The Progressive Era brought to light many prominent black leaders who offered their visions of African Americans’ future in the U.S., the most notable among them were Booker T. Washington and W.E.B. Du Bois. Their proposals concerned the approach to the existing limitations and regulations that hindered the way for black people to become proper citizens of the country. The existence of these dissimilar views on the racial progress gave black constituencies options to choose from but led to the lack of unanimity because people decided to adhere to different lines of thought.
Booker T. Washington was the most popular black intellectual of his time and the head of the Tuskegee Institute, which trained black people to receive practical, vocational skills. As mentioned in the presentation, Washington believed that for African Americans to become equal and free, they had to work hard, and, by gaining financial security, achieve civil rights, and end segregation. He reasoned that there was no need for black people to protest and explicitly demand to be granted political and social equality, this approach was later called “accommodation.” His moderate views on racial equality and the lack of condemnation of segregation made him a respected figure among the white elites, who perceived him as a mediator between the two races.
W. E. B. Du Bois was born free and graduated from the famous Fisk University, he opposed Washington’s belief in achieving economic security first and stressed that racial equality could be achieved only through agitation. His plan to bring African Americans their civil rights implied creating an elite group of black men, “The Talented Tenth,” who would promote the interests of black people. In his notable essay, “Of Mr. Booker T. Washington and Others,” he called Washington’s approach a submission and stated that his attitude led to the disenfranchisement of black people and widespread acceptance of their inferiority. Du Bois strongly believed that demanding equal rights was a primary task for every African American and that it was significantly more important than accumulating wealth.
The considerable difference in the aforementioned opinions constituted the main problem for the black voters who often were divided in their commitment to one of the two approaches. Moreover, Washington’s approach did not imply any active campaigning for civil rights, which, as rightfully noted by Du Bois, was conducive to the lack of interest of African Americans to participate in the political process. Du Bois’s vision was targeted mostly at a small group of educated black people, which consequently did not yield him much popularity among the general public. Adherence to different methods of attaining racial progress, accompanied by unfavorable conditions of discrimination and disenfranchisement, caused black constituencies to be unable to unite on one strategy and extended inequality into the future.
The status of African Americans during the Progressive era remained largely unchanged, Washington and Du Bois were the authors of the two most notable strategies to challenge the existing status quo. Washington argued that achieving racial equality had to be a gradual process and recommended black people to concentrate on accruing wealth and gaining economic security first. While Du Bois criticized Washington’s approach and proposed to demand civil rights immediately so that black people could become equal and proper citizens of the U.S. These two approaches were radically different in their nature and presented black constituencies with a difficult choice, which in turn led to the absence of one common idea that could be supported by the majority.
The era of progressivism is a period in the history of the United States characterized by high political activity of the middle class and the social grassroots, which led to large-scale social and political reforms. Progressives fought to set a minimum wage for female workers, ban child labor, and improve regulations for factories (Matthew Mooney, 2017). In the context of this video lies the idea that progressives fought for the rights of certain groups of people who were once deprived of them, the struggle for justice and for the eradication of corruption.
In the theory of Weber, the organization is a stable, closed, rigid model corresponding to the stage of machine production. Currently, some European companies, such as Volkswagen, use a bureaucratic management style (Organizational Communication Channel, 2016). Organizations have a single coherent set of goals that clearly indicate the main direction of activity and are formally translated into various sub-goals to be achieved. This theory is clear and specific for any organization, as it provides specific recommendations for establishing a workflow.
Lough’s article describes the actions of progressives that were aimed at transforming society, improving working conditions, and introducing taxes. Lough (2016) states that these articles also address the efforts of local governments to revitalize municipal governance. The context of this article also says that it was necessary to equalize all people through the introduction of taxes, the adoption of specific laws, and the development of the industry.
The context of the article on community psychology is aimed at studying, analyzing, and expanding knowledge in the field of psychology of people who are in a single society. Trickett (2009) explains how people with different skills, knowledge, worldviews, and resources deal with and adapt to the contexts of their local community. According to his theory, the life of other people consists of different contexts.
The context of Lipsky’s theory is that the street bureaucracy accepts different types of customer relations. Kosar & Schachter (2011) argue that the street bureaucrat tries to preserve the client’s idealized view of the work of this bureaucrat. The street bureaucracy does not have enough resources to meet the current demand. Moreover, the people faced by street bureaucrats do not always meet the required reference groups of bureaucrats, which does not allow them to work with clients fully.
References
Kosar, Kevin & Schachter, Hindy. (2011). Street-level bureaucracy: The dilemmas of the endure. Public administration review, vol. 71 (2), pp. 299-302.
