nor should you be subjected to it.’ (Surah Al-Baqarah, 2:279)

‘Oh, you believe! Devour not usury doubled and multiplied; but fear Allah that you may prosper. Fear the Fire which has been prepared for those who reject faith and obey Allah and the Prophet so that you may get mercy. (Surah Al-Imraan, 3:130)

Islam encourages business people to create and grow their wealth through trade as opposed to usury-based lending and transactions. Loan on interest allows the lender to increase his or her wealth without any effort. This action implies a lender is appropriating a borrower’s property without giving him anything in exchange. In Islam, a man’s property is sacred for which it is meant for satisfying his needs. Charging interest loan and requiring the borrower to pay a higher amount than what he owes is akin to taking his property from him without giving him something in exchange. This type of transaction is unfair because one party receives greater value than the counterparty (borrower). The lender receives higher benefits at the expense of the borrower, which can be seen as taking advantage of the latter.

Usury is also prohibited due to the negative effects it brings to society. It encourages people to be lazy instead of working to earn money to sustain their life. One can earn money by charging interest without working for it. Islam encourages people to put their money into productive use by participating in trade. The prohibition against usury applies to both the one who imposes it and the one who pays it. Islam encourages Muslims to engage in partnership and sale of commodities. Islam forbids debt contracts but encourages sale and partnership contracts.

Usury-based lending promotes inequalities of access to funding and subsequently income and wealth. Banks will only lend to big business with establish financial means to ensure safe return. New and small businesses without the financial strength are usually assigned lower priority and face difficulties in gaining access to financing from banks. Further, the unfair usury-based transactions in the long term propagate a divided society between debtors and creditors. In the end, the rich will be richer and the poor will be poorer. This situation is against the emphasis of Islam to create balanced economic development by wealth sharing as opposed to making a few wealthy creditors wealthier at the expense of the majority.

Islam also strongly forbids in transactions. Usury is associated with loan interest and exchange trading. It is prohibited because the payment is deferred in the future and the interest amount is in excess of the principal amount. The lender receives greater value than the borrower at the expense of the borrower. Further, this excess amount is unjustified because the lender increases his wealth without putting any effort. Islam believes in productive effort to create and grow wealth. Money has to be employed in productive activities such as trading before one can generate wealth from it. In barter trading, any exchange must be of equal amount or values). If the value or amount of a commodity exchanged is less or more than the other commodity, then usury occurs.

According by hanafis, the exchanged countervalues are all measurable or all weighable and belong to the same genus. For example, the sale of wheat for wheat. No gain permitted in a hand-to-hand transaction and no deffered transaction, even without gain. The exchanged countervalues are all measurable or all weighable but belong to different genera. For example, the sale of gold for silver.

According by shafiis, the exchange countervalues are all currencies or all foodstuffs and belong to the same genus. For example, the sale of gold or dates for dates. No gain permitted in a hand-to-hand transaction and no deferred transaction permitted, even without gain.

In Islamic business it is considered as a very honourable activity. It is called a worship and also the Sunnah of the Prophet SAW. For those who carry out traders ‘activities with trust, they are promised a good reward of heaven with the prophets, the righteous and the martyr.’ However, if it is done outside the limits of the Islamic Shariah then it is no longer a ritual but an activity that can bring about the

destruction of the world and the hereafter. Anyone whodoing business whether small or large but still in business, has a high rank and position in the presence of Allah SWT. Uusry leads to a bad influence in a business that can lead to risks and failures in doing business. In carrying out business, the practice of usury should be avoided by Muslim. Good traders and goodwill Allah SWT is a trader capable of doing business in accordance with Islamic law, free from usury whether in getting capital, making savings, investing and the like. The person who tells usury is halal will be disbelievers and dismissed from Islam, because usury is one of the great sins that must be avoided by a Muslim clearly mentioned in the Qur’an and Sunnah about his ban.

Riba al-buyu’ is the usury which arises in the contract of trading of ribawi items and occurs in two situation. The first situation being the trading or switch of two usurious items with differences in weight or quantity. The second situation being the trading or exchange of different ribawi items but the exchange takes place in adjournment. Thus, the suspension is considered usury. As stated in the hadith narrated by Muslim, this deferred exchange conflicts with the terms and conditions applied in the switch of ribawi items.

Riba al-duyun is the usury that happens in the contract (aqad) of debt and loans. This type of riba also appears under two circumstances. The first appears when an additional rate or benefit is applied to the total amount of the principal loan. The second situation appears when the additional rate or benefit exceeds the total amount of the basic loan imposed due to the borrower’s failure to pay the stated loan repayment amount at the agreed time.

