Wilson’s 14 Points was a set of principles formulated by the former President of the United States, Woodrow Wilson, in an attempt to end the First World War and promote perpetual global peace. President Wilson outlined the principles in his speech to the Congress in 1918. The principles were based on a report prepared by Edward M. House, who was the head of foreign policy, and it was based on the issues likely to arise in the anticipated Paris Peace Conference.
The report by the head of public policy was then supplemented by the findings of the inquiry committee, comprised of geographers, historians, and political scientists, hired by Wilson to study the socio-economic and political issues facing the world at the time.
The committee collected all the issues and prepared about 2,000 separate reports, which were then integrated to come up with the 14 issues. President Wilson then presented the issues to Congress claiming that the principles were meant to bring everlasting peace to the world. The European nations supported the principles owing to the view that they would produce the desired results of ending the ongoing conflict and prevent the recurrence of such wars in the future. However, the US main allies in the war, viz. France, UK, and Italy were skeptical of Wilson’s idealism.
Introduction
Wilson’s 14 points were a set of principles proposed by President Woodrow to end the First World War and to mitigate the recurrence of similar wars in the future (Hoff 48). The principles were presented to the world in the form of a speech delivered by President Wilson to Congress in 1918. The 14 points were based on problems facing the globe as researched by an inquiry team formed by the president.
The 14 points would shape the deliberations for peace later in 1919 at the Paris Peace Conference. The president was expected to personally present the points to the conference and initiate the peace talks. However, Wilson fell ill before the commencement of the conferences, which prompted him to delegate the duty to the French Prime Minister, Georges Clemenceau (Thompson 190). President Wilson’s absence in the conference led to the alteration of the original set of principles with the leaders from the allied countries adopting only one proposal from the 14 points.
This paper justifies Wilson’s commitment to restoring peace and his vision to mitigate the recurrence of similar conflicts in the future. To achieve the stated objective, the paper analyzes the influence that Wilson’s 14 points had on the peace talks held in Paris. Besides, the paper explores the six diplomatic provisions outlined in Wilson’s speech and the effect they would have on global peace if they were adopted.
The 14 Wilson’s points and lasting global peace
Initially, the US refrained from the war between the west and the central powers mainly due to the fear of igniting capitalism-communism conflict. However, after Germany declared unrestricted marine warfare and promised to sink the ships trading with France and Britain, the US joined the war. Some US ships were sunk with Americans on board. Consequently, the US intervened to stop the maritime war and protect its trade interests with France and Britain.
However, even though the entry of the US into the war was originally propelled by the desire to end maritime warfare, President Wilson was determined to not only end the ongoing conflict but also mitigate the recurrence of another world war in the future. Before the official delivery of the speech about the 14 points, the president noted that his chief objective was to ensure that such a war would never arise again in the future.
The commitment by Wilson to end the First World War and bring long-lasting peace across the globe can be substantiated from the process used to draft the 14 principles (Tierney 219). As stated earlier, the principles were formulated following a comprehensive study of the issues affecting the world at the time. Wilson formed a team to explore the barriers to peaceful coexistence amongst different nations across the globe.
The findings from the committee were compressed to form the 14 peace principles that would be used as a basis for restoring peace. The committee came up with the issues deemed necessary for consideration during the dispute resolution talks. Over 2,000 documents were identified, which were used as the basis for formulating the 14 points. Wilson’s decision to use the issues as the basis for the negotiation of peace is illustrative of his commitment to long-term peace. The president focused on future conflicts. Ending the ongoing war would not require a study of the global sources of disputes.
The provisions of the 14 principles would ensure that everlasting peace would be achieved immediately and in the long-term. The 14 principles covered two broad international issues namely the diplomatic and territorial issues. For this analysis, the six diplomatic principles shall be discussed, and their effectiveness in guaranteeing global peace examined in details. The six principles of diplomatic relations outlined the relationship between countries in the international context to ensure peaceful coexistence. The principles are included
Open covenants
The provision for the open covenant required the publicity of all bilateral and regional agreements across the globe to allow the intervention of the international community in such disputes (Hoff 49). The principle required countries involved in a bilateral or regional agreement to declare such arrangements publicly. The declaration requirement was informed by the view that the secret treaties were contributing greatly to the rise of international disputes. The avoidance of secret covenants would have the effect of allowing the global countries to scrutinize such agreements before their enforcement. This move would ensure that only the covenants that met the international standards were reinforced.
Absolute freedom of navigation
This principle would require countries to refrain from interfering with maritime businesses. The provision would prevail both in times of peace and war. Under the principle, the international community would ensure that the warring nations would not engage in maritime warfare that would bar free trade among parties not part of the dispute (DiNunzio 403). It is important to note that the US joined the war against Germany following the sinking of its ships. Therefore, freedom of navigation would offer a permanent solution to the problem of global warfare.
Liberalization of trade
The principle of liberalization of trade required the global countries to remove tariff and non-tariff barriers to facilitate international trade. This provision along with the open covenants was meant to mitigate warfare coming from trade grievances between countries around the world (Thorsen 164). The principle would establish the platform on which standardized laws regarding international trade would be formulated. The standardization of the international trade laws would offer a remedy to the international disputes arising from trade barriers imposed by one country on the other. The international trade facilitates peaceful coexistence between nations, and thus, Wilson’s call for trade liberalization would offer a lasting solution to the inter-country disputes.
Disarmament
The principle of disarmament required the disarmament of countries with dangerous weapons to mitigate the recurrence of similar conflicts as World War 1 in the future. It required countries to retain only the basic weapons to guarantee the citizens of their security (DiNunzio 405). The principle was informed by the view that the continued acquisition of dangerous weapons would be a threat to international peace in the long-term. The disarmament principle would ensure that no country poses a threat to the rest of the global nations hence guaranteeing lasting peace.
Impartial adjustment of all colonial claims
This principle required the establishment of a just procedure of settling disputes arising from colonialism. The impartial adjustment sought to ensure that the countries locked in such disputes negotiate as equal partners. In most cases, the former colonizers were developed countries and they tended to dominate the peace talks when resolving a dispute (Manela 61). The principle would cause lasting peace since most disputes arose due to the animosity created during the colonialism period.
The League of Nations
A sixth principle worth mentioning in the exploration of the diplomatic provisions is the 14th and final principle in Wilson’s list. The principle provided for the formation of a world organization to guarantee nations of their political and territorial independence (Gaughan 746). The organization would assure nations of their territorial and political independence. This provision was the only one that prevailed in the Paris Conference, and it came to be known as the League of Nations.
The principle was well advised since most disputes of the days came from the struggle for political and territorial independence. The powerful countries scrambled to colonize the less civilized countries in the hope of expanding their territories. This goal could be achieved through instigating warfare to force the natives to accept the colonial rule. Therefore, this principle would bring lasting peace across the globe since it would create neutral grounds on which to solve international differences regardless of the economic and military might of the involved countries.
They discussed six diplomatic principles as proposed by Wilson would ensure that warfare was mitigated in the future owing to the empowerment of the international community to intervene in resolving issues affecting any country across the globe. Therefore, it suffices to conclude that Wilson’s vision was to attain both short-term and long-term global peace. However, the Treaty of Versailles limited Wilson’s dreams of guaranteeing perpetual peace to the world.
The Treaty of Versailles
As mentioned earlier, Wilson championed the formulation of the 14 principles to end the First World War and ensure global peace in the future. However, Wilson did not participate in the implementation of the principles owing to his ill health in the period immediately preceding the Paris Peace Conference. In the conference, the warring nations deliberated on ways to end the war and prevent the recurrence of similar conflicts in the future. As noted earlier in this paper, the US allies, viz. France, Italy, and Britain did not support Wilson’s idealism. Therefore, the president’s illness presented an opportunity for the countries to alter the original 14 points and include only one of Wilson’s proposals.
Under the new arrangement, Germany was required to assume full responsibility for the war through a requirement for the country to repay the losses the countries had suffered during the warfare. Germany was required to pay a non-realistic reparation fee of 269 billion gold marks (Thompson 189). However, the imposition of the inflated fee was meant to convince the world that Germany had been severely punished since the country only paid a fraction of the amount.
The fee was imposed as a punishment to the country for its wrongful instigation of the war. In addition to the monetary fines, Germany was directed to disband its air force and minimize its armed forces to 100,000 soldiers. This move was meant to reduce the country’s ability to institute new attacks on any country in the world after the restoration of peace. However, the Treaty of Versailles ignored Wilson’s principles.
Germany was angered by the Paris resolutions requiring it to pay reparations. The anger was compounded by the fact that Germans had previously accessed the original document containing Wilson’s 14 points. The original document did not provide for the assigning of responsibility to any country. Therefore, the Germans received the alteration of the original document with resistance. However, Germany had to accept the conditions owing to the threats imposed by the countries participating in the talks. The rejection of the conditions would probably fuel another conflict, which would be harmful to Germany.
Though Germany agreed to the requirements, the imposition of reparations ignited the evolution of National Socialism in Germany (Ambrosius 152). This reaction would not have occurred if the original Wilson’s principles were implemented without the alterations. Therefore, it can be concluded that Wilson had the vision of creating lasting global peace by establishing neutral grounds for each country to participate in resolving the dispute.
Conclusion
Based on the analysis of the six Wilson’s diplomatic principles, it suffices to conclude that Wilson envisioned a world free from warfare. The original diplomatic provisions provided for global dispute resolution methods by empowering the international community to intervene in disputes involving any country around the globe. Therefore, disputes involving different countries would be resolved without engaging in warfare. The diplomatic proposals made by Wilson included the banning of secret covenants, free maritime navigation, trade liberalization, disarmament, and the impartial adjustment of all colonial claims.
The listed diplomatic measures were long-term strategies to mitigate international violence against the backdrop of the increasing need for international cooperation. However, despite the strategies being effective tools for mitigating global warfare perpetually, the principles were not implemented as Wilson had anticipated. The US president fell ill before the Paris Conference, and thus, he delegated the duty to sponsor the principles to the leaders of the allied countries.
The leaders prioritized their interests as opposed to following the 14 points as envisioned. The result was the replacement of the original principles with other points based on different interests. Consequently, the world witnessed the Second World War probably due to the failure to adopt the 14 points by Wilson.
Works Cited
Ambrosius, Lloyd. “Woodrow Wilson and World War I.” A Companion to American Foreign Relations. Ed. Robert Schulzinger. Malden: Blackwell, 2006. 149-167. Print.
DiNunzio, Mario. Woodrow Wilson: Essential Writings and Speeches of the Scholar-President, New York: NYU Press, 2006. Print.
Gaughan, Anthony. “A Companion to Woodrow Wilson.” The Journal of Southern History 80.3 (2014): 746-747. Print.
Hoff, Joan. A Faustian foreign policy from Woodrow Wilson to George W. Bush: dreams of perfectibility, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007. Print.
Manela, Erez. “Wilsonianism and Anticolonial Nationalism: A Dream Deferred.” Major Problems in American Foreign Relations, Volume II: Since 1914. Eds. Dennis Merrill and Thomas Paterson. Belmont: Wadsworth, 2010. 61-66. Print.
The President’s Day, or Washington’s birthday, is one of the biggest annual celebrations in America. Set on the third Monday of February, it was initially dedicated to the recognition of George Washington, who was the first American President. Today, however, more people are referring to the holiday as the President’s Day, highlighting the fact that it honors not just George Washington, but also every person who has been the head of the United States after him.
In the previous years, the President’s Day was widely celebrated all around the country. Not only did it give the workers some time off by creating a longer, three-day weekend, it was also viewed by many people as a time for patriotic celebrations. All over the country, small groups of people create reenactments of historical events. In some states, during the week before the President’s Day, schools are required to conduct certain historical and political lectures to address the legacy of American presidents, notably George Washington and Abraham Lincoln. Nevertheless, the celebration is never as big as for the Independence Day or New Year, and most people today enjoy a day off work or school instead of organizing parades or performances.
President’s Day Then and Now
This year, however, everything is different. Ever since the new President Donald Trump came to power, people have been protesting against him. For example, the day following his inauguration was marked by an enormous feminist rally that extended to most of the U.S. cities, with people from all over the world supporting the protesters. Donald Trump’s ratings are said to be the lowest of all U.S. Presidents, and his orders have already affected the lives of many people in a negative way. Hence, the President’s Day 2017 was seen by many people as another opportunity to stand up to Trump by organizing rallies and protests. In the news and on posters, the celebration is titled ‘Not My President’s Day’, referring to a Twitter hashtag ‘NotMyPresident’, which originated after the 2016 elections as a form of an open protest. This President’s Day, people of all ages gathered in the streets not to celebrate the president, but to openly oppose him. When I went for a walk in the city center, I saw a large group of people who were keeping up posters and chanting anti-Trump slogans.