Lough, Alexandra. (2016). Editor’s Introduction: The Politics of Urban Reform in the Gilded Age and Progressive Era, 1870–1920. American Journal of Economics and Sociology, vol. 75 (1), pp. 8-22.
Progressive Era was a period of great reforms in the United States that occurred in the early part of 20th century. The progressives formulated reforms focused on promoting good governance and welfare of the Americans by advocating for radical changes in economic, political and social policies. Economically, the progressives advocated for the economic reforms that that regulated businesses in order to provide a level ground for a healthy competition.
Reforms
Prior to Progressive Era, there were unfair business practices that promoted monopoly of some businesspersons like John Rockefeller, which prompted formulation of policies that ensured fair business practices. Due to poor employment standards, child labor, unfair business practices and rampant corruption in the government, muckraking journalists investigated these vices and exposed them for the society to perceive, and this prompted the government to make reforms (Leonard 112).
The progressives also rooted for the adoption of laissez-faire and formation of labor unions in face of high rate unemployment in order to improve the working conditions of the workers. Overall, the government formulated laws and policies, which ensured that the economic growth benefitted all citizens.
Politically, the progressive had perceived that the government was full of inefficiencies and corruption that led to various injustices against the Americans. The progressives wanted to clean up the government to be free from inefficiencies and corruption scandals that have affected delivery of quality services to the people.
According to Leonard, “four constitutional amendments were adopted during the Progressive era, which authorized an income tax, provided for the direct election of senators, extended the vote to women, and prohibited the manufacture and sale of alcoholic beverages” (115).
The sixteenth, seventeenth, eighteenth and nineteenth amendments promoted both political and social reforms in the United States. The seventeenth amendment empowered the people to choose their preferred leaders thus promoting democracy. Moreover, the nineteenth amendment empowered women by allowing them to vote and participate in the political arena. In addition, the introduction of the secret balloting enhanced democracy because it promoted free and fair election of senators and presidents.
Socially, due to deteriorating moral standards that occurred because of rampant abuse of drugs such as alcohol, the progressives supported the prohibition of manufacturing, sale and distribution of alcohol. The religious progressives argue that alcohol consumption destroy the moral fabric of the society and thus advocated for the society that is free of alcohol.
Therefore, the passage of the eighteenth amendment that prohibits manufacture, sale and distribution of alcohol significantly reduced consumption of alcohol in the United States. Since there was high gender inequality in the society, the progressives opened women’s colleges as an affirmative action to encourage more women to gain skills and knowledge so that they could be competitive in the employment market.
Emergence of Railroads
Rapid economic and demographic growth during the Progressive Era enabled the United States government to expand and regulate her transport system throughout the country in order to stimulate more economic growth. Creation of large plantations and industries during the late 19th and early 20st century led to the massive production of goods that necessitated expansion and regulation of the railroad system.
Realizing that the railroad system is effective, cheaper in the transportation and opening up of remote areas for investors, the United States government immensely supported construction and regulated it to offer sustainable transport, which stimulate economic growth. During the Progressive Era, the reformers struggled against conservatives who did not want regulation of the railroad system by the government for they wanted to monopolize and exploit businesspersons in the transportation of industrial goods.
Although the railway system had much significance to the industrial and financial sectors, the management did not put efficient measures that would ensure its sustainability. According to Doezena, “the drastic features of some enactments would have been avoided had railroad managers always exercised the spirit of forbearance and compromise,” (62). Thus, due to the mismanagement, the government formulated drastic polices that led to the stringent regulation of the railroad system during Progressive Era.
Under President Roosevelt, the government regulated the railroad system by ordering powerful corporations to comply with policies and enactments that promote fair competition and eliminate exploitation of businesspersons.
The government investigated railroads unfair practices and recommended in Elkins Act (1903) that no shippers should receive rebates to encourage the use of certain railway company. Moreover, the Hepburn Act (1906) gave powers to the Interstate Commerce Commission to set the rates of transportation and limit free railroad passes.
Acts
Pendleton Act (1883) is a civil service reform Act of the United States formulated to guide government officials in the recruitment and employment of the civil servants according to their own merit. Earlier before the Act was effective, the recruitment and employment of the civil servants was quite unfair, as many people had to bribe or belong to certain political parties in order to access the privilege of employment. Hence, Pendleton Act (1883) established merit system of employing civil servants that ensured fairness in the employment.
First Reconstruction Act (1867) was an Act that provided effective and efficient governance of the rebel states in line with the United States government. The Act acknowledged the presence of rebel states such as Virginia, Georgia, Carolina, Louisiana, Arkansas, Mississippi, Alabama and Florida.