CONCLUSION

Based on the article, we can conclude Islam forbids its followers to accept and give usury. This prohibition is clearly stated in the Quran and Hadith. Islam offers a definite guidance which forbids Muslims from dealing with usury. The prohibition of usury is revealed in four chapters in the Quran. Hadith related to usury can be classified directive Hadith, explanatory Hadith and reminder Hadith. Guidance given by both sources had prevented any serious conflicting views on usury among Muslim scholars. All scholars concurred that usury is illegitimate or haram regardless of the size of the loan. Furthermore, all types of usury are considered illegal regardless of whether they originate from productive loans or consumption loans. In general, leaving aside the prejudice attribute to religious interest or practical motive, it is clear that all almost all historical errors about the scholastic usury theory arise from a single failure to consider the theory broadly enough, to take into account either the multiple character of its foundations, theological, economic, and legal, or the multiple aspects it presented in practice, particularly the aspects under which it encouraged the growth of interest titles and above all the use of alternative methods of credit besides the loan. Once money is viewed as productive, making a loan will automatically involve lost profit, and once a rate of inflation is established, one’s money depreciates in value over time, resulting in loss. It can be strongly argued that these two extrinsic titles to interest can now be considered an intrinsic part of every loan that is made. In fact, today there is an established market rate of interest, a common estimate of how much this loss is. This does not mean we should not retain the parts of the usury teaching that can still apply today. Many commendable practices fall under this umbrella: debt reduction for developing counties on an international level; the elimination of loans which are made at exorbitant rates of interest among private individuals and in third world countries; low-interest or interest free of loans for poor yet resourceful entrepreneurs. Finally, the usury prohibition also affected the development of economic patterns.

REFERENCE

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2. Ahmad, Ziauddin. “The Theory of Riba.” Islamic Studies, Winter (1978): 171-185.
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6. Al-Saud, Mahmud Abu. “Islamic View of Riba (Usury and Interest).” In An Introduction to Islamic Finance, edited by Syeikh Ghazali Syeikh Abod, Syed Omar and Aidit Ghazali, 70-93. Kuala Lumpur: Quill Publishers, 1992.
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Alcohol is one of the most prevalent and rooted features of American life and has played an important role in the United States and other countries’ history. As early as the production of Rum, during the colonial period, alcohol has been favored and highly profitable. During the colonial period alcohol was part of a triangle trade, with slaves, between New England, the West Coast of Africa, and the West Indies.This triangle trade would have lasting effects as many individuals during the colonial period, 17th, 18th, and 19th century, began to consume large quantities of alcohol at home, while traveling, during work, and during many social events. However, these enticing alcoholic beverages soon became a problem as many individuals reported that they were addicted. These reports of addiction led to the temperance movement and eventually the prohibition.

The Temperance Movement was an organized effort to change the public’s attitude about drinking alcohol by promoting moderation and complete abstinence. However, over the course of the 19th century, there was a shift from promoting moderation and complete abstinence to demanding the total prohibition of alcohol. In the United States, many attempts to restrict or abolish alcohol failed, however, from 1907 to 1919, 34 states managed to pass prohibition laws; Which caused the 18th Amendment to the Constitution to be ratified prohibiting the manufacture, transportation and sale of intoxicating liquors. Shortly after the 18th amendment was ratified, congress passed the Volstead Act. The Volstead Act, “provided for the enforcement of prohibition.” (history.com). The 18th amendment and the Volstead Act ended after the 21st amendment was ratified in 1933 and both created great change. However, before the end of the Prohibition, the government controlled so much that organized crime began to flourish in the United States: With the rise of the Mafia, corruption of law enforcement, illegal outlets for purchasing liquor, and speakeasies. Throughout this period in time, patent medicine also became popular. Patent medicines were often prescribed by doctors and druggists to treat and prevent illness and disease such as tuberculosis. “The ingredients in these uncontrolled ‘medicines’ were secret, often consisting of large amounts of colored water, alcohol, cocaine, or opiates.” (pg. 673). By 1928, patent medicines had thrived, and doctors had made “an estimated $40 million per year writing prescriptions for whiskey.” (pg. 252). Many believe that patent medicines were used to push substances on the uneducated and I agree. I believe that the money doctors and druggists were receiving for patent medicines mattered more than the lives of those they were supposed to be caring for.

Our nation’s history with alcohol has shaped how we use and see alcohol today. When you look at our nation’s past you’ll see why there are currently laws set in place for alcohol. I believe these laws are now set in place for the prevention and the promotion of education on alcohol addiction. Although I do not fully agree with the temperance movement or the Prohibition, I believe that without those periods in time education about addiction wouldn’t have been promoted and our nation would have fallen down a darker path of addiction.

Works Cited

1. Drugs and Society. 13th ed., Jones & Bartlett Learning, 2017.
2. History.com Editors. “18th and 21st Amendments.” HISTORY, 6 Jan. 2020, www.history.com/topics/united-states-constitution/18th-and-21st-amendments.

It’s February 13th, 1929, and a police car arrives in front of the garage on North Clark Street in Chicago. According to witnesses, five men exit a car and entered into garage while two of them were dresses as police officers. After less than ten minutes shots had been fired and police officers left the building leading three civilians with hands raised up. The car drove away, the public was shocked and newspapers were full of the articles. There were a lot of blood, six dead bodies and one severely wounded man who were lying on the ground of the garage. Six of them were members of George ‘Bugs’ Moran’s gang who came there because liquor trade. Another one was a harmless bystander. Today we know that shooters were Al Capone’s gun men and accident was a planned assassination targeted against his rival. Moran was supposed to be there but he arrived at the scene later. Despite a lot of clues which led to Al Capone’s guilt he was never convicted for this crime. This essay will prove that the Prohibition of alcoholic beverage did not fulfilled its expectations and caused the higher criminality.