On the one hand, it was sad for me to see the people so outraged on this holiday that they forgot about its true origins, only seeing it as an opportunity for protest. However, when I saw the news in the evening, I had a different feeling about the event. The reports showed that rallies were conducted in almost every town in every state, and an enormous number of people chose to spend their free day on protesting. To me, this was also a symbol of unity among the American people. In the previous years, the celebrations of the President’s Day were quiet and relatively small. This year, however, people decided to unite on this national holiday in order to achieve a common goal.
Conclusion
Overall, this year’s President’s Day was different from the previous years, particularly due to many people having a negative opinion about the President. It was indeed sad to see that people used a national holiday, which was meant to be the time to revisit our democratic origins, to resist the current elected president; however, on the other hand, it also showed the unity that the American people are capable of, thus proving our supportive nature and our consideration of the country’s future.
From 1824-1865, America was ruled by various presidents whose achievements in leadership are highly praised. This paper will discuss three presidents who I believe did the best job in that period. The presidents will include Abraham Lincoln, Andrew Jackson, and John Tyler.
Andrew Jackson was the seventh president of the United States from 1829 to 1837. He was a revered politician and an army general who was instrumental in winning the Battle of New Orleans against the British in 1815. As a president, he successfully relocated the native Indian tribes living in the Southeast of the Mississippi river to the Southwest (Clark & Remini, 2009).He was elected as president in 1828.
During his tenure as president, the country was faced by various adversities. Although one of the greatest achievements in his rule was paying off the entire national debt in 1835, the accomplishment was short lived. In 1837 to 1844, the country experienced a severe depression that caused the country to be in debt ten times. Following Jefferson’s vision of an agricultural republic, Andrew Jackson worked hard to destroy the Bank of America, which he viewed as a concentrating on enriching the industrialists and commercial entrepreneurs and disregarding the farmers. The elites heavily criticized Jackson, but he successfully withdrew money from the Bank and invested it in smaller banks.
This helped in stimulating economic growth in different sectors including manufacturing and agriculture. However, in 1837, there was a panic after Jackson issued the Specie Circular that saw many banks collapse (Clark & Remini, 2009).
Another crisis that rocked his administration was the nullification crisis also known as the secession crisis. In 1828-1832, there were disagreements in the government over tariffs. The Southerners criticized the tariffs because they believed the tariffs were making goods to be more expensive in the south than in the north of the country. At this point, the country was facing the risk of secession of South Carolina and Jackson vowed to send forces to the region.
In his address, he said, “the power to annul a law of the United States, assumed by one State, incompatible with the existence of the Union, contradicted expressly by the letter of the Constitution, unauthorized by its spirit, is inconsistent with every principle on which it was founded ” (Story, 2005 p.547). He continued and out rightly objected to any state seceding from the union, “The Constitution… forms a government not a league… To say that any State may at pleasure secede from the Union is to say that the United States is not a nation” (Story, 2005 p.552). This led to the Southerners agreeing to a reduced compromised rate and war was averted.
John Tyler was the 10th head of state in the United States of America. His persistent confidence and activism accounts for his accomplishments while in office. He was always open and kind to the citizens. He led the nation during a time of global financial crisis and facilitated a durable alliance that realigned the states politics for decades (Walker, 2001). In 1842, Tyler made it simple for America to trade with other nations through the Treaty of Wanghia. It is through the treaty that United States gained the privilege of extraterritoriality and its economy improved (Walker, 2001).
Another chief achievement of John Tyler rests on the field of foreign principles. He brought into law the resolution for Texas annexation three days before his resignation and this created a new chapter in the country’s history. It is through John Tyler that vice presidents in the United States were given the right to assume all powers of a president during presidential vacancies. He also practiced the veto for ten times. John Tyler ended the Seminole war, organized for the nation’s first trade mission, and enlarged the Monroe doctrine to involve Hawaii (Henretta, Edwards & Self, 2011).
John Tyler faced a challenge in his presidency since he did not have a vice president. The constitution at that time had no provisions for a vice president position and as a result, the citizens claimed that Tyler was just but an acting president. He fought against this view and won legitimacy. Another challenge faced by John Tyler is the fact his entire cabinet resigned from work in 1841. The United States citizens referred to him as “His Accidency” since they did not think that at one time he would be their head of state. To respond to these challenges, Tyler stayed strong and dedicated himself more to lead the nation (Walker, 2001).
Abraham Lincoln was the 16th president of America. He served as president from 1861 until 1865 when he was assassinated. During his tenure, he led a country that was facing great military, constitutional, and moral crises. He is remembered for his actions in averting secession, ending slavery and restructuring the financial and economic structures. Lincoln was from a poor background, but this did not deter his resolve to be successful, making him one of the greatest presidents of the United States (McPherson, 2009).
To the South, his election marked the beginning of secession. By the time he was being inaugurated, seven states had seceded and this marked the start of the civil war and his struggle to reunite the country. In his struggle to accomplish this, he faced opposition from the confederates as well as people on his side. During the civil war, he issued a suspension of habeas corpus and closed down many of the confederate ports. He extended his presidential powers, but practiced them with restraint (McPherson, 2009).
One of the greatest challenges he faced was leading the army where he made poor military decisions that led to the Union defeat in Virginia at the battle of Bull Run. During the civil war, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation on September 22, 1862 that resulted to many slaves being freed. His cabinet was always arguing with many fighting amongst themselves and this undermined the fight for reunification of the states (McPherson, 2009).
The preservation and restoration of the Union was the main aim of Lincoln though he faced a lot of criticism, with the help of the Union forces. During the last days of the war, his plea was to see the country rise from the ashes of the South. In one of his most memorable quote, he addressed a gathering and said, “With malice toward none; with charity for all” (Mott, 2007 p.90). Abraham Lincoln was successful in re uniting the states, but he did not live to implement his plans for reconstruction of the country. On April 14, 1865, John Wilkes Booth at the Ford’s theater assassinated him and this made him to be regarded a martyr by many including his opponents (McPherson, 2009).
Conclusion
The above three presidents were very instrumental in shaping the history of the country and are thus ranked among the greatest presidents who ruled between 1824 and 1865.
References
Clark, W. K., & Remini, R. V. (2009). Andrew Jackson: Great Generals. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Henretta, A., Edwards, R., & Self, O. (2011). America’s History. New York: Bedford Martins.
McPherson, J. M. (2009). Abraham Lincoln. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Mott, M. B. (2007). Lincoln. New York: Martin B. Brown.
Story, J. (2005). Commentaries on the Constitution of the United States: with a preliminary review of the constitutional history of the colonies and states, before the adoption of the Constitution. Clark: Law book Exchange.
Walker, J.C. (2001). John Tyler: a president of many firsts. Blacksburg: McDonald & Woodward.
Francis Anthony Nixon was the father of Richard Nixon. Francis Anthony was staying in Yorba Linda together with his wife Hannah Milhouse when she gave birth to Richard M. Nixon. Yorba Linda is located in California, U.S.A. (Kelly 1). Nixon was married to Thelma Catherine Ryan. He grew up in Yorba Linda which was also his hometown. He escaped death when he was in the Navy during a typhoon incident and also when he was attacked by Pneumonia. His brother died of tuberculosis thus making him face the great challenge of living without his brother (MultiEducator 1). At 27, he married Patricia Ryan with whom they raised two daughters namely, Patricia and Julie. Patricia was commonly known as Tricia.
School Life and Education
Nixon went to Fullerton and later Whittier High School where he graduated as a top student. Nixon later attended Whittier College in his late teens. He was later admitted to Duke University Law School after coming second in a class of 85 from his college. In addition to excellent academic performance, Nixon was also the leader of the student’s body in the college. At Duke University, he was able to finish second in his class. The class had 37 students who included some of the high ranking government officials he would, later on, rub shoulders with. That was in the year 1937.
His career path
In 1937 Nixon gained entry into the Californian legislature where he began practicing law. Nixon also had a business plan. He was one of the partners who opened a company for manufacturing orange juice in 1940. After the failure of this company, Nixon joined the Navy in 1946. In the Navy, he rose in ranks to a lieutenant commander and served in the pacific especially in logistics during the Japanese campaigns.
Political path
After the Second World War, Nixon became interested in politics. Thus he contested and defeated Jerry Voorhis to become the United States representative from California. This was an ominous task because by then, Jerry Voorhis was a five-time democratic representative who coupled up also as the incumbent. Due to his charisma, Richard Nixon was able to contest and win a senate seat in 1950. during this period he excelled in political matters and in matters concerning policymaking thus winning the favor of General Eisenhower who nominated him to be his running mate. At this time Nixon was 39 years of age.
When General Eisenhower contested for presidency, he won, becoming the 34th U.S president. Consequently, his successful contest made Nixon become his vice president. In 1960, when he contested for his party ticket, Nixon was nominated for president by acclamation. Nixon however, lost narrowly to President John F. Kennedy because Kennedy was much stronger especially in congressional seats. In 1968, Nixon successfully contested again for his party nomination and won. Finally, when he contested for his presidential election, Nixon became victorious. One of the ways in which Nixon became a national figure is when he took over the position as chairman of the house Un-American Activist Special Subcommittee.
The subcommittee was given the task of investigating government officials to find out whether they were ex-communists. During this period, the commission was involved in similar major cases such that the case was called the Alger Hiss case. Nixon was well known for using attack mechanisms which made him succeed in most of his campaigns. For instance in 1950, when he became a senate, his triumph against his predecessor was due to his claims that Helen Douglas, the former senator was a communist sympathizer. During the 1952 presidential campaigns, when Nixon was the nominated vice president, he was faced with accusations that he had a slush fund.
Nixon admitted these accusations saying that the purpose of that money was for political reasons. He gave a televised speech on this admitting that he also received a dog as a present for his daughter, which was called checkers. Some of the achievements of Richard Nixon were also in the cabinet where he was able to preside over cabinet meetings when the President was not present.
In his first presidential campaigns, Nixon lost to President John F. Kennedy in 1960 (Presidential pet museum 3). Two years later he lost another election in his state of California to the then powerful Edmund Brown. He resigned from campaigning during this year. Richard Nixon took a six-year break from national active politics and was only involved in helping republicans retain or win congressional and senate seats. During the whole of this period, Nixon was working for a law firm in New York. He was also involved with environmental agencies where he was able to accomplish much in the area of environmental programs. In 1972, Nixon made a major come back. He contested for president with George McGovern and won by a historic margin, one of the widest ever recorded in the history of America.
Accomplishments of President Richard M. Nixon
Richard M. Nixon took over leadership when the country was divided into war overseas and violence in the cities. He succeeded in ending the American campaign in Viet Nam. Nixon also succeeded in improving the relationship between the United States and the former U.S.S.R and China.
Nixon’s Domestic Achievements
While in office, Nixon accomplished his mission in revenue sharing. This revenue sharing program restored a measure of the balance between the state and federal relations. In the business sector, Nixon imposed strong policies that we’re able to fight against inflation (Hoff 2). The policies came into force in the year 1971 and their operations were nationwide. Richard Nixon was able to take the United States out of the gold standard in which the freeze was terminated and permanently alternated by the intertwined high-grade system of wage-price controls (Barone 11). By the end of 1973, very few controls remained.
It was during his tenure that there was the end of the peace-time draft and new time anticrime laws were formed. He helped restore peace to the campuses of the nation. Nixon managed to cut back and reduce the expenditure on wasteful programs like those of LBJ’s great society. Programs such as these had been notorious for squandering public funds. He also used his administrative policies to reduce demonstrations in the streets by campus and ghetto communities. He ensured that there was freedom of the press and giving of invaluable education concerning the constitutional rights to the public.
Nixon’s administration caused congress to reassert its authority. Before then the congressional authority was dormant and there was an alarming rate of growth of powers of the president. Thus this dangerous growth was finally arrested by Nixon’s administration (McDougall 22).