For efficient governing of these states, the First Construction Act classified these states into five military districts in which the United States president has prerogative to assign military commander to each military district in order to provide enough security to life and property of the citizens.
Tenure of Office Act (1867) is an Act that protects people holding executive and constitutional offices against imperial powers of president. This Act limits the capacity of the president to appoint new people into the office while the tenure of the current officers has not expired.
Since presidents have powers to appoint constitutional officers, the Act guards the officers from haphazard removal in the office particularly when there is a change in regime. Therefore, the president must respect tenure of office and if necessary to make any changes, congressional approval is essential.
Interstate Commerce Act (1887) is an Act formulated to regulate transport system in the United States particularly the railroad industry. Since monopolization of the railroad system led to the exploitation of the farmers and businesspersons, the Act sought to establish policies and laws that govern transport industry. The Act resulted into the establishment of Interstate Commerce Commission that has the responsibility of ensuring that the transport system comply with the federal regulation and set fair rates of transportation.
Thomas Platt was a powerful political figure in the United States politics in 1873 to1909. He was a republican who was in the House of Representatives between 1873 and 1877 and become New York Senator in 1897 to 1909. During his political life, he exercised great power both in the House of Representatives, and in the Republican Party. Due to his overwhelming influence in the government and politics, many considered him as the father of politics.
Works Cited
Doezena, William. “Railroad Regulatory Leadership in the Progressive Era: Consideration and Conclusions.” Journal of American History 11.2 (1996): 61-66.
Leonard, Thomas. “American Economic Reform in the Progressive Era: Its Foundational Beliefs and their Relation to Eugenics.” History of Political Economy 41.1 (2009): 109-140.
During the Era of Progressivism, which lasted approximately from 1890s to1920s, some reforms were made to deal with the socio-economic crisis which the United States faced at that time. Among the most prominent political figures of that period are the two presidents, Theodore Roosevelt of the Republicans and Woodrow Wilson of the Democrats. In our paper, we will consider the situation that America was in and elaborate why those reforms were needed. After that, we will compare the policies of the named two presidents.
The United States of America faced numerous problems related to poverty, social injustice, and corruption in the government. The degree of social injustice was despicable; workers had to labor in terrible conditions, enclosed in small, dark factories. The fire in one of the factories of the Shirtwaist Company in 1911 and the resulting deaths of ≈150 workers were symptomatic (Foner 681). Major political and grassroots movements such as the Knights of Labor, populists, feminists, anarchists’ IWW, and socialists emerged to fight the inequality and promote social progress (Foner 627, 632, 642, 662, 693, 695, 702). The inequity and the deep class conflict were a result of monopolization, total domination of major businesses in the political life of the country, and their interpenetration with the government (corruption) (Foner 708).
The political representatives of the Era of Progressivism were forced, therefore, to deal with the economic issues of monopolization and corruption in order to alleviate the social tension and address the newly emerged political ideas.
Theodore Roosevelt, the president in 1901-1909, as it was stated at his time, “didn’t believe in democracy; he believed simply in government” (qtd. in Foner 709). Fortunately, he was able to address the adverse situation of social inequity. He attempted to implement progressive reforms via strengthening the influence of the government. It is interesting that Roosevelt believed that two types of corporations existed: the good ones, which “served the public interest”, and the bad ones, which only cared about profit (Foner 715). His fighting with monopolies brought many victorious moments to the antitrust movement (Foner 715).
Noteworthy, President Roosevelt was perhaps the first president not to side automatically with employers in labor conflicts (Foner 715). During his presidency, a number of progressive laws that e.g. forced businesses to control the quality of their products were also adopted; for instance, the Pure Food and Drug Act or the Meat Inspection Act (Foner 716); these were a direct influence of the journalists (dubbed by Roosevelt as “muckrakers”) who exposed the corruption and the terrible conditions of workers and industrial production (Foner 685-686).
Woodrow Wilson of the Democrats, the president in 1913-1921, on the other hand, did not like the idea of a powerful government, and attempted to strengthen the democracy by promoting free market economy and stimulating small companies, at the same time eliminating the influence of big businesses on the government (Foner 720). His version of free market economy, however, included antitrust views, and did not perceive labor unions as a hindrance to the “market freedom”, allowing for the right to create such unions and fight for laborers’ rights (Foner 720). Among notable documents adopted during his presidency are the Underwood Tariff Act, which lowered import duties and “imposed a graduated income tax on the richest 5 percent of Americans”, and the Clayton Anti-Trust Act, which gave workers more rights to protect themselves (Foner 721).