In January 16, 1920, The Eighteenth Amendment to The United States Constitution went into fact and banned producing, transportation, exportation, importation and selling of intoxicating liquors. Every beverage that contained more than 0,5 percent of alcohol was considered as an intoxicating liquor from that day. Prohibition was based on the earlier Temperance campaign supporters who saw alcohol as the social evil and claimed that alcohol consumption led to decrease of mental and physical health of the population and further it is responsible for high criminality, poverty, unemployment and violence in families.

Statistics of annual per capita alcohol consumption from 1910 to 1929 have shown a considerable drop during the first year of the Prohibition. However as Mark Thornton pointed out the drop had been falling before Prohibition and after roughly a year it had increased again but did not exceeded Pre-Prohibition levels. Experts agree that consumption of alcoholic beverages is closely related to the cirrhosis of liver disease. The default point of prohibitionists was outcome of a death rates caused by this disease. Cirrhosis death rates during prohibition 1920-1933 period counted 7,3 deaths per 100,000 inhabitants while average values from Pre-Prohibition and Past-Prohibition years was 11,5 per 100,000. After Prohibition was repealed a cirrhosis death rates started slowly increase. However, as figure have shown significant cirrhosis death rate drop had begun before Prohibition turned into a law so merits should not be accredited only to Prohibition.

The rapid increase of consumption of alcoholic beverages should be attributed to the illegal liquor producers and speakeasies owners. Since Prohibition went into fact prices of alcoholic beverages rapidly increased. The most increasing price of alcoholic beverages inflected beer thanks to its bulk manufacture and lower percent of pure alcohol, which was value of price. Spirits and wines were easier to manufacture. Distillery could be hidden much easier and thanks to its higher contain of pure alcohol opposed to beer, these kinds of alcoholic beverage were mainly sold. Once a manufacturing were restricted there existed just a few regulations for composition of alcoholic beverages. This fact was significant threat for public because products from amateur moonshiners could poison or kill a consumer. In 1920 the number of deaths connected with consumption of poisoned liquor was 1,064 opposed to 4,154 in 1925. Previously favored saloons were replaced by secret bars known as Speakeasies which were spread across the whole United States and in 1925, New York alone had among 30,000 to 100,000 speakeasies. Prohibition suppressed alcoholic consumption, however it did not turn most of previously consumers into abstainers. It rather stimulated them to find new places were to have a drink and they found it in speakeasies. Moreover during Prohibition more women started visiting speakeasies together with men. Mrs. Murphy quoted that the women drinking were not custom in Pre-Prohibition era “then everybody had to taste and see what it was” described a demand for banned products in Butte, Montana. Women were not the only type of people who had started drinking due to Prohibition. Alcohol had begun attractive even among the youth. Mrs. Sabin says in her statement to the House Judiciary Committee, that she and other mothers asks for Prohibition repeal since drinking of young boys and girls is becoming ordinary in the speakeasies across the United States and they want to protect their children.

Prohibitionist Billy Sunday had been celebrating enforcement of the Eighteen Amendment by sermon to about 10,000 people, where he was predicting that poverty and criminality will be eliminated and society will be happier without alcohol. Actually since illegal liquor manufacture had been raising, the Congress spent high efforts to fight against law-violating criminals. Nevertheless the higher enforcement had been performing, the higher growth of crime happened. During the first year of Prohibition (1920-1921) the study of 30 major cities in the United States revealed that crime numbers increased by 24 percent. The homicide rates in large cities during 1910-1945 period have shown slowly increase from 5,6 homicides per 100,000 people to nearly 10 per 100,000 until the Prohibition was repealed. Then homicide rates quickly fell to 5 homicides per 100,000 people to 1945. Homicides in large cities is closely related to organize gangs which greatly grown thanks to prohibition. This information is based on The Chicago Historical Homicide Project which records particulars of all homicides in Chicago during 1870-1930 and proves the involvement of organized crime in these accidents. Gangsters saw in liquor prohibition possibility to make a lot of money and therefore distilling and bootlegging became important activity along with gambling and prostitution. Organized gangs received liquors from their own hidden distillers but mainly by smuggling them from abroad. Liquors came to the United States mainly from Canada on the north border and from Mexico on the south border. Rum were smuggled from Cuba and whisky came from Europe.

It requires large amounts of money to keep illegal manufacture, distribution and transportation in secret and possibility of loss led gangsters but also moonshiners and speakeasies owners to bribing. Bribes were taken by public, police officers, judges, politicians but also prohibition agents. The Bureau of Prohibition tried to fight with corruption in their own office by reorganization but unsuccessfully. Commissioner of Prohibition Henry Anderson said that public started to ignore not only prohibition law but other laws as well, with increasing efforts of Bureau of Prohibition. Further he added “Public corruption through the purchase of official protection for this illegal traffic is widespread and notorious.”