A council on environmental quality was set. The council’s main role was to recognize, formulate legislature and implement projects that tackle pollution and consumption. During President Nixon’s administration, Nixon appointed justices of conservative philosophy to the Supreme Court of America thus making a major milestone in the legislature. As a scientific accomplishment, the first astronauts to land on the moon was during his period, which was in 1969. This was during his first term as president. Nixon managed to fulfill his promise of uniting the country. This was manifested when Americans united in one accord to demand his impeachment or resignation (Wallechinsky, & Wallacetrivia 4).
Nixon’s foreign Policies
His years of leadership marked a key turning point in the U.S. under his leadership. The United States made a major turn around from its role as policeman of the world (Wallechinsky & Wallacetrivia 1). It was during his tenure that the dangers of the cold war subsided.
Other achievements were his focus on the stability of the world such that he was able to negotiate peace deals with major stakeholders of the world. President Nixon pursued two major policies. He initiated the improvement of his relationship with China. America established, for the first time since the early 50s, a good relationship with the Chinese leadership. He was able to hold a series of meetings with the Russian leader Leonid I. Brezhnev in which they negotiated crucial peace deals to bring back global stability. These meetings resulted in a treaty that focused on limiting strategic nuclear weapons. Hence the series of meetings were accompanied by the signing of the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) treaty which addresses matters such as major nuclear rearmament. To explain further, this policy that he pursued with the U.S.S.R was called Détente.
Détente was a strategy that was designed to find ways in which the U.S.S.R and the U.S. would begin to work together despite their differences. Working together was aimed at reducing tension that existed between the two countries. One year later he announced that he was ending the American campaign in North Vietnam. He managed to bring home the prisoners of war and the American troops who were fighting in Vietnam and some other parts of this region. Ending this war was part of his foreign policy. He decreased the U.S involvement by leaving more and more of ground war to the Vietnamese (Geo-evolution 4).
This was termed Vietnamization. It resulted in war in Cambodia where Vietnamese sanctuaries were destroyed. The destruction caused widespread accusations on the president. Demonstrations were held at Kent University. The National Guard killed four students during the demonstration. His National security advisor, Henry Kissinger was also involved in a series of negotiations aimed at ending the war in Vietnam and in preventing war between Israel and Egypt. Thus the US and North Vietnam signed a peace treaty in 1973. These peace treaties resulted in the return of American POW, ceasefire, and then the continued presence of civilian advisory groups. A process of ending the war and reaching an agreement of peace was also initiated. However, this peace failed and it led to the conquest of the South by the North.
Failures of President Richard M. Nixon
The Watergate scandal
Within a few months after his reelection, Nixon’s administration was faced with what was later called the Watergate scandal. The scandal emanated from a break-in which was traced back to 1972. It emerged at the Democratic National Committee during his campaign for the second term in office (The white house 9). This happened within the officials of the committee when they were still planning to reelect the president. This building was housing the offices of the Democratic Party. The watergate scandal got out of hand for President Richard Nixon when it was revealed that Nixon was involved in trying to cover up his staff. Some officials resigned.
As the investigations continued, it was revealed that Nixon had taped all his conversations and recorded his telephone calls during the time of the cover-up. Thus the tapes became the evidence that worked against President Nixon. Nixon was forced by the courts to give up those tapes after which he was proved guilty of the offense of covering up the issue. As a further blow, Nixon’s vice president resigned from office after he was involved in a corruption scandal in Maryland. Because of the resignation of his vice president, Nixon nominated Gerald R. Ford in 1973 and the nomination was largely approved by congress and the senate. During this time Gerald was the house minority leader and was popular with the majority of politicians nationwide.
The end of Nixon’s rule
President Richard M. Nixon is quite famous in history because of his policies and his unification of the American people. He is also the first president ever to resign from office because of the Watergate scandal that has been discussed above.
President Nixon resigned because he was faced with an imminent impeachment that was emanating from the senate and the house of congress. On August 8, 1974, President Nixon announced that he was going to resign from office the following day, which is on August 9, 1974 (the white house 11). Nixon resigned because the House drew up articles aimed at impeaching him. Thus instead of being impeached, he opted for resignation. His reason for the resignation was to begin the desperately needed process of healing in America.
Despite all this, Nixon, in his last years gained a lot of praise as a good statesman. By the end of his life, the former president Nixon had written a number of books recounting his experience in public life and matters concerning foreign policies that took place during his period. Thus, as a recap, Nixon became the first president in the history of America, ever to resign. Nixon was also the first President of the U.S. who paid a visit to China and the first president ever to nominate a vice president under the 25th amendment which had been implemented. Nixon died in the year 1994.
President Gerald R. Ford
Gerald R. Ford was the 38th president of the U.S.A. President Ford succeeded President Richard M. Nixon in the White House in the year 1974 when Nixon resigned. Ford was the first and the only president not elected by American Voters in the history of America.
Gerald R. Ford was born Leslie King Jr. on 14 July 1913 (Kelly 1). He was born in Omaha. He used to be known as Jerry by his friends (Bibliography in Naval History 1). His parents divorced. This is because the father was a wife-beating alcoholic. His mother later moved to Grand Rapids where she married a successful businessman Gerald R. Ford who was the owner of a paint store in 1916 (Miller Center Public Affairs, 2010).
Thus Gerald R. Ford senior adopted Jerry and gave him his name consequently causing Jerry to become Gerald Rudolf Ford Junior. This was during Jerry’s teenagehood after he had graduated from college. Thus Leslie officially changed his name after he had graduated from college. Gerald often hailed the marriage between his mother and his new husband with much respect, while always talking good about his stepfather. When Gerald Jr. engaged in politics, he married Elizabeth Bloomer, just before he was elected to the congress. The couple raised four children namely: Michael, John, Steve, and Susan.
Education
Former President Gerald R. Ford graduated from the former South High School in 1931 where his classwork achievements were mainly in history and Government. He finished near the top of his class. Apart from the academic performance that made him famous, he was also named as the most popular senior student by his classmates. Ford majored in economics at college. He also held a series of jobs that supplemented his education budget.
Ford was educated at the University of Michigan where he graduated in 1935 with a Bachelor of Arts degree. He was an outstanding student both in class and in the field during his entire school period. He was a member of the school football team at the University of Michigan where he also excelled in this field. Ford was offered contracts by the Green Bay Packers and the Detroit Lions to which he refused to accept, one of the reasons being he wanted to resign from sports. This was because he wanted to join a law school. At Yale where he was enrolled with difficulties, he emerged near the top of the class. Despite going there on a trial basis in 1938, Ford emerged the top third of his class in January 1941.
Career path
As a teenager, Ford worked at a local restaurant and played football.
Ford began practicing law in 1941 during which his interest in politics grew more and more. During this period, he became more and more interested in politics. He helped Wendell Willkie in his presidential contest unsuccessfully. Later on, he joined a group of republican reformers known as the “Home Front,” The home front opposed the local republican machine. The local republicans were headed by Frank McKay who was a ruthless leader.
In the Second World War, Ford was recruited in the Navy to engage the Japanese forces in the pacific. He rose through the ranks to become a lieutenant commander. His entry into the navy put his career path on hold. Ford was called to duty in April 1942 where he served as an officer aboard the Monterey which was a light aircraft carrier that was operating in the pacific. It was stationed in the Pacific where they were engaging the Japanese soldiers. He was involved in many victorious battles in the pacific numbering ten. Ford nearly died during a typhoon in the pacific when he came near to being thrown out of the deck of this vessel. He was also a good leader during this time of war.
In the pacific campaign, Ford has commissioned an ensign on April 13, 1942, where he served 47 months actively on duty. He was an instructor in the Navy’s V-5 which was a cadet program. This was because he had an advantage since he had a good background in being a coach. Ford taught elementary seamanship, ordnance, gunnery, first aid, and military drill at the preflight school in Carolina. He was later promoted to Lieutenant Junior Grade on June 2, 1942. He was then promoted to lieutenant in 1943.
Shortly after the war, he went back to Grand Rapids where he started practicing law. It appears that the practice of law made him more and more interested in politics. Thus in 1948, Ford entered into republican politics after serving in the Michigan bar, and in the supreme court of the U.S.A. Gerald was admitted to the Michigan State Bar in 1941 and was later on admitted to practice in the supreme court of the U.S.A. The University of Michigan gave Gerald Rudolf Ford an honorary degree after which other universities like Albino, Aquinas, and Spring Arbor colleges followed suit.
Several other colleges beyond his State also gave him honorary degrees including Methodist University in 1977. Ford also obtained a Ph.D. in Public Administration from American International University where he had gone back to study in order to boost his career growth.
Sports history
President Ford was also an outstanding athlete. Ford won most city and state football trophies during his entire school period. In 1934, Ford was known as the most valuable player in Michigan and the neighboring communities hailed him. He was also selected by ‘sports illustrated’ where they gave him an award because he was among the top football players who had the most contribution to their fellow citizens during that time. All this happened in 1959, the period after which he was given an award of a gold medal from the National Football Foundation because he familiarized so much with the game.
When he joined Yale Law School in 1935, which was the school of his dreams, he went there as an assistant coach. He took a job at Yale where he was paid $2,400 per year. With this money, he was able to pay various debts. His entry into Yale also gave him the opportunity to rub shoulders with future senators. For instance, Robert Taft, Jr., and William Proxmire are the senators who were among his football students. Apart from football, Ford also coached boxing despite his unfamiliarity with the sport.
Political path
In 1948 Ford began to bid for congress although quietly. Michigan was heavily republican. It was therefore a big challenge for Ford to contest especially over the five-term incumbent Bartel Jonkman. Jonkman was also a strong ally of Franck McKay. In his contest, he won against Fred J. Barr, Jr. This was because he had been propelled into victory by a combination of attack strategies coupled with the type of campaign typical of an internationalist. Ford was able to win his elections twelve times. During this time he gained knowledge and experience on how the government works. He advocated against the communists. This he did by supporting both the republican and the democratic presidents who aimed at containing The U.S.S.R and Chinese communism.
During his time as congress, Ford emerged among Nixon’s strongest defendants when Nixon was involved in a controversy after they had been nominated and elected. The contests of the congress, the losses the party had succumbed and the presidential elections worked for the good of Ford. As a result of all these activities, He was able to chair the House Republican conference in 2963. Ford also took the lead according to rank as a republican in the house because he had successfully challenged the House Minority leader Charles A. Halleck.
Ford occupied the ideological grounds of the Republicans between the two extremes. He nominated his fellow Michigander Governor Gorge Romney for President. Romney lost to President Lyndon B. Johnson. During the time of Nixon’s contests, Ford was able to provide invaluable support to Nixon’s presidency. In 1968 he supported the successful run of Nixon’s presidency. Nixon’s administration did not treat Ford with good respect.
They wished him away as an intellectual lightweight. Ford still supported President Nixon’s Policies thus making him become one of the most loyal allies of the President. Ford was reelected to congress when Nixon was reelected. Ford is reported to have put the blame on the inability of the republicans to take over control of the house in that election, on Nixon. He believed that Nixon had refused to campaign for the congressmen who belonged to the republican party.
Major scandals that rocked Nixon’s administration propelled Ford into power. Ford was nominated as the next Vice president by President Nixon under the new rules that were being assimilated into the constitution. This was because Ford was viewed as the only candidate who would be supported by the senate and the house. Nixon feared a double confrontation from the congress because had he chosen someone else who was unpopular with the congress and senate majority, this would further hurt his image since the Watergate scandal was still looming. Thus the senate gave Ford 92 against 3 and the House gave him 387 against 35. Ford finally became the Vice president and when Nixon resigned he became the first president to assume office without the American Vote.
President Ford’s achievements
When taking the oath of office Ford stated that he was assuming office under weird circumstances (The white house 1). This was because he was taking over from President Nixon who had resigned because he was implicated with the Watergate scandal. Several challenges were facing Ford. He had to devise ways in which he had to fight inflation, how to revive the economy which was depressed, how to solve the problem of persistent energy shortages, and also brokering peace in the global arena.
President Ford’s methods of solving these problems were geared at containing the trend that the public was dependent on the government intervention to their societal problems. His principles shifted from spending as a means of solving the American economic and societal problems. Thus he thought this would be a long-term solution for Americans.