To compare the two presidents, some of the events that took place during their presidency could be discussed. We have already mentioned Roosevelt’s fighting against monopolies; the Northern Securities Company was one of them. This major railroad company established by J. P. Morgan controlled three large western railroads, monopolizing the means of transport between the Pacific Ocean and the Great Lakes. Roosevelt prosecuted the Northern Securities under the Sherman Antitrust Act, and, as a result, the company was dissolved in 1904 by the Supreme Court (Foner 716).
Furthermore, in 1906 the Hepburn Act was adopted by the Congress. It allowed the Interstate Commerce Commission to control railroads’ rates and set the maximum prices on transportation, which was a step for the government to influencing the market economy (Foner 717). The 1906 Pure Food and Drug Act, as well as the Meat Inspection Act, also adopted during Roosevelt’s presidency, were the result of the activity of the “muckrakers” (Foner 685-686, 716).
On the other hand, Wilson’s Clayton Anti-Trust Act (1914) “exempted labor unions from antitrust laws” and gave them more rights to strike (Foner 721). Further, the 1916 Keating-Owen Act prohibited child labor in some areas of economy (the Supreme Court later decided the law was contradictory to the Constitution); the Adamson Act introduced the workday of 8 hours for railroad workers; the Warehouse Act gave some privileges to farmers who kept their crops in warehouses licensed by the federal government (Foner 721).
It is also noteworthy that Wilson, despite having initially been against the initiative, referendum, and recall, the three powers given to the voters that allow them to make petitions, influence the adoption of some laws, or remove elected officials from their position, later changed his position. During the 1912 presidential campaign, he favored these powers and stated that they should be given to the population.
As it can be seen, both presidents had to deal with the adverse socio-economic situation, political corruption, and acute class conflict. However, their methods were different; Roosevelt made stress on the governmental intervention into business, focusing on anti-trust initiatives and controlling business activities, whereas Wilson did not believe in the strong government, also attempting to make the influence of big corporations on the government impossible, to stimulate small companies, to give more freedoms to people and to provide them with some rights to fend for themselves.
Works Cited
Foner, Eric. Give Me Liberty!: An American History. Vol. 2. 4th ed. 2013. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. Print.
Progressivism is a movement that took place in the 20th century. It was maintained by people who wanted to find the best practical solution of the issues connected with modernization. They wished to make the government more efficient, eliminate corruption and improve the educational system. They were also targeted at the regulation of large corporations and assurance of charity work. It was a diverse group of people supported by the middle class, including lawyers, teachers, and people engaged in business, etc. They utilized scientific methods regarding different aspects of life, such as economics, family, and others (Oakes et al. 234).
They were active at different levels. In this way, at the local one, they tried to improve education by expanding he schools, provide children with playgrounds and dismiss corrupt politicians. The progressives also considered the minimal salaries for females, provided the industrial accident insurance and created the limitations for the child labor at the state level. At the national one, they reduced taxes, provided the regulations to control railroad industries and banking. They administrated the meat-packing and improved the working conditions for the general public. Moreover, the Constitution was improved. The Progressives allowed the women to vote, prohibited alcohol and accepted income taxes.
Progressivism was widely discussed, and its imprint can be found in many texts. For example, John Watterson wrote Inventing Modern Football that focuses on the scandals that occur in this sport. It exposes political corruption, which interested the Progressives. To deal with it, special examination for the players was adopted by dint of which they proved that they could play on the decent level (Watterson 3).
In Saint Jane and the Ward Boss, Anne Scott discloses the battles of the progressive era (Scott 7). The essence of Progressivism is seen in the Father of the Forests that is written by T.H. Watkins. It tells about a zealot who contributed to the appearance of environmentalism, which was a crucial issue. The text is related to the readings, as it includes the information about the President Roosevelt’s ideas and believes. It proves that the Pinchots had dreams similar to those Roosevelt had.
They wanted to contribute to the creation of parks and nature preservers. Being a forester, Pinchot spent years studying forest management and utilizing his knowledge to develop the ideas of environmentalism. More than million acres of forests still exist by virtue of his work (Watkins 6). As the Progressives wanted to make the usage of natural resources efficient and minimalize benefits, this essay is useful for the understanding of the era. It describes the connection of this field to coal-mining and human rights. The involvement of such politicians as Taft, Ballinger and others is also underlined.