Criminality neither poverty had not decreased during prohibition as prohibitionists expected. From 1925 to 1930 the number of convicts for breaking Prohibition laws grown to 1,000 percent. By the same number increased expenditures for maintenance penal institutions in 1915-1932 period. But even this high expenditures did not stop prisons from overcrowding and in 1929 for instance Leavenworth prison which official capacity was 1.560 prisoners had to keep 3.723 of them. Atlanta Penitentiary reached approximately same numbers.

National prohibition had terrible impact on the American economy. About 236 distilleries, 1,090 breweries, 177,790 saloons and other alcohol related businesses had to close due to prohibition and lot of people became unemployed. The anti-prohibition groups Association Against the Prohibition Amendment and Women’s Organization for National Prohibition Reform highlighted that United States lost almost one billion dollars during 1929 due to missing income taxes from alcoholic beverage and by expenditures for law enforcement. Total loss of tax revenue from banning alcoholic beverage is estimated about 11 billion dollars. The Bureau of Prohibition was not the only enforcement department which fought with those who tried breaking prohibition laws. The United States government had to raise annual budgets and personnel of the Coast Guard and the Custom Service which watched over smugglers along the border or in the waters. The Coast Guard personnel increased by 188 percent during 1920 and since 1915 to 1932 its budget exceeded staggering 500 percent, while the Custom Service personnel had grown to 45 percent and its budget increased 123 percent in the 1920-1930 period.

In 1932 while United States had been suffering with the Great Depression a Prohibition repeal was inevitable, because of creation new jobs and revenue from the liquor industry. With president elections in full swing Franklin D. Roosevelt easily beat over his opponent Herbert Hoover and repealed the Eighteenth Amendment by Twenty-first amendment which came into a fact in December 1933.

Prohibition was called the “The Noble Experiment” by then president Herbert Hoover. And it look like the nation of the United States was something as a laboratory mice. Alcoholic consumption and cirrhosis death rate maybe shown some improvements during the Prohibition but substantial decrease of this problems had begun with the World War I. This pros are only small patches in compare with the higher number of cons. Public morale felt down, people rather than abstinence found various ways how to get to alcohol and the youth found their way too. Criminality increased thanks to more frequent cases of smuggling, moonshining and liquor selling. Organized crime became more serious in large cities and beaten path to drug trade which is problematic even today. Finally prohibition enforcement cost government a lot of money and economics had been bleeding due to the unemployment and loss of tax revenue from alcoholic industry. These evidences prove that Prohibition disturbed morale of society, deteriorated economy and led to higher criminality.

Despite the contentious topic of the Prohibition within Mississippi, it was a significant method of oppression in which social and cultural minorities suffered. An individual’s cultural identity proves to be tantamount in evolving historical interpretations regarding the area of debate. The addition of modern contextual values such as equality and access to new evidence has compelled an overwhelming and homogenous perception following the era, that regards it as discriminatory legislation. The Prohibition within the United States, saw the transportation, selling and manufacturing of alcohol outlawed on the 3rd of December 1917. Amended on the 5th of December 1932, the Congress allowed individual states the choice of continuing with the ban or legalising these three aspects once again. Despite majority of states proceeding to abolish the restrictions, Mississippi is notorious for being the final state to demolish the constitution in 1966, forty-nine oppressive years later. The southern state of Mississippi is memorable for its engrained historical cultivation of prejudice and conservative ideas against many minority groups within society. In particular, the severe persecution of African Americans has been embedded throughout the southern culture and consequently, reduced the livelihood within the substantial population of black Americans. As a result, the Prohibition served to harass the cultural group, German Americans, alcoholics, non-Christian individuals and sought to give inequitable benefits to the Christian community.

The prohibition to a significant extent, enabled and nurtured the prolonged racist and discriminatory attitudes towards African Americans. The historical past of Africans rights being violated and abused for slavery purposes, have forever haunted the minority as the prejudice and ‘inferior’ attitudes possessed by white people have compelled a relentless persecution. Although the laws of the Prohibition were implemented for all cultures co-habituating within the broader society, supporting reasons for Mississippi’s restrictions on alcohol were distorted and corrupt in blaming African Americans. As Hanes Walton JR and James E Taylor express their disapproval for the Prohibition to have unjustly exploited this minority within their 1971 journal article ‘Blacks and the Southern Prohibition Movement’. Within, they reveal that many Southern newspapers and individuals claimed that “Blacks” who were compliant and docile, became “a menace to life, property and the response of the community” when intoxicated. As a result, it highlights the utilisation of the severely oppressed cultural group in order to, solely accuse them for the need to implement the Prohibition. Thus, by reinforcing this perspective within society, Mississippi was able to dissolve the reality of alcohol issues within the community and additionally, further degrade African Americans in the process. In relation, the article elaborates in highlighting that many Northern state newspapers asserted the viewpoint that the “underlying motive of the South prohibition movement was to suppress Negroes.” Consequently, this statement proves crucial in that even fellow American states also support the concept that the restriction of alcohol was a movement that aimed to oppress the minority. More specifically, the extent in which the black community was persecuted throughout the restricted time period is evident within the 2017 Netflix film ‘Mudbound’. The contrast in characterisation of the African American Ronsel and white American Jamie, clearly alludes to the shameful and submissive attitude exhibited within the Mississippian state towards the African Americans following the first World War. Ironically, both veterans return from the war in which Jamie transitions to an alcoholic amidst the Prohibition. His rhetorical statement to Ronsel “Who me? I’m a saint” incorporates irony to ridicule society’s regard for Jamie to be ‘respectable’ in spite of his alcoholism, whilst Ronsel continues to be a victim of oppression. Thus, the film assists the modern audience in perceiving the unlawful persecution and forged reasoning for African Americans causing the need for such alcohol restrictions. Therefore, it becomes evident that the Prohibition movement throughout Mississippi and neighbouring Southern states was an extreme method and effort to further exploit and tyrannise African Americans.