Ford was well known for his integrity and openness thereby making him increase in popularity during part of his administration. This is also the reason that had made him popular throughout the years when he served in congress. During his tenure, President Ford granted Nixon a full pardon of the Watergate scandal and all other accusations against His predecessor (The Associates, 11). This, later on, calmed down earlier controversies brought about by the Watergate scandal (The White House 6). Ford established his policies during his first year in office despite a large number of Democrats in the congress, which had been a heavy blow for the former President Nixon.
First, he was able to get rid of inflation and afterward tackled recession because it had grown to become a big problem for the nation’s economy. Ford buttressed his efforts to put up measures aimed at trying to stimulate sustainable economic growth. He was able to help businesses operate more freely by reducing their taxes. Ford was also able to ease the controls which were being practiced by a regulatory agency. In the international scene, Ford was able to maintain the superiority of the United States after the collapse of Cambodia and South Vietnam as a result of the withdrawal of the U.S from Vietnam. Ford’s administration presided over the final withdrawal of U.S troops from Vietnam (Cincotta 13). Ford was also faced with the challenge of preventing a new war in the Middle East (Kissinger, 2007).
His aid to Israel and Egypt was aimed at bringing the two countries together so that they could accept a peace agreement to increase the global stability which President Ford desperately fought for. The treaty with the U.S.S.R continued to hold. The two leaders of the US and the U.S.S.R finally settled on a policy of new limitations on nuclear weapons and rearmament programs.
The end of Ford’s rule
When he contested for nomination for the presidency in the Republican Party, Ford won. However, Ford lost the elections to the former Governor of Georgia, Jimmy Carter because of many reasons ranging from the pardon to his predecessor to the failure of Republicans to take control of the congress. Ford is largely hailed as a leader who helped in healing America. The reason for his defeat is partly because he had pardoned his predecessor on the wrongs he had done especially the Watergate scandal. This pardon was viewed as something that had been planned by the two presidents. Ford died in the year 2006.
Conclusion
We have been able to see that President Nixon and President Ford were long time friends. During their administration period, they were faced with many challenges. The Watergate scandal faced President Nixon while Ford was defeated when he contested for elections partly because he pardoned the former President Nixon. The two presidents had almost similar foreign policies. As we have been able to see, President Ford was engaged in completing President Nixon’s initiatives. Thus President Ford completed his predecessor’s initiatives before beginning to implement his domestic and foreign policies. In domestic policies, the two presidents are hailed because they managed to fulfill their promises to improve the lives of the American people.
Works Cited
Barone, Michael. Nixon’s America. 1999. Web.
Biographies in Naval History. President Gerald R. Ford. 2007. Web.
Cincotta, Howard. America.gov. Engaging the world. Memorial Service at Cathedral Recalls Ford’s Achievements. 2007. Web.
Geo-evolution. Policy successes and failures of Johnson and Nixon. 2010. Web.
Hoff, Joan. Re-evaluating Richard Nixon: his domestic achievements. 2009. Web.
The year 1881 saw the appointment of Chester Alan Arthur as the 21st President of the United States. Arthur’s story goes back to his birthplace in Cullybackey, Ballymena in Northern Ireland. The ideologies of Henry Clay were the biggest motivation for Arthur. Before joining politics, Arthur was an affiliate of the Stalwart, which was a section of the Republican Party. (Greyfield) As a young man, Arthur had a close relationship with Roscoe Conkling, something that saw President Ulysses Grant appointing him as the Collector of the Port of New York. Before he was elected the Vice President under Garfield, Arthur was practicing law. Garfield was however shot and wounded on the head on July 2, 1881 and he eventually died from infections on the wound in September 1881. This was followed by Arthur’s swearing in as President of the United States. (Doyle & Swaney 61)
During the American Civil War in 1862, Governor Edwin D. Morgan elected Arthur as Inspector-General of the State Militia. Later that year, Arthur was elevated to the office of Quartermaster-General of the State Militia where he served throughout the year. The two offices were political appointments and he did his work until the end of the war. (Mitchell) He then went back to his law career in New York City. While serving as collector, he sided with Stalwarts of the Republican Party, which advocated for the spoils system despite the fact that there was too much controversy. Arthur advocated for sincere and open management of the Customs House for better results. He however appointed more personal than it was required maintaining most of them for their loyalty to the party rather than on their skills and competence. Arthur served in this position up to 1878 when President Rutherford B. Hayes revoked his position. (Thomas 318)
After Arthur was removed from the Collector’s position, he went back to practicing law. Conkling and other Stalwarts chose Grant to run for a third term in the 1880 Republican National Convention. This did not however go well and James A. Garfield defeated him. Garfield and his supporters decided to let the Stalwarts have the vice presidency. Although Conkling and other members did not want this offer, Arthur saw it as a great opportunity and accepted it. Although the Stalwarts did not like the idea, they agreed to appoint Arthur to be the Vice president. This is how he came to be the Vice President under Garfield in the 1880 election. Conkling wanted President Garfield to appoint more Stalwarts in his administration and Arthur supported him against President Garfield. (Criscione 1)
In July 1881, President Garfield was assassinated by a political nemesis called Charles Guiteau. Guiteau was a Stalwart who was politically frustrated for failing to attain high office. (Vowell, 240) Garfield initially survived the attack but his health deteriorated because of complications arising from the wound. This led to President Garfield’s death on September 19, 1881. Arthur was sworn in as President of the United States in 1881. As a president, Arthur was conscious of the wrangles and divisions in the Republican Party. There were also disagreements of cronyism as well as civil service changes. As the President, Arthur decided to keep away from both groups in order to attain confidence from the public. He became a man with his own stand and did not let any group in the Republican Party manipulate him in his decisions. He angered his former Stalwart friends by supporting the civil service reform. (Peskin 698)
Arthur achieved a number of accomplishments while in office making his administration to be liked by many people. Arthur advocated for lower tariff rates and in this way, he saved the government from yearly in excess of revenue. He passed the Tariff Act of 1883, which left many party members unsatisfied. Some even joined hands with the Democratic Party and the issue of tariff became a main political topic in the two parties. In the year 1883, he also advocated for the passing of the Pendleton Act. This made the Civil Service Commission more open thus avoiding charging political evaluations against those in office. This Act made available a classified system, which ensured that government offices were reachable only by competitive printed assessments. In this way, personnel could not be revoked just because of political motives. (McPhee)
During his presidency, Arthur passed the renowned Edmunds Act, which allowed only monogamists to vie for political offices. This Act was particularly put into effect in Utah, which had many polygamists and bigamists. On top of this act, Arthur orchestrated the establishment of the Federal immigration law that is in effect up to date. Arthur made some remarkable achievements in the foreign policy. It was during his administration that the United States came to be among the first Western nation to develop political associations with Asian countries like Korea. This was after the approval of the Shufeldt Treaty. United States sustained political associations with Korea up to 1905 when it became a colony of Japan after the Russo-Japanese War ended. The International Meridian conference took place in Washington D.C in 1884 under President Arthur’s command. This led to the creation of the Greenwich Meridian and global equivalence of time, which are utilized even in the modern day. (Thatcher)
The policy that was viewed by many as a failure on the part of Arthur and his administration was the Chinese Exclusion Act. This was made in reaction to anti-Chinese attitude in America, and Congress approved the Act. This act made it illegal for any Chinese workers to immigrate to the United States for twenty years. The act did not also allow the Chinese Americans who were living in the United States to receive American citizenship. Arthur at first did not agree and banned the act arguing that it went against the Burlingame Treaty. However, when the years were reduced to ten, he approved and passed the bill. Chinese Americans still were not able to acquire American citizenship. The Act was revised after every ten years up to the time the National Origins Act of 1924 removed Chinese immigration since the provision was made in 1890. The Act was significantly influential thus was not totally revoked up to 1943, which was sixty-one years later. This was the period that United States was united with Nationalist China in the war towards Japan at the time of World War II. At the time, it became apparent that the act was awkward and thus it was canceled. (Mitchell)
President Arthur had a disease that the public did not know about while in office. He was having Bright’s disease, which affects the kidneys. He was not looking very healthy in the Congress elections of 1882 and this shows that this is when he started having the problem. In 1884, Arthur did seek to be nominated by the Republican Party but he was not successful. James G. Blaine who was Speaker of the House as well as Secretary of State took the nomination. He did not however win in the general election but instead a Democratic candidate Grover Cleveland was elected president. While he was leaving office, Arthur’s condition was worse and the doctors revealed to him that he did not have much time to live. His health worsened with time and there was no cure for the fatal kidney disease. (Health Media LAB)
When he left office in 1885, he went back to his law practice. However, this did not work very well because of his absence from work most of the time due to his sickness. Arthur was seen in public very rarely and by summer the same year he did not appear in public at all. He stayed in New London and went back to his home in October that year while his condition was grave. He made a decision to leave the law practice and hence he had all his papers burnt. On November 17, Arthur got an attack that made him unconscious and he did not wake up again. The following day, Arthur died and was buried close to his wife Ellen in their family grave. He had a very short period to live after the presidency just like James Polk who had lived 103 days once he left office. Arthur was mourned by many and was remembered for his unique dressing and consistent way of doing things. (Essortment)
Arthur was famed for his large wardrobe and the unique clothes that he wore while he associated with the elite in the society. While in presidency, Arthur was above reproach and made his decisions solely without any influence from any side. He is remembered for passing a bill that increased corruption before going to presidency but straightened the mistake while in the presidency. During his tenure, he passed major immigration acts in American history including the Chinese Exclusion Act. All his moves were calculated and he made many changes in the navy to civilize it. He made great achievements in ensuring that corruption was eliminated in the army while doing great and unique redecoration of the White House. When he became president, many people did not trust him since they did not know him. This was because he was a vice president who became a president. Even after his presidency, Arthur remained liked by the people for the way he acted and treated everyone. His legacy remains and many remember him for all his actions and the way he served the nation. (Lorenz)
Benjamin Harrison
Benjamin Harrison was born in 1833, North Bend, Hamilton County, in Ohio. Harrison inherited his political traits from his family since his grandfather Henry Harrison had been a president before him. His great grandfather Benjamin Harrison had also been a former governor of Virginia State. When he was only 14 years old, Harrison went to Farmer’s College to further his education. In 1850, he went to Miami University in Oxford, Ohio and joined Phi Delta Theta group. During this time, he had an opportunity to learn about his family’s political lineage. Afterwards, he studied law at various universities. While at Oxford, he met Caroline Lavinia Scott whom they fell in love with and got married in 1853. They had two children Russell Benjamin Harrison and Mary Scott Harrison. (Socolofsky & Spetter 215)
Harrison’s family was mainly from the Whig Party and he became a supporter of Whig policies earlier on. When the Republican Party was formed, Harrison became one of its first members. He was elected the Indianapolis City Attorney in the year 1856. In 1858, Harrison joined a law firm partnership, which they called Wallace and Harrison. In 1860, Harrison was chosen as the party’s reporter at the Supreme Court. This was his initial encounter and involvement with politics. Wallace got a job as a clerk in 1860, thus the law firm was closed. He joined into another partnership with Fishback and their firm was called Fishback and Harrison. He stayed in this partnership until the time he entered the army. (Wallace &Halstead 460)
In 1862, Harrison joined the army when he realized there was a need for more recruits. Governor Oliver Morton gave Harrison the duty of recruiting regiment in the region of Indiana. The same year that Harrison joined the army, he rose in rank to the position of Second Lieutenant. In the middle of the year, he left Indiana and went ahead to join the Union Army in Louisville, Kentucky. Later on, he was put in charge of the Indiana infantry in the position of a colonel. In 1864, Harrison worked with William T. Sherman’s Atlanta Campaign staying at the frontier. He also was involved in the war of Battle of Nashville and was later promoted to Brigadier General. He participated in the Grand Review in Washington D.C until the time he resigned from the army. (Calhoun 170)
During his tenure at the army, Harrison had the privilege to report for the Supreme Court of Indiana a position he held for four years. This post was not politically influential but it allowed him good earnings. His political breakthrough came when President Grant chose him to stand for the central government in a civil declaration. In this way, the government did not pay many damages to the claims and thus Harrison became a key Republican figure. Many asked him to run for Congress but he preferred to support other Republican candidates. In this way, many Republicans liked him and he entered the political arena in 1872. In this year, he ran for governor with a Republican ticket. Former governor Oliver Morton did not help him and Thomas M. Browne beat him. He went back to his law practice even though there was the issue of the Panic of 1873. (Moore & Hale 138)