The significance of the Progressive era is in its determination to improvement. The government implemented a range of changes targeted at the appearance of the better living conditions for the general public. The Progressives wanted to protect people from the adverse impact of politics and business. They wanted to provide people with clean food, limited the access to addictive things such as alcohol and drugs. They provided new laws at the state, local and national levels that changed the citizens’ lives greatly to meet the needs of the society of that time. The Progressives abolished child labor, allowed women to vote, cured democracy and took care of nature. Of course, some of their ideas were not appropriate and failed, but the implemented ones made a positive impact on the country.
Works Cited
Oakes, James, Michael McGerr, Jan Lewis, Nick Cullathe, Jeanne Boydston, Mark Summers and Camilla Townsend. Of People. New York: Oxford University Press, 2012. Print.
Scott, Anne. “Saint Jane and the Ward Boss”. American Heritage 12.1 (1960): 1-8. American Heritage. Web.
Watkins, T.H. “Father of the Forests”. American Heritage 42.1 (1991): 1-7. American Heritage. Web.
Watterson, John. “Inventing Modern Football”. American Heritage 39.6 (1988): 1-6. American Heritage. Web.
The Progressive Era was marked by numerous advances in social, political and business spheres of the American life. The period between 1890s and 1920s was the time when Americans adopted progressive ideas and methods, which had a significant impact on development of the USA. It is possible to single out a number of persons who can be regarded as symbols of the Progressive Era, symbols that contributed into development of particular areas in the US society.
For instance, Susan B. Anthony can be seen as a symbol of the movement for women’s rights. She was one of women’s rights leaders and she believed that “the coalition of clergy persons, women, and politicians” could help females gain more rights (Graves 46). Andrew Carnegie was a successful businessman who is also seen as a founder of the steel industry in the USA. Carnegie opened up new horizons in the business world and became a philanthropist who contributed greatly to development of various social projects (Gould 26). Theodore Roosevelt was an inspiring leader and politician who managed to diminish corruption in the political arena and he also contributed greatly to development of the US society as he saw “the executive power as the steward of the public welfare” (Gould 57). John R. Mott was inspirational in another sphere of Americans’ life. He was a spiritual leader who “galvanized worldwide mission, ecumenism, and evangelism” (Pope-Levison 194). Mott was a devout evangelist who managed to unite people and promote Christian values.
On balance, it is possible to state that each of the individuals mentioned above had a great effect on development of different spheres of the American society. These people’s activities were aimed at improving welfare of Americans and they managed to reach their goals as they started a new era in the country’s development.
Works Cited
Gould, Lewis L. America in the Progressive Era, 1890-1914. New York, NY: Routledge, 2014. Print.
Graves, Karen. Girl’s Schooling during the Progressive Era: From Female Scholar to Domesticated Citizen. New York, NY: Routledge, 2014. Print.
Pope-Levison, Priscilla. Building the Old Time Religion: Women Evangelists in the Progressive Era. New York, NY: NYU Press, 2013. Print.
Efforts to create a responsible government in the United States began in the 1890s during the progressive era. The era was a period of social and political activism in America. It was characterized by government purification, modernization, improvement of education, and women’s suffrage. One of the most significant progressive interventions was the Nineteenth Amendment, through which American women got the right to vote. The paper seeks to explain why this amendment is considered the most significant outcome of the progressive era.
The Nineteenth Amendment marked a political change for women as it granted them equal vocal power as men on political grounds. Before the amendment, only men were allowed to participate in the voting exercise during elections (Joseph & Ben, 2019). Women were voiceless and were forced to submit to laws and policies made by men. After the amendment, all Americans, irrespective of their gender, gained the right to participate in politics and vote (Joseph & Ben, 2019). Such an achievement is significant as it was the beginning of women’s empowerment which granted women a voice equal to men’s in the governing laws and politics.
Besides, the right to vote guaranteed by the Nineteenth Amendment changed the social life of American women. Before the amendment, women lived miserably as they were not free to work and earn income. Those who worked were exposed to risky environments and were prone to harm. For instance, many women who worked in the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory were killed in a fire outbreak due to unsafe working conditions (Joseph & Ben, 2019). Reforms brought about by the Nineteenth Amendment increased the number of women in the working class (Joseph & Ben, 2019). The reforms also enabled women to do unprecedented things like attending speakeasies.
In summation, the Nineteenth Amendment of the American constitution was the most significant progressive intervention. It is because it marked the beginning of the political and social changes for American women. Through the amendment, women gained the right to vote, which evened the political grounds. They had a voice equal to men in the governing laws and politics, which minimized women’s oppression in the country.
Reference
Joseph, L., & Ben, W. (2019). The American Yawp: Vol 2 [eBook edition]. Stanford University Press. Web.