In relation to the Prohibition persecuting African Americans, it undeniably crippled German migrants financially, who obtained majority of the breweries across the nation. The implementation and timing of the Prohibition in 1917, is suspicious in that it outlawed the entire occupation that was dominated by German Americans and provided them with a livelihood. The legislation was passed amidst the first World War and therefore, it is transparent that the movement served as a methodology that enabled racist attitudes to infiltrate and target the German minorities within American society. The ban of the manufacture, transportation and selling of alcohol, was a direct and discriminatory threat for the German breweries and their ‘newly’ outlawed occupation. As a result, the Prohibition was oppressive in order to significantly reduce the German population and influence throughout society, in response to the two nations opposing sides during the war. World War I saw the perception of Germany deteriorate within the United Sates, as relentless propaganda indoctrinated citizens in forming prejudice and racist beliefs about the ‘enemy’. However, the Prohibition movement was evidently vulnerable to the contextual influences and thus, the Temperance group utilised the ‘convenient’ reasoning of war, to promote and momentarily achieve it. In spite of the detrimental consequences and unfair discrimination this had against multicultural races such as Germans, the oppression enabled the United States and Mississippi to receive the economic and financial profits associated with owning breweries. As a result of the governments inheritance and control over the industry, it becomes transparent that the Prohibition was implemented to both oppress the German minorities, however, also condone governments to increase their wealth through the industry’s financial benefits. Despite Patrick O’Daniel’s 2018 book ‘Crusaders, Gangsters, & Whiskey’ specifically referencing Memphis, it remains relevant to Mississippi in revealing that the Prohibition made significant “efforts against saloons and groceries” run and owned by Germans. In relation, O’Daniel elaborates further in that he reinforces the aim of law enforcements and Prohibitionists were to “disenfranchise these immigrants by destroying their political and social networks.” As a result, the implementation of the Prohibition within Mississippi was a significant oppression of German minorities in response to the World War and additionally, allowed the government to access the financial benefits from the brewery industry.

Despite targeting various cultural minorities, the Prohibition extensively promoted the condemning and persecution of alcoholics through denied support within Mississippian society. Temperance activists claimed that the movement would ‘energise political reform, promote community welfare, and improve public health’, as these ideals became increasingly prominent and widely promoted. Although, these claims morphed into discrimination as popular fiction theatre consistently “portrayed drinkers as flawed characters” with the condemning of any individuals that consumed alcohol. Prior to the implementation of the 18th Amendment, a ‘Scientific Temperance Instruction’ was incorporated within the school curriculum in which, it served as an attempt to indoctrinate the younger generations. Consequently, children were submersed with the ‘benefits’ of abstaining from alcohol whilst encouraging them to despise rather than empathise, with individuals affected by their consumption. Temperance Movement activist Mary Hunt supported the damaging portrayal of alcoholics with her unsupported statement that concluded “degradation and crime result from alcohol”. Her authority granted her the ability to accept or reject children’s textbooks entirely dependent on the representation of alcohol. As a result, she accepted and allowed many textbooks to portray “drinkers as flawed characters”. Norman H. Clark’s 1965 ‘The Dry Years: Prohibition and Social Change in Washington’ regards Hunt’s campaign and temperance education as “institutionalized prohibitionist propaganda”. His suggestion that the Temperance activists sought to indoctrinate rather than assist alcoholics further accentuates the neglect and demoralising Prohibitionist attitudes towards the minority. Despite their earlier concerns of promoting community welfare, the movement merely excluded and condemned alcoholics rather than helping address the numerous issues that are consequently associated. However, the introduction of the Prohibition was both oppressive and habitual to alcoholics as the inebriating liquid remained readily available to an illegal extent. Once the abstaining from alcohol was adopted by the United States, majority of asylums and help-services withered away. However, a surviving rehabilitation centre known as the ‘Keely Institute’, had 1921 advertisement that stated, “The Beautiful Romance of life never blooms in the morass liquid or drug addiction.” The accompanying illustration of a stereotypical white and privileged woman sitting on her veranda with her baby, only utilised the promotion of the idolised and traditional, American family, as a method of further degrading alcoholics. Thus, the Prohibition was a direct method of oppression towards the disadvantaged alcoholics within the Mississippian society. The temperance movement portrayed them as ‘evil’ rather than maintaining their previous claim to assist in improving both the public health and welfare within Mississippi and the wider nation.