However, this did not stop him from making public speeches for his Republican colleagues as well as standing up for Republican policies. In 1876, Harrison was not involved in the nomination for governor but when the preferred candidate dropped out, he agreed to take the Republican ticket. He made his campaign promises based on economic policy. During the campaigns, he was advocating for the issue of dropping the national currency. However, he was not elected and a Democrat won with a large margin. Harrison went on to be an influential Republican in Indiana and a strong supporter of the party’s ideologies. In the time of the Great Railroad Strike of 1877, he assisted in reconciling the employees and their supervisors to maintain public order. In 1878, Harrison was nominated to be Senator but he failed in his bid. Instead of staying out in the cold, President Hayes gave him the mandate to head a commission that had the obligation of cleaning the Mississippi river, a position he held for one year. (Calhoun 174)
In 1880, Harrison was one of the delegates during the national convention of the Republican Party. He became a Senator in 1881 and even though President Garfield presented him a cabinet position, he refused the offer. A main event in 1881 that Harrison had to deal with was the extra budget. He advocated for using the money for internal advancements and paying Civil War heroes. He also advocated for the assistance of Southerners mainly the liberated slaves’ children to acquire education but Congress did not accept this. He felt that this was going to bring equality between blacks and whites both politically and economically. He also did not side with his party members on the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 since he felt that it was going against the agreements they had with China. (Moore & Hale 138)
In the 1888 presidential nomination, James G. Blaine was the favorite candidate but he did not wish to run for presidency. This is when Harrison was chosen and became the presidential candidate for the Republican Party with Levi P. Morton as his running mate. Harrison was running against President Grover Cleveland and he campaigned in the old-fashioned way of giving speeches in his home ground. The Republicans campaigned actively especially on their main beliefs like the protective tariffs thus many entrepreneurs felt that they could depend on the Republican Party. Harrison’s long time dream of attaining the presidency came true in the 188 elections when he defeated Cleveland in the general elections. The popular vote was however close but Harrison was the one that had more votes. He therefore became the 23rd President of the United States. (Sievers 99)
When Harrison took office, he achieved many accomplishments and foresaw many changes in various sectors. In the civil service, Harrison was for the merit system rather than the spoils system. He made appointments in such a way that avoided causing chaos in either side. He also passed the Dependent and Disability Pension Act, which he had raised while in Congress but was disapproved. This act provided for pensions to those who had serviced the country in the war despite their disabilities. In this way, all the excess money for the budget was used up. During this time, the budget expenditure was very high. The issue of the tariffs was very controversial at the time Harrison came to power. He suggested to Congress that there be a provision to decrease the tariff in the event that other nations reduced their tariff on American exports. He saw to it that the tariff was eliminated in the sugar industry thus giving producers a two percent subsidy. (Sievers 102)
The two parties argued on the influence of trusts and monopolies thus they approved the Sherman Antitrust Act. The Act was very popular and Harrison approved it. This marked the very first National act providing a new way of utilizing national government authority. The authority was used during the case involving the Tennessee Coal Company while Harrison was president. Many questions arose on whether to use gold or silver as currency or both. Harrison did not dwell on this issue much but he elected a silverite Treasury Secretary William Windom. In this way, the promotion of silver as the common currency continued in his administration. The Sherman Silver Purchase Act was also passed in 1890, which Harrison felt would end debates and disagreements on the issue. This however caused gold’s’ higher depletion and the issue continued until Cleveland came to power and solved it. (Moore &Hale 140)
Harrison pushed for the Federal Elections Bill that had been suggested but it was rejected in the Senate. The civil rights law did not come up again up to the 1920s. However, Harrison went on to campaign for African American civil rights in Congress. He felt that the United States constitution did not give him permission to end the issue of execution. During his tenure, there was a great development in Science and technology. Harrison voice is kept even today as the recording machines came to be used at the time. He foresaw the installation of electricity for the very first time in the White House. The Edison General Electric Company did this but they were not very comfortable touching the switches fearing electrocution. However, this changed with time when many more people began installing electricity in their households thus making the technology highly welcome. (Moore &Hale 140)
In the area of foreign policy, Harrison faced fishing problems in Alaskan, Canada. Canada felt that United States was going against the law and this led to the seizure of Canadian ships by United States. In 1891, talks started with the British about fishing rights and a settlement was reached with British government paying damages in 1898. There was also a predicament between United States and Chile in 1891. Disagreement occurred on how to deal with refuges from Chilean Civil War where two Americans were killed in the process. Harrison administration demanded for compensation on the damages and war was avoided after the demands were settled. Harrison was faced with the issue of Hawaiian take over by the United States. He felt that American authority could be extended to Hawaii by having a naval base. He however had no intentions of taking over Hawaii. (Calhoun 178)
The economic stability of the country was not doing well in Harrison’s regime. This was worsened by the Panic of 1893 and his popularity began to decrease. In the 1890 nomination, the Republicans were not united on one candidate and no one liked Harrison. Blaine was nominated but he declined and thus Harrison took the nomination. The Democrats nominated former president Cleveland and it became a race that had happened before. Many Republicans however left the party to the new Populist Party that had James Weaver for presidency. The elections took place in 1892 and Cleveland came out the winner. Harrison went back to Indiana after the presidency but still supported his Republican colleagues. He however did not have any desire to vie for presidency any more. Harrison died in 1901 from influenza when he was sixty-seven years old. (Harrison 359)
William McKinley
Although William McKinley was born in Ohio, he grew up in a different country after his parents migrated to Poland. He studied in Poland Seminary, and then went to Mount Union College. In this school, he joined Sigma Alpha Epsilon organization, and later on went to Allegheny College in the year 1860. In 1861, when the American Civil War had begun, McKinley joined the Union Army in the Ohio Volunteer Infantry. His boss, Rutherford B. Hayes had him promoted to commissary sergeant because of his good performance in war. Hayes later promoted him to Second Lieutenant and he was promoted severally at the time of the war until he became captain and brevet major in 1865. In 1867, he joined Albany Law School and was admitted in the bar. In 1869 to 1871, McKinley worked as prosecuting attorney in Canton. (Dobson 214)
McKinley entered politics in the Republican Party while having public speeches for his boss Rutherford Hayes in Canton. Hayes assisted McKinley to be appointed as a Republican in the United States House of Representatives for Ohio, working between 1877 and 1882. He was then elected for a second term that lasted between 1885 and 1891. McKinley was appointed chairperson of the Committee on Revision of the Laws in the year 1881 to 1883. In 1889 to 1891, McKinley was the chairperson in the Committee on the Ways of the Means and it was in 1890 that he made the McKinley Tariff, which became unpopular leading to the defeat of the Republican Party by Democrats in 1890. In this way, he did not capture his seat because of his infamous tariff bill as well as partially because of gerrymandering. (Holbo 1325)
In 1891, McKinley was elected as governor of Ohio, which was after he had left Congress. In 1892, he supported the reelection of President Benjamin Harrison. In 1893, he was successful to be reelected as governor of Ohio. In his service as governor, McKinley enforced an excise tax on companies, acquired safe laws for transportation of employees and prevented anti-union actions of managers. McKinley was a generous leader and he mainly provided food and clothing to people who were in need. In 1896, he resigned from his position as governor and went ahead to seek presidential nomination by the Republican Party. He felt that this move was necessary because of how well he has passed in the Congress elections of 1894. The Democratic Party was divided because of the concept of slavery and Americans felt that Glover Cleveland had contributed to the economic decline in the country. (Dobson 215)
McKinley won the Republican Party nomination for the presidency by a large margin. McKinley campaign promises included the issue of advancing industry and the banking sector. He also made the promise of ensuring prosperity to all individuals in the country. He further said that the protective tariff was going to bring success to everyone in the country. He argued that free silver was bound to cause inflation while on the other hand, no job opportunities would be created and bankruptcy would increase. He argued that this was going to destroy the economy and it would be dangerous to the nation. Many people from the cities felt that McKinley was going to help them achieve prosperity. He used the most recent technology to campaign together with his supporters. A few weeks before elections, the ratings of McKinley against his opponent Bryan has increased greatly. He became the favorite candidate for many people in the country. (Holbo 1328)
McKinley won the election of 1896 and was sworn in as the President of the United States in 1897. True to his word, he accomplished most of the promises he made including in the domestic affairs. During his administration, restoration of commerce, agriculture and universal developments for the nation took place. The entrepreneurs had confidence in the new regime and there was stability in the country. In the same year that he was sworn in, McKinley oversaw the signing of a treaty that officially saw Hawaii become a part of the United States. The government of Hawaii tried to avoid this but they did not have enough support of the United State Senate. In 1882, McKinley administration expanded the Chinese Exclusion Act all the way to the islands and thus Chinese migration from Hawaii to the mainland was not permitted. The country was making progress in many sectors under the governorship of McKinley. (Holbo 1328)
The McKinley administration engineered numerous changes in the civil service to allow its flexibility. The merit system that had been a Republican policy was revived and supported by McKinley himself. In this way, government positions were supposed to be made with through assessments being done first. This was to prevent the mistakes that had been made especially in the Spanish war where appointments were made as emergencies. The bill of Ways and Means was also passed and was accepted by McKinley in 1897. McKinley wished to have the American manufactures being superior in the international markets and thus he advocated for foreign markets. This involved the taking over of Hawaii and extending interests in China. In this way, he was able to allow the Americans to make significant control over the world markets. (Hamilton 200)
It was during McKinley’s regime that the Spanish-American War was experienced. In the beginning, McKinley did not intend to take over Cuba but just meant to save it from Spanish repression. During this time, reports were emerging in the American media on Spanish killings in Cuba and how Spain was using cruel military procedures to thwart Cuban’s revolt. Spain would constantly guarantee that they would make changes but these changes were delayed and in the end, they never happened at all. This caused serious demands for war especially from the Democrats and from many prominent newspapers. McKinley together with the entrepreneurs, assisted by the House Speaker refused to go to war. In 1898, a U.S.S. Marine was sent to Havana and in the process exploded and 260 men died. The matter was taken to Congress and a decision was made by Congress to go to war. After three months of war, Spain conceded defeat and they agreed to sign a peace treaty. The Treaty of Paris was signed in July 1898, and United State took over Guam, Philippines and Puerto Rico. United States had also a temporary authority over Cuba and Hawaii was taken over. (Hamilton 200)
McKinley also ensured that civil rights were protected for all Americans. He was against slavery and did not advocate for violation of human rights in any way. During his regime, many killings, tortures and civil rights abuse took place towards African Americans in many parts of the country. McKinley said that equality and justice should not just be on paper but rather it was supposed to be practiced. He argued that the African Americans were not supposed to be forsaken but rather their rights were the same as those for all people. He further stated that this was not something that would happen in future but rather it was supposed to happen out rightly according to the Constitution of the United States. He argued that things could not be said to be right if the rights of all citizens were not respected. He called for all institutions to practice and adhere to the laws of the country and practice equality for all. (Hamilton 202)
In 1900, McKinley was re-elected and this time round his policies included the issue of foreign policy. He was running against Bryan but he won with a large margin and was still the people’s popular candidate. Once he was sworn in, McKinney made a decision to visit the western states. He also made a trip to San Francisco. This was in a way to prove how confident he was about the idea of leading America well just like he had done in the previous term. His wife was sick while on the journey but she got well and many people who came to see them marveled at the presidential entourage. Once he went back home in Canton, he made preparation on the speech he intended to give at a Pan American Exposition in Buffalo. The event was mainly to support the idea of peace in the western regions. Many people attended the fair and were all-eager at what the President had to say about the future. (Holbo 1333)
In his speech, he urged all Americans to sell their goods outside while at the same time buying from other countries. He stressed on the importance of the protective tariff and how it would lead to expansion of commerce in the region. This was his last public speech that took place in 1901. The next day he visited Niagara Falls and then went back to the Temple of Music to greet people who were waiting to see him. Leon Czolgosz was in the crowd unknown to anyone that he had intentions to do harm. Leon was a man who complained that there was no social justice and felt that the President was to be blamed for that. He stood among the crowd having a revolver enclosed secretly in his handkerchief. The line was long as McKinley was doing his honorable duty of greeting all the citizens. Once he was close to Leon, he took the revolver in his hand and shot twice at the President. (Dobson 216)
McKinley was rushed to hospital where doctors realized that his wound was very grave and his condition was bad. He was transferred from the Milburn house and they then managed to remove one of the bullets that were close to the shoulder. The other bullet became hard to remove and the doctors feared they would make the situation worse by removing it. Since his condition seemed to be faring well they decided to leave it. A week after he was shot, McKinley was able to eat a little and he seemed to be doing fine. He told his wife that Gods’ will would be done. Immediately after, the president began feeling bad and died the following morning bringing to a close the life of an honorable man. (Hamilton 204)
Works Cited
Calhoun, W. Charles.Benjamin Harrison. Ed, Times, 2005.165-205.Print.
Criscione, W.Rachel. How to draw the life and times of Chester A Arthur. New York: Rosen Publishing Group, 2006.1.Print.
Dobson, M. John. Reticent Expansionism: The Foreign Policy of William McKinley. Duquesne Univ Press, 1988.210-216. Print.
Doyle, Burton, & Swaney, Homer. Lives of James A. Garfield and Chester A. Arthur. R.H. Darby, 1881. 61. Print.
Essortment. Presidents Garfield and Arthur. Demand Media Network. Web.
Greyfield, Donald. Chester Alan Arthur. Web.
Hamilton, F.Richard. President McKinley, War, and Empire. Transaction Publishers, 2006.189-206. Print
Harrison, Benjamin. This Country of Ours. BiblioBazaar, LLC, 2008. 350-392. Print.
Health Media LAB. Deception, Disclosure and the Politics of Health. Web.
Holbo, Paul S. “Presidential Leadership in Foreign Affairs: William McKinley and the Turpie-Foraker Amendment” The American Historical Review 72. 4 (1967): 1321-1335.
Moore, C. Anne, & Hale, A. Hester.Benjamin Harrison: Centennial president. Ed, Nova Publishers, 2006.120-178.Print.
Peskin, Allan. Garfield: a biography.Ed,Kent State University Press, 1978.697-716.Print
Sievers, Harry. Benjamin Harrison: v1 Hoosier Warrior, 1833–1865; v2: Hoosier Statesman From The Civil War To The White House 1865–1888; v3: Benjamin Harrison. Hoosier President. The White House and After, University Publishers Inc. 1968.96-125. Print.
Socolofsky, E.Homer, & Spetter, B. Allan. The Presidency of Benjamin Harrison. University Press of Kansas, 1987.156-236.Print.
Thatcher, Linda. Struggle for statehood chronology. Web.
Thomas C. Reeves. Gentleman Boss: The Life of Chester Alan Arthur, Ed. Knopf; [distributed by Random House], 1975. 317-318. Print.
Vowell, Sarah. Assassination Vacation, Ed. Simon and Schuster, 2006. 231-358. Print.
Wallace, Lew. & Halstead, Murat. Life and Public Services of Benjamin Harrison, Edgewood Publishing Co, 1888. 457-530.Print
The history of the United States can serve as a model for delineating and weighing pros and cons of what was done. To be precise, the history of the American presidents is far-reaching in different events which further led the country toward success and dominance among other countries of the world. Some of them were apt at making changes by making amendments in the legislative procedural features, others failed to surpass expectations of the American society.
All in all, the paper examines the destinies and particular work as a president of two figures: F. D. Roosevelt and Gary S. Truman. One should bear it in mind that these two were not solely able to make improvements in the internal but also in the external domains of national approach.
F. D. Roosevelt can be called a genius in the sphere of political consensual agreements. This man was fearless in encountering the nationwide trouble as concerned with The Great Depression. Moreover, his personal background and the persuasion in the fact that life is rich in opportunities (especially in the capitalistic society) made him firm enough. Being paralyzed, he could manage advancements in his personal life and as applied to the state affairs. This assumption goes without saying when recollecting a glorious 12-point plan of the economic recovery. Along with that Roosevelt made the United States even stronger in relationships with allies and other players in the world arena.
The contribution of Roosevelt into the well-being of the country cannot be simply underestimated. The drawbacks of Hoover he turned out into the lessons for the American people (Houck 71). In fact, on the example of Roosevelt the history teaches everyone that there is a way out in each situation owing to the perseverance and patriotism that was incorporated in a physically crippled but morally and enthusiastically strong social figure. His example also gives grounds to assess that impossible is nothing, and in unity of all nation there is a positive feedback.
It is no wonder, then, that in the period of time between 1932 and 1935 America experienced a great upsurge in building and development of industries nationwide. Thus, one should know that due to the timely reforms of Roosevelt almost 60% of contemporary urban buildings across the United States were built in the period when Roosevelt was in office (Houck 52). Further still, it is Roosevelt who made American economy firm to face with the hardships of World War II.
On the other hand, Harry S. Truman continued the course of America toward the pathway of rational changes. His destiny drew his way to the position of the President of the United States because of the spontaneous death of F. D. Roosevelt to whom he was thankful indeed. Since 1945 (first years of his being in office) Harry S. Truman was apt at drawing the parallels with checked and ostensive allies and those who represented a real threat for the stability and firmness of the democracy and capitalistic type of relationships provision. He was a person of original way to think who could turn everything relevant to America around (Truman and Ferrell 366).
Though, his rise to power is referred to the beginning of the Cold War in the world. However, he demonstrated that the United States will never agree to put up with the totalitarian regimes. In this respect Harry Truman was the first president to show the so-called “omnipotent” character of the American weapon on the example of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. This was the decisive and pivotal act that illuminated the end of the war. On the other hand, Truman was so persuaded in the righteousness of his actions that he could not fail to give Asia up to the totalitarian way of ruling. He could have prevented the growth of communism in Asia by making the USSR afraid of the atomic weapons.
That was a triumph of Truman’s responsibility for the humanity and American population at all. The thing is that people, even in Japan, are still thankful to the United States. It is owing to the fact that the economical wonder in Japan and huge economical and industrial rise in South Korea and in Taiwan were possible due to the protectorate of the United States. Thus, Harry Truman coped with the problem of polarization of the main powers in the world.
His leadership skills were exemplified in everything that he could do for the country. Furthermore, Truman is associated among Americans with the personification of power, decisiveness, and strictness in actions. An ordinary American refers Truman historically to how fast America should counteract the dangers from outside. It is also a demonstration of how great were the incentives for scientific researches across the country (Truman and Ferrell 112).
To conclude, the examples of two American presidents show the effectiveness of leadership that might have the real leader of one of the most powerful nations in the world. History is a teaching methodology for the mankind, and F. D. Roosevelt along with H. Truman are significant figures impacted on the place of America in the world arena.
Works cited
Houck, Davis W. Rhetoric as currency: Hoover, Roosevelt, and the Great Depression. Austin: Texas A&M University Press, 2001.
Truman, Harry S. and Robert H. Ferrell. Off the record: the private papers of Harry S. Truman. Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press, 1997.
James K. Polk was born in North Carolina in 1795, Polk soon moved to frontier Tennessee. When he was seventeen years old, Polk was strapped to a table, given a large amount of whiskey, and then suffered through a gallstone operation that broke his health. Unable to farm and fascinated by books, he went to the University of North Carolina, where he won honors in mathematics and classics. He studied law, entered politics, and was elected to the House of Representatives.
Polk quickly made his reputation as a Jacksonian who opposed nearly everything John Quincy Adams stood for. The Tennessean attacked “consolidation” of government, ideas favoring national universities or internal improvements, “expensive and unnecessary foreign missions,” and “European etiquette.” Polk showed little interest in political theory or history. Adams caustically remarked that Polk had “no wit, no literature…, no philosophy,” 1 but Adams had to grant that Polk possessed immense determination and will. He also was blessed with uncommon political instinct. His ability as an open-air orator won him the title “Napoleon of the stump.” In 1839, he became governor of Tennessee. In 1841 and 1843, however, he was defeated in the governor’s race. But in 1844, he was elected president of the United States.
11th President of the United States
James K. Polk was forty-nine years old when he entered the presidential office in March, 1845–the youngest incumbent of the White House up to that time. If he was not marked for greatness, his success was neither inconsequential nor accidental. His political experience was deep and long, giving him knowledge of party behavior as thorough as that of any of his contemporaries. Within eleven months, however, the United States annexed Texas and was about to declare war on Mexico.
The remarkable turnaround was brought about by James K. Polk. One of the most successful presidents in achieving his goals, especially in foreign policy, Polk is usually rated by historians as one of the half-dozen “great” presidents. Polk was not a popular President. 2
Though he literally worked himself to death in the White House, and though, unlike most Presidents, he achieved just about all of his goals, his cold, formal, suspicious, and humorless nature made it impossible for people to warm to him. When he became President, he prepared a form letter notifying his Cabinet appointees that they must devote all their time and energy to the Polk administration and not be candidates “to succeed me in the presidential office.” 3 The self-discipline and the politics and passions of U.S. foreign policy killed him. Within four months of leaving the presidency, Polk died at the age of fifty-four.
Speaker of the House/Governor of Tennessee
A man with cold grey eyes and a minimum of personal charm was this Tennessee politician. Hard work was his greatest pleasure in life, and of this James Polk gave unstintingly to the party he served. If he was narrow-minded, he was also concise, and that quality made him a most efficient subordinate. As a Congressman, a Speaker of the House, and an unsuccessful candidate for Tennessee’s gubernatorial election of 1842, he had served his party well.
When the energy and participation of Andrew Jackson in local politics waned, visits by Polk to the Hermitage recurred with greater frequency; upon him the “Chief” imposed increasing confidence. The climax to Polk’s ever-solicitous attention occurred one day after Jackson had dwelt long and bitterly on his successive rebukes from the Whigs of Tennessee. These enemies should be taught, said Old Hickory, and his friend should receive a just reward. In fact, sermonized General Jackson, Polk ought to be next vice-president of the United States.
Jackson’s immovable visitor had long desired the position. He had hoped to receive the honor in 1840, but with characteristic adherence to party discipline he had refused to compete against R. M. Johnson’s nomination when it then appeared that “Old Dick” was the choice of the party. Now it was different. Bluntly, coldly, James K. Polk acted on Jackson’s assurances and began a campaign for himself.
For managers he selected men of his own ilk, seasoned political warriors who would serve obediently. Steadfast friends, these were the first politicians to ever wreak that occasional phenomenon in American politics, the convention stampede to a dark horse. Gideon Pillow, the tough old egotist, was Polk’s Tennessee adviser. Cave Johnson, dean of Tennessee politicians and beloved among all who knew him, handled the Washington strategy. Sam Laughlin, publisher of the Nashville Union, was chief propagandist, except during those frequent intervals when Laughlin engaged too extensively with the bottle, whereupon some less prolific subordinate would temporarily wield the editorial pen.
From all other Tennessee Democrats Polk demanded unerring loyalty. Some there were, among this group, who proved hard to control–men like hotheaded, fist-swinging Andy Johnson, or elusive Aaron V. Brown, or overambitious Arthur O. P. Nicholson. When the latter had once stepped out of line to covet for himself the gubernatorial nomination, a grim warning emanated from the exacting Polk.
Personally plotting out each move in his campaign for the vice-presidential nomination, Polk sought to use Jackson’s influence as his chief weapon. In Washington, Cave Johnson mingled with every strata of Democrat, calmly pressing the name of his contender upon all. Jackson’s young nephew, A. J. Donelson, traveling through the Northwest, was commanded to pay special visits to those three important leaders of the Ohio wing, Medary, Tappan, and Allen. The Union daily flew Polk’s name for vice-president from the masthead, a solemn reminder to all Tennesseans of the next great political objective. With his usual methodical efficiency, Polk worked to win his reward at Baltimore.
His greatest difficulty lay in the strained relationship between his own forces and those of Van Buren. Separating the New York and Tennessee groups there was a dangerous gulf of suspicion which prevented any concert between the two. Many Van Burenites underestimated Polk’s political power and the degree of trust which Jackson imposed upon him. Some, like Governor Kemble, were openly contemptuous of the “Tennessee Dynasty,” who “were never true to Mr. Van Buren, nor could they be to any man who did not squirt tobacco juice.” 4 Others felt that the vice-presidential nomination should go to someone from the Deep South. On this question Van Buren himself persisted in maintaining an aggravating silence which little helped to establish any semblance of cordial feeling.
Relying upon this disaffection, the maverick A. O. P. Nicholson organized a Cass movement which threatened to undermine Polk’s whole strategy for the vice-presidential campaign. Since the Nicholson group was ready to support him but not Van Buren, at the state convention Polk was forced to compromise with these dissident followers. The Tennessee delegation was pledged only to support Polk for vice-president, while no preference was declared for any presidential candidate. Hastily Polk sought to make amends to Van Buren for this result. Tennessee, he promised, would be true to the ex-President when the time for decision arrived.