Despite the significant oppression placed on the minority groups within Mississippi, the Prohibitionists gave certain societal sectors, privileges that exempted them from the law. Religious, industrial and scientific purposes remained immune to the 18th Amendment as alcohol was considered to have a critical and sacred role that in return, allowed for the continuation of its purchase. However, the exclusion for religious purposes was highly challenged as it was perceived to favour and unfairly reward the religious individuals within society. Additionally, research into cookbooks and etiquette manuals revealed that many of the Prohibitionist supporters and advocators (majority who were middle-aged women) did not abstain from alcohol themselves. Rather, Murdock Catherine Gilberts 1988 historical review ‘Domesticating Drink: Women, Men, and Alcohol in America, 1870–1940’ reveals that society was merely “forging the domestic consumption of alcohol” instead of completely ceasing consumption. Thus, the hypocritical nature of the constitutional law and Temperance Movement is highlighted. Furthermore, the evangelical figure Carrie Nation, metaphorically compared herself to a “bulldog running along at the feet of Jesus, barking at what he doesn’t like”. However, it can be perceived that oppressing various cultural minorities, persecuting alcoholics and placing entitlements for the Christian community contradicts the praised morals of Christianity. Therefore, the Prohibition within Mississippi was to a large extent a method of oppression for cultural sectors, however additionally, was a corrupt time period which saw the Christian community receive unjustifiable privileges. If the Prohibition did believe in its purpose and implementation within Mississippi, then it prompts the questioning of ‘how did Prohibitionists believe that entrenched drinking habits would decease and bring future abstinent community members when they themselves were still drinking?’ Political turbulence during the end of the first decade saw a growing socialist movement and intense interaction between capitalists and workers, that reduced the radical nature of the Prohibition, ultimately assisting in its popularity. Moreover, the momentous wealth and influence of Christianity allowed the movement to be widely supported, with many religious individuals realising the benefits they would inherit from the movement. As a result, the overwhelming majority counteracted cultural and alternate religious groups through their support of the Prohibition that consequently, persecuted others within society. Therefore, the movement was not limited in its corrupt oppression of minorities however, it also succeeded in manipulating legislation to give entitlements to Christians.

The Prohibitions initial aims of restricting alcohol consumption in order to reduce offences within Mississippi consequently, had an opposite effect which resulted in the extensive persecution of minorities. Prohibitionist activists believed there was a direct correlation between the consumption of alcohol and crime in Mississippi. Although, the alcohol restrictions and the contextual influences of the ‘Jazz Age’ only contributed to an increase in criminal activity, as the danger associated with moonshine and its illegality, served as a catalyst for drinking. Restrictions regarding alcohol only made criminal activity become ever-more creative and proficient, as illegal ‘Moonshiners’ invented ‘Cow shoes’ that saw wooden blocks conceal their tracks from Prohibition agents. Additionally, the extent to which illegal activity during the Prohibition was occurring only evolved at a considerable rate, as fashion (especially women’s) was adapted in order to smuggle and transport intoxicating liquids. On the contrary, the Mississippi governor (from 1920-1924) Lee M. Russell implies that the Prohibition was successful in its objective within his public statement that “crime was reduced [by] at least eighty percent”. However, his lack of statistical evidence counteracts his claim and reduces its reliability as his status of governor, obliges him to be bias and supportive in promoting the Prohibition. In comparison, former Assistant US Attorney General Mabel Walker Willebrandt (who had been head of Prohibition Prosecutions) revealed in 1929 that alcohol could be readily purchased “at almost any hour of the day or night, either in rural districts, the smaller towns, or the cities.” Therefore, emphasising the flourishing criminal activity of illegally brewing alcohol such as moonshine which ultimately, disproves Russell and reveals the Prohibitions failure to oppress the criminal organisations within society. Professor emeritus of 20th-century American history at the University of Gloucester Neil Wynn, further challenges the Prohibition viewpoint in highlighting that alcohol was not the singular and major contributor to crime. With the exposure of how various politicians, judges, “poorly paid federal agents and police were susceptible to corruption”. Therefore, the Temperance belief that alcohol was solely responsible for an increase in criminal rate is disproven. In reality, the crime rate within Mississippi was not reliant and dictated by alcohol consumption but rather, corrupt and dishonest members of law enforcement and status. As a consequence, the Prohibition failed in its main objective- reducing the criminal rate however, succeeded in persecuting the various other social and cultural minorities.

In essence, the nature, reasoning and implementation of the Prohibition only served to persecute many already disadvantaged, cultural and social minorities within Mississippi. Evident through the discriminatory and corrupt reasoning for African Americans causing the need for a community-wide restriction on alcohol, and the persecution of German Americans in response to the first World War. As a consequence of the Mississippian and United States governments desire and ulterior motive to reap the economic benefits of breweries. The states choice in 1932 to prolong the Prohibition despite evidence and other states depicting the failure of the movement, exemplifies Mississippi’s alternate and racist reasoning that sought to disadvantage many minority groups. Previous United States President (from 1929-1933) Herbert Hoover, admittedly described the Prohibition as “a great social and economic experiment” and thus, the fragility, flawed nature and implementation of the movement is highlighted. In addition, the disregard and neglection of alcoholics and Prohibitionists utilisation of control in order to offer exclusive benefits to Christians, further supports the corrupt reasoning and religious facade for the restrictions. In return, the Prohibition was to a significant extent, a prolonged method of oppression within Mississippian society.