Annexation of Texas
That this first “dark horse” candidate in American history won the presidency owed much to Texas and the power of Manifest Destiny. When the Texas issue was erupted in early 1844, the two leading presidential candidates, Democrat Martin Van Buren of New York as well as Whig Henry Clay of Kentucky stated in public they did not want to annex Texas. Both preferred the issue to die down so that they could discuss less dangerous, but politically attractive, issues such as tariff and banks. Polk, however, came out for annexation. Already close to Andrew Jackson, who, with his dying breath, now worked to take Texas, Polk won support from powerful politicians in the South and West who wanted a spread-eagle foreign policy.
These operators manipulated the Democratic nominating convention’s rules and, when it deadlocked, pushed Polk forward as a compromise candidate. The nominee’s platform called for strict construction of the Constitution, but also “the reoccupation of Oregon and the re-annexation of Texas at the earliest practicable period.” 5 (The “re-” prefixes alluded to the Democrats’ mistaken claim that John Quincy Adams had happily given away U.S. claims to Texas and Oregon in the 1820s.) The 1844 campaign was close and bitterly fought. The Whigs returned the name-calling in kind, but Polk won by a paper-thin margin.
Oregon Territory & Mexican-American War
Polk also left another historic legacy. The way in which he led the United States into the Mexican War set precedents for later powerful chief executives—indeed, provided an early preview of the so-called “imperial presidency” of the twentieth century.
Polk did not want war. In his diplomacy with Mexico he had hoped to secure California by purchase. His eagerness had provoked a clash of arms, but having become involved in war, he was determined to prolong the conflict until he could drive Mexico into a cession of California. To admit such war aims publicly, the President feared, would be fatal. The principle of indemnity, clearly recognized under the law of nations, was acceptable only to those Americans who placed responsibility for the war on Mexico.
What disturbed Polk was the refusal of the Whigs to do so. His own action in sending Taylor to the Rio Grande left sufficient doubt in the minds of his opposition that it elicited an unending review of the war’s causes. Politicians who attacked the war could hardly approve the annexation of California as the fruit of that struggle. Polk did not want to be accused of conducting a war of conquest. To the American public and members of Congress, therefore, he remained silent on the subject of California.
Polk did what he could to make this destiny manifest while he was in the White House. He was “a short man with a long program.” 6 He settled a boundary dispute with Britain over Oregon Territory quite peacefully; but he precipitated a war with Mexico over his territorial ambitions in the Southwest. During the Mexican War he quarreled with Generals Zachary Taylor and Winfield Scott because he thought their military exploits were encouraging them to have presidential ambitions.
Oregon was the more serious challenge, but the difficulties it presented the President were largely self-imposed. The traditional American diplomatic offer of the forty-ninth parallel had been eminently reasonable, but under the stimulation of manifest destiny doctrines, Western Democrats demanded all of Oregon to the Alaska boundary and forced their platform on the Democratic party in 1844. If this stand had some appeal politically, it was impossible diplomatically.
There was no apparent way in which the nation could gain the fifty-four forty line without more or less fighting. Yet Polk in his inaugural address reaffirmed the party’s conviction that the American title to Oregon was “clear and unquestionable.” He was in no mood to challenge the Western Democrats by abandoning the campaign platform. Nor did he run much risk of antagonizing his expansionist friends in his subsequent negotiations with Great Britain during the summer of 1845. Actually only two minor issues still separated the two nations, those of Vancouver Island and the navigation of the Columbia.
Privately both Polk and the British government had arrived at the necessity of reaching an agreement at the forty-ninth parallel, but Polk was still too encumbered politically to pursue details. He assured his secretary of state that his party commitments would not tolerate another offer of compromise.
Post-Presidency
For Polk the price of leadership came high. He had never sought the presidency; throughout his last year in the White House he looked forward to his retirement to private life. “I have now passed through two-thirds of my Presidential term,” 7 he observed in November, 1847, “& most heartily wish that the remaining third was over…” 8 On March 3, 1848, he noted in his diary, “This day closes my third year in the Presidential office.
They have been years of incessant labor, anxiety, & responsibility.” 9 On the day that he left the White House he recorded, “I feel exceedingly relieved that I am now free from all public cares.” 10 But with leisure did not come the recuperation of body and serenity of mind he required. The labors and anxieties of the past had been too exhausting. His health started to deteriorate day by day and finally he died on 15th June 1849 that is three months after leaving office.
Bibliography
Behrman, Carol H. James K. Polk: Presidential leaders. Minneapolis: Twenty-First Century Books, 2005.
Boller, Paul F. Presidential anecdotes. New York: Oxford University Press US, 1996.
Byrnes, Mark Eaton. James K. Polk: a biographical companion. California: ABC-CLIO biographical companion, 2001.
Holt, Michael F. The Rise and Fall of the American Whig Party: Jacksonian Politics and the Onset of the Civil War. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999.
Richard J. Ellis, “The Joy of Power: Changing Conceptions of the Presidential Office,” Presidential Studies Quarterly 33, Blackwell Publishing: 2003.
Smith, Justin H. The Annexation of Texas. New York: READ BOOKS, 2008.
Footnotes
Paul F. Boller, Presidential anecdotes (New York: Oxford University Press US, 1996), 98.
Michael F. Holt, The Rise and Fall of the American Whig Party: Jacksonian Politics and the Onset of the Civil War (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 68-72.
Paul F. Boller, Presidential anecdotes (New York: Oxford University Press US, 1996), 100.
Michael F. Holt, The Rise and Fall of the American Whig Party: Jacksonian Politics and the Onset of the Civil War (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 110-119.
Justin H. Smith, The Annexation of Texas (New York: READ BOOKS, 2008), XV.
Paul F. Boller, Presidential anecdotes (New York: Oxford University Press US, 1996), 100.
Mark Eaton Byrnes, James K. Polk: a biographical companion (California: ABC-CLIO biographical companion, 2001), 248.
Ibid.
Carol H. Behrman, James K. Polk: Presidential leaders (Minneapolis: Twenty-First Century Books, 2005), 96.
Richard J. Ellis, “The Joy of Power: Changing Conceptions of the Presidential Office,” Presidential Studies Quarterly 33, (June 2003, Blackwell Publishing): 269-290.
United States is among the nations in the world that have seen numerous presidential administrations. The success of United States is credited to policies brought about by some of these presidents. However, there are some presidents who were blamed for slowed economic growth of the country during their tenure as well as poor foreign relation of the country. To understand the contribution of some of the past presidents, it is imperative to look at their history, policies and beliefs. This paper aims at looking at the history of some of the past Republican Presidents, how they rose to presidency, their campaign policies and beliefs as well as their achievements and failures during their presidency.
History of President Warren G. Harding
Early life of Harding
President Harding was born in 1865, in Corsica, Ohio. He hailed from a family of eight children being the eldest. His father Dr. George Tryon Harding was a teacher in a rural school while his mother Phoebe Elizabeth practiced mid wifely. In his teenage, his father bought a weekly newspaper leading to his family relocating to Caledonia, Ohio. It is from this weekly newspaper that Harding gained journalism experience. He went on advancing his printing and newspaper sales skills at college. After his graduation from college, they organized with two of his friends to save money to revive Marion Daily Star; a city newspaper that was facing extinction. They purchased the newspaper and used it to support the Republican Party (Adams, p. 78). Harding’s political ideologies led to his relationship with team that managed Marion’s local politics becoming sour.
Political career
His role as a newspaper publisher led to him becoming popular in the country. It gave him an opportunity to meet and interact with many people making it possible for him to join the country’s politics. In 1899, he vied for Ohio State Senate where he won. His for year’s service as the senator led to people elevating him to Lieutenant Governor of Ohio. In 1910, he was nominated to vie as Ohio’s Governor but lost to Judson. This did not deter him from pursuing his political ambitions. In 1912, he gave the recommendation speech for the then president William Howard and later elected as United States Senator in 1914. He served as the State’s senator till he rose to power as the country’s president (Grant pp. 479-487). Harding went into records as the first American Senator to be elected Senator. By the time of his nomination to vie for presidency, Harding was not known to the entire country but only in his State Ohio where he was serving as the Senator. His nomination came as a result of political mechanization from his allies. After the nominating team meeting in Blackstone Hotel failed to reach into a consensus on the person to nominate, they identified Harding as the next option. By then, there were three potential candidates who failed to garner majority support. This compelled the nominating team solicit for majority support for the remaining candidate.
Harding won the majority in the tenth ballot making him nominated for presidency. The team requested him to declare if he had been involved in any controversy in past which could be used by his rivals in their presidential campaigns but he denied that he had not been involved in any controversy. This was despite him being implicated with a case of having affairs with his past friend’s wife (Morello, p. 132). The nominating team declared him their presidential candidate but later discovered that he had been implicated with this case. However, it was too late for them to make changes leading to them supporting Harding.
Harding’s campaign policies/promises/beliefs
The 1920 presidential elections saw Harding vying against Democratic candidate James Cox who was then the incumbent Governor of Ohio. To some extent, these elections were perceived as a turning point where people were to decide on whether to continue with the current system of governance which was based on Woodrow Wilson rule or to go back to McKinley way of governance based on laissez-faire. In his campaigns, Harding promised to help the country in reinstating the normalcy state that existed before. This was a rarely used term in the country by then (Fine pp. 1159-1193). His campaign motto called for termination of the unusual period of the Great War and advocated for introduction of three trends which included doing away with relying on the government in bring about reforms in the country, resurrection of nativism and introduction of isolationism when responding to the war.
His campaign drew attention from most of the citizens. It was the fist campaign in the country to receive a lot of media coverage. It also comprised of numerous celebrities from Hollywood and Broadway who featured in some photos taken for Harding and his family. Other promises that led to his triumph as the United States president was his promise that he would bring to an end the disturbing debates that existed during the rule of President Wilson. He also promised to implement the foreign policies rather than making them idealistic.
President Harding’s achievements
President served as the United States president for two years only before meeting his unprecedented death. Despite the short period, he is still remembered due to some of the achievements he made for the country. He was one of the best presidents in delegating duties to his staffs. His four major appointments in the country’s Supreme Court led to termination of an intention to transform United States into a fascist nation. During his rule, he passed the immigration bill that helped preserve the American culture. This was after world war one. Most of the people who migrated to America were required to originate from countries that practiced northern Europe culture (Tester para. 2-6). The bill also helped in regulating wages offered to Americans by reducing the number of immigrants who could have resulted to competition in employment making the hardworking Americans get little wages. His other achievement was seeing justices used in sentencing Eugene debs. Harding set free Debs who had been incarcerated for going against a draft established during World War one. He had even gone to an extent of asking people to oppose the draft landing him into the prison. Despite Harding having different political ideology from that of Debs, he went on and pardoned him.
It is during Harding’s rule that he managed to revive the country’s economic growth. He reduced the federal expenses, relieved the masses from taxation by cutting the tax rate as well as started paying debts that the country had accrued during the world war. By 1921, the country’s economy was back in track. To be able to track the federal spending, Harding came up with Bureau of the budget. Through negotiations with steel industries, Harding was able to encourage them curt down on the number of hours worked. Initially, workers were supposed to work for twelve hours in a day for seven days. This was humiliating compared to the wages they received. It was during Harding rule that he managed to strike a deal with steel industries where the number of hours worked were reduced to eight for six days per week.
President Harding also witnessed chief disarmament agreements with varied European countries which helped in strengthening the ties between United States and these countries (Murray pp. 56-79). This was despite people criticizing him for not ensuring that United States participated in the League of Nations. Harding believed in walking the talk when it came to ammeters about ensuring peace. He viewed it as waste of resources by nations embarking on developing and purchasing superior warships. Rather, he believed that negotiating for peaceful disarmament among the nations was the only way of ensuring that countries never went back to wars again. Though not acknowledged by many, it is believed that it is Harding who helped in bringing to an end the use of poisonous gas by nations in times of war. During his reign, the relationship between United States and China was not good. It is him to encouraged the country to focus on improving its relationship with China by coming up with an open door policy.