Following the conclusion of World War I, Americans assimilated into a nation that was greatly transformed. At the time, The United States of America was at a peak of its global leadership, a flourishing economy, and worldwide guidance, but only after having experienced a period of substantial economic changes. In the Great Depression of the 1930s, Americans encountered the vastest economic crisis in the history of the U.S., and as a result, more than ¼ of the nationwide workforce became unemployed. Just like the Civil War and the Revolutionary War, the Great Depression was one of the significant moments that defined the nation. Consequently, Franklin D. Roosevelt’s New Deal programs enacted between 1933-1936 strived to put Americans back to work in order to convert nationwide opinions toward the federal government. Therefore, in accordance, significant challenges and crises developed from the World War and Great Depression created greater opportunities for Progressive ideas, as well as values to take hold in the United States of America.

After the U.S. entered World War I, President Wilson initiated a temporary prohibition, in addition, the same year Congress established the 18th amendment, which banned the transportation, sale, and manufacturing of alcohol. The federal government struggled to implement Prohibition over the course of the 1920s. According to Document #2, a Prohibition poster titled “The Railroad that Leads from Earth to Hell” by Milton W. Garnes & Co. was released in 1894, it illustrates a drunkard on the “railroad” to failure and hell. As portrayed in the artwork, the drunken man passes the “Devil’s Office” and a “Bar and Pool Room”, as well as a healthy “Tree of Live” being guarded by a guardian angel. At the bottom appears the alphabet showing each letter the declines and guilts the individual inhabits during his declining. At the top right of the artwork appears a poem stating, “Let him who may think, it is well to drink, a health in wine to a friend, reflect on the way, he’s starting that day, and look to his future end.” Expressing that the beginning of alcoholism is the end of one’s life. Milton W. Garnes leaves a message by saying “I was saved and today I present you this picture to show everyone the road I have traveled, and to warn every man and woman of the dangers that beset him or her on the road” explaining his own personal journey of alcoholism and encourages others to not take upon the failures he has endured.

Next, we examine Document #6 which is a letter from the Commissioner of Prohibition, J.M. Doran, to the National Chairman of Law Observance and Enforcement, George Wickersham in late 1929. The letter describes a habitation that was transformed into a large distillery in Chicago. In the letter, the Commissioner discloses information to Wickersham about an illicit distilling operation taking place. He states they will have difficult access under the search warrant provisions of the National Prohibition Act and the Willis-Campbell Act that was passed in 1921. With the examination and analysis of these two documents, it is illustrated that the nationwide constitutional ban on alcohol was a serious time in U.S. history. Although Prohibition was considered a positive aspect during this time, in so it enabled a better health style for citizens and less crime rates. The downfall was economic effects of prohibition were solely negative due to the closing of distilleries leading to the elimination of tax revenues and the loss of thousands of jobs.

During the Great Depression, President Roosevelt instituted a progression of projects and programs to assist in restoring prosperity and well-being to U.S. citizens by providing jobs for unemployed people. One of these programs was the WPA, Works Progress Administration. The WPA assisted in employing millions of jobs by providing public working projects. For example, constructing and building structures such as bridges, post offices, schools, highways, and parks. Additionally, the WPA also gave jobs to artists, writers, and musicians. During this time period, the WPA screened many advertising posters. They were designed to publicize health and safety programs, music/art performances, tourism, educational, and lastly, community activities. Document #5, shows WPA posters, created on behalf of state and local health agencies in 1938. Document 5B illustrates a poster encouraging cancer patients to seek details from different agencies whether state or local. It says, “Don’t fight cancer alone” and “Ask these agencies for advice” urging them to not act alone and take action. It depicts a woman holding a caduceus, often mistaken as a symbol of medicine, and the woman appears to be standing on a crab. Next, 5A examines the syphilis epidemic that occurred during this time in Chicago. The poster states “Chicago will control syphilis” in large words; therefore, urging people to have a free blood test performed with complete confidentiality. With the WPA utilizing these boldly colored, diverse posters, they were able to publicize programs with strong importance and persistence.

Furthermore, Document #4 is centralized on the WPA Report on Folk Music collecting in California. The purpose was one of the earliest attempts to collect, document, and preserve the folk music we know today. In the document it constitutes instructions situated by Sidney Robertson Cowell for the WPA workers on documenting the traditional music gathered contributing to the Northern California Folk Music Project. This enabled a cultural and musical impact on California heritage throughout this time period of immigration. Last but not least, we analyze Document #7. This picture is very well-known throughout our nation, it was taken by photographer Dorothea Lang while documenting the Great Depression. The image she achieved portrayed significant emotions and was deeply personal. By looking at the mother’s face, it is obvious the sadness and helpless as she wants to provide for her children. With this photo, one can visualize the reflection of times that were occurring during the Great Depression which puts a sense of realization into perspective.

In conclusion, America’s involvement in World War I resulted in many challenges. One resulting in a significant impact on the economy and working class of the United States. It affected the lives of American citizens politically, financially, and collectively. It had a tremendous impact on almost every aspect of society eventually resulting in an economic crash, the Great Depression. However, I believe the statement in the struggles we endured did in fact greater opportunities and values for our country. With the establishment of the New Deals, Congress passed many values, acts, and administrations that help boost the States’ economy on a road to recovery shaping us into the thriving country we know today.

The Roaring Twenties, also known as the Jazz age. The Roaring Twenties, also known as the Jazz age, was a period of economic prosperity, thanks to the increase in industries which resulted in massive production and a complete change on the economy; people could afford buying products that in the past would have been impossible and so, started buying and investing in the stock market without thinking, which lead to the Crush of the Stock-Market on 1929. This period suffered a plethora of changes on culture; the Jazz Age resulted in the creation of Jazz as well as the popularity of new ballroom dances related to this new musical genre, new writers became popular like Ernest Hemingway, new musicians (Cole Porter) as well as new sports like Golf and Baseball. In relation to society, women took many steps towards genre equality, with important events like The Women´s Suffrage in 1920 winning the right to vote, as well as the creation of a new model of women. The Flapper, a women with bobbed hair wearing skirt and free to smoke, drink alcohol and say things that were considered not appropriate for women. In addition, politics also changed, creating ’The Prohibition’ in 1920, a law that intended to decrease vandalism and alcohol consumption by prohibiting the commerce, production and intake of alcohol. Far from cutting back on alcoholism, this prohibition resulted in an increase of its consumption, due to different factors.

First of all, this prohibition leads to a great part of the population to become alcoholic as well as the apparition of a lot of health problems. To explain this first we have to settle this prohibition in his historical context. People during the Roaring Twenties were completely carefree and insatiable, buying and investing all what they could, this attitude lead to a constant creation of parties. In these parties alcohol consumption took place in great quantities; thanks to speakeasies (illegal private clubs or liquor shops in which alcohol was distributed, under the alibi of simple businesses where only rich or important people could enter to buy this alcohol or consume it). Thanks to this massive distribution of illegal alcohol, people became more alcoholic than ever, in every party people were completely drunk. Moreover, alcohol was of a very bad quality with products like, bathtub gin and farm whiskey (containing substances now used for perfumes, camping fuels and ink), increasing health problems in a high percent of the population as well as decreasing the price of alcohol. Thus, people ended up going to psychologists or making therapies to avoid alcohol consumption.

Secondly, ‘The Prohibition’ not only increased alcoholism but also corruption, vandalism and organized crime. Since alcohol distribution was illegal, a lot of people started to make plans in order to sell it; how to produce this alcohol (illegal distilleries), how to transport it (cars with fake boots), to sell it (speakeasies), how to hide it from the police. In this way, organized crime started to dominate emerging a lot of new rich people thanks to this illegal commerce, appearing the figures of the bootleggers and the gangsters (illegal traffickers of alcohol and organized crime leaders, normally part of a mafia that acquired an enormous quantity of money). However, being hidden from the police was not always possible, so in result gangsters and bootleggers started paying the police, as well as important members of the judicial system having complete immunity from law as well as becoming untouchable.

Last but not least, the frequency in this illegal parties in which alcohol were consumed lead to a normalization of these out of law situations. In most cases, people overlooked what they were doing; if they were in a party with alcohol they were not thinking on who had bought the liquor or where, in other words they were so accustomed to assisting illegal parties that they acted like that was normal. This normalization of illegal activities, catch up the interest of many people that started to gain enormous amounts of money by bootlegging. In resume, if there was a person that became very rich with almost no motive, he was most likely to be a bootlegger.

To conclude, with this essay I have summarize the general situation during the prohibition and explained why this new law became counter-productive. This because of the creation of illegal distilleries and speakeasies were alcohol were consumed and sold, as well as the appearance of gangsters and bootleggers which made easier this illegal traffic, as well as paying for immunity from judicial reprisals and the normalization of organized crime, clandestine parties and out of law activities. In my opinion, it is very interesting to see how the population reacted to this prohibition making normal citizens to make whatever is possible for drinking some type of alcohol and changing completely the society into a chaos of crime, corruption and vandalism. In this way, it is clear that ‘The Prohibition’ turned out having a counter-effect on society as I already stated.

References:

1. History.com Editors. (2010, April 14). The Roaring Twenties History. Retrieved November 15, 2020, from https://www.history.com/topics/roaring-twenties/roaring-twenties-history
2. US History II. (n.d.). Retrieved November 15, 2020, from https://www.cliffsnotes.com/study-guides/history/us-history-ii/america-in-the-twenties/a-new-society-economic–social-change
3. Redacción. (2019, November 29). La ley seca: El despegue de las mafias en EE.UU. Retrieved November 15, 2020, from https://www.lavanguardia.com/historiayvida/historia-contemporanea/20181127/47313667204/el-despegue-de-las-mafias-en-eeuu.html