President Harding’s failures
Even though Harding was found to have achieved a lot in his short period as the United States president, he did not lack some loopholes during his rule. It was during his rule that one of the United States greatest scandals emerged. In 1923, as he was preparing to go for his trip to Alaska, his administration’s sleaze and conspiracy started being exposed to the public. It was discovered that Forbes; who had been appointed by Harding to head Veterans Bureau had been stealing from the nation by selling most of the supplies that remained after world war one and channeling all the money to his accounts (Payne pp. 597-610). Harding had also appointed one of his closes allies Albert Fall to manage oil mines referred as Teapot Dome. This gave him an opportunity secretly hand over the oil rights to one of his friends who in return gave him loans free of interest and other bribes amounting to $500,000.
All these conspiracies were discovered after Harding’s death. However, investigations found that the president had not been involved in any of the scandals and they were being conducted undercover without his knowledge. However, his predecessor blamed the scandal to the president. People do not see his contribution to the nation such as reviving the economy, improving the relationship between United States and other countries such as China and improvement of working conditions in steel industries. Rather, they attribute the scandal committed by leaders in his administration to him. With Harding being death when the scandals surfaced, it was hard to defend himself (Payne pp. 611-625). He had no opportunity to clear himself from the blame. It is with this respect that his rivals saw an opportunity to soil his good reputation.
History of President Calvin Coolidge
His early life in politics
President Coolidge was born in 1872 in Plymouth Notch. He came from a family of two being elder sibling. During his childhood, his mother died of tuberculosis leading to his father remarrying. Coolidge’s father was a popular farmer and engaged in different activities making it hard to have a lot of time with his children. Coolidge was brought up by his stepmother. He studied in Black River Academy and later Amherst College. Due to his father’s request, Coolidge shifted to Northampton, Massachusetts where he started practicing law. !897 saw Coolidge admitted to the bar giving a chance to be a country lawyer. In 1898, he opened his law firm out of what he had saved as well as inheritance from his grandfather. His good services led to his reputation growing and becoming one of the most preferred lawyers in the country (McCoy 73). Home banks and other business organizations strongly preferred his services due to his diligence.
During his time, the Republican Party had great influence in New England. Coolidge started participating in local politics where he campaigned for presidential candidates vying under the Republican Party. In 1896, he campaigned for William McKinley who vied for presidency under the Republican Party ticket. This made him known in the party giving him a chance to be integrated in Republican City Committee in 1897. In 1898, he vied for City Council position and won in Northampton. Despite the position not generating salary, it gave him an opportunity to have firsthand experience in the country’s politics. He was to be nominated for the position again in 1899 but he declined the offer and vied for City Solicitor. He served in this capacity for two years giving him an opportunity to increase his experience in politics. !902 saw a Democratic candidate win the position of City Solicitor leading to Coolidge going back to his past career as a private lawyer. Shortly, the clerk of the courts died and Coolidge was appointed to replace him.
In 1906, he was given an opportunity by the local Republican Committee to vie for state House of Representatives. He won the elections enabling him to participate in minor committees and also vote in minor processes such as in women suffrage and direct election of senators (Kelly para. 1-7). In 1910, he returned home to his parents and decided to vie for the position of Northampton mayor. This was after the incumbent mayor retired. Being famous among the people, it was not hard for him to win the position against his rivals. Hampshire County senator retired in 1911 giving Coolidge a chance to vie for the position. He defeated his Democratic contestant and was elevated to the position of chairman in a committee made to look into matters of workers strike in American Woolen Company. There emerged some state of misunderstanding in the Republican Party in 1912 which led to the party splitting into two. These were the conservative and the progressive wings. Although Coolidge supported conservative ideologies, he did not walk out of the party. The progressive party declined from staging a contestant in the state senate in Hampshire leading to Coolidge reelection. In 1915, Coolidge through the assistance of McCall was elected Lieutenant Governor of Massachusetts. In 1918, he was nominated without being opposed to vie for governor of Massachusetts. He won the elections becoming the governor.
Unlike the usual method of delegate selections in Republican conventions, the 1920 selection saw the delegates selected through state party conventions rather than primaries. This led to emergence of numerous potential candidates making it hard to come up with an agreement on the most favorite candidate to chose. Coolidge was one of the potential candidates but was not taken seriously by party leaders. After numerous balloting, Harding was appointed as the most appropriate candidate to vie for presidency. The party leaders had also decided to take Irvine Lenroot as the running mate for Harding (Coolidge pp. 234-265). This left Coolidge with no position in the presidential campaigns. However, McCamant; a delegate from Oregon came up with the idea of selecting Coolidge as the running mate for Harding. This was after he had read the book by the name Have Faith in Massachusetts. After deliberation by the party leaders, Coolidge was nominated as the running mate for Harding. They emerged victorious leading to Coolidge becoming the vice president.
The death of President Harding in 1923 led to Coolidge assuming the presidency to complete the term left by Harding. During his role as the vice president, he hard not been found to participate in the country’s affairs and many believed that he could not emerge victorious in 1924 presidential elections.
President Coolidge’s campaign promises/policies/beliefs
President Coolidge was the first United States president to conduct a unique presidential campaign. Throughout his campaign, he was not found confronting or maligning his rivals. During the world war one, the country experienced high government spending, increased taxation and America got entangled in foreign countries. In his election campaigns of 1924, Coolidge promised to set America free from any entanglement. He promised to come up with policies that would help the country cut down on government spending as well as cut on the tax. He believed that tax should be lower and that not all Americans were to be subjected to taxation (Ferrell pp. 145-168). In his idea to set America free from any entanglement, Coolidge believed that the Republicans won 1920 elections due to their rejection of United States being incorporated in the League of Nations. At its state, he believed that the League of Nations reflected none of the American interests and thus the country would not benefit by joining the league.
President Coolidge’s achievement
Coolidge was seen to accomplish most of his promises that he gave during the campaign. In 1924 1nd 1926, he managed to reduce taxes which had been imposed during the First World War. He came up with policies that exempted some citizens from paying tax. This was in line with his belief that all citizens deserve to par taxes. He was also able to settle some of the federal debts as well as cutting down on federal expenses. He successfully influenced the Republicans in the Congress to supporting his ideas leading to them willing to pass the Revenue Act bill in 1924. This led to reduction in the rate of income tax as well as exempting more than two million people from taxation. In 1926, taxes were further reduced when the Congress passed Revenue Act.
Coolidge was a civil rights activist. He strongly objected to statement that America belonged to the whites and fought for the rights of African Americans and Catholics. It is during his reign as the president that Ku Klux Klan that was responsible of torturing and killing African Americans lost its powers (Brandes, p. 237). Coolidge ensured that every person found to be affiliated with the organization did not participate in his government. He believed that every American had equal rights as per the constitution regardless of the color. In 1924, he enacted the Indian Citizenship Act which gave American Indians an opportunity to become American citizens.
Coolidge is one of the presidents who were found to encourage the practice of delegating duties to his appointees. His role was more of a supervisor than a director. He helped United States experience quick economic growth in what is referred to as Roaring Twenties. He entrusted his secretary of state with all responsibilities of implementing industrial policies (Brandes 243). This led to the secretary using government support to improve business competence, establish radio stations as well as come with airlines.
Being one of the United States presidents who put the interest of the nation at heart, Coolidge was not will to let the country get involved in any international relationship that did not address its interests. This was congruent with his pledge of ensuring that America was not entangled with any country. It is with this respect that he was reluctant to allow his country be a member of the League of Nations. He believed that the League of Nations could not favor the country in any way. His major contribution in international relationship between United States and other countries include the Kellogg-Briand Pact of 1928. The Pact required United States, France, Britain, Japan, Italy and Germany to shun from engaging in wars. Despite the treaty not being effective in protecting the emergence of the Second World War, it became the foundation from which new international laws were established after the Second World War.
When Coolidge assumed the power as the United States president, the government was in the middle of problems after the previous regime’s state of corruption was revealed. However, he managed to contain the situation. He did not haste to request those leaders implicated with corruption to resign. Instead, he decided to led them continue serving the nation having been appointed by the previous president (Silver pp. 133-152). However, these leaders succumbed to public pressure and resigned. He also succeeded in improving the relationship between America and Mexico, Nicaragua and Haiti. It is during his presidency that American soldiers were recalled from Dominican Republic.
President Coolidge’s failures
Despite Coolidge entrusting his secretary of state with the responsibility of implementing economic policies as well as relieving tax from the Americans, he was not able to come up with measures to help control occurrence of economic depression. As most of the citizens were able to save money after being exempted from tax, it led to stock market in the country going down. He is also criticized for not helping the country overcome floods that rocked the country in 1927. He showed no intention of directing the central government to come up with measures to control the floods. He did not pay a visit to those who were affected by the disaster claiming that his visit would have not helped the victims in any way (Barry, p. 421). As he struggled to reduce government expenditure, he was reluctant to use government resources in helping those affected by the floods. He believed that citizens were responsible of ensuring that floods did not destroy their property and thus were supposed to bear the brunt of the floods.
History of President Herbert Clark Hoover
His early life and political career
Hoover was born in 1874 in West Branch, Iowa. His father was a famous blacksmith and also managed a store that sold farm inputs. When he was nine years old, his parents died leaving him as an orphan. This led to him being brought up by his relatives. He moved t Oregon where he lived with his uncle and studied in Friends pacific Academy. After his education, he helped his uncle in his office as an assistant. Despite being unable to join high school, Hoover enrolled for night classes where he gained experience in book keeping, mathematics and typing. In 1891, Hoover joined Stanford University. The fact that the first students were exempted from paying tuition fee gave him an opportunity to study. While at the University, he was elected to manage the baseball and football team. In 1895, Hoover completed his University studies where he graduated with a geology degree. This gave him a chance to be employed in mining him leading to his migration to Australia to work with Bewick, Moreing & Co. At the age of twenty three, he was appointed to take the responsibility of managing the mine where he facilitated in bringing more human labor from Italy to cut down operations cost.
In 1899, he married Lou Henry and they got two children. They moved to China after Hoover was employed by a private company. In 1901, he was recalled by the Australian mining company Bewick, Moreing & Co. where he was made an associate of the company (Fausold 314). During his regular administration of the mining activities, he noticed that there was presence of zinc that was being wasted as the company mined gold. This compelled him to come up with a method of extracting the zinc. In 1908, he decided to become an autonomous mining consultant where he toured different countries across the globe and give lectures on mining.
Eruption of the First World War saw Hoover abandon his career as a mining consultant and embarked on humanitarian activities. He organized for means to shipping most of the Americans back to the country from Europe. He also participated in distributing food, cash, ship ticket and clothes to the affected persons. When Belgium ran out of food as a result of attack by the Germans, Hoover joined hands with other humanitarians to supply the country with food. He headed all operations ran by the Committee for Relief in Belgium (CRB). He negotiated with the Germans to allow food to be transferred to the war victims in Belgium. This made him become popular in the world (Kane para. 1-5). When United States got involved in the war, President Woodrow Wilson appointed Hoover to manage food distribution in the country. He came up with strategies that helped in ensuring that there was no food rationing in the country while at the same time the American soldiers did not run out of food supply when at the battle field. After the war, he used his position and influence to help in shipment of relief food to hanger stricken people in Central Europe. He even supplied the Germans with relief food which led to him facing opposition from the Republicans and Senator Henry Cabot Lodge.
His first encounter with the countries politics was after he returned to America in 1919. The Democrats offered to nominate him as their presidential candidate with hopes that he could win the elections due to his popularity. As he believed that the Republicans were the most likely to win the coming presidential elections, he was reluctant to take the Democrats offer. In addition, he had a negative image towards the Democrats as he knew them as drunkards during his childhood. In 1920, he turned down the Democratic offer as he had already registered with the Republicans. This led to him declaring to vie for presidency with a Republican ticket. He contended in the California state primary but did not win. This made the party leaders not take him to be one of the most favorite contestants for the presidential position. Despite Hoover doubting the potential in Harding, he freely certified him and gave two speeches on his nomination (Barber pp. 119-143). President Harding thanked him by appointing him as the secretary of commerce. He requested to be given the mandate by the president to coordinate economic matters in the entire government. His success in his capacity led to him becoming popular than the president and his vice president.
President Hoover’s campaign promises/policies/beliefs
In 1927, President Coolidge declined to vie for the second time. This gave Hoover a chance to be nominated as the Republican presidential candidate. This was regardless of Coolidge and Hoover not being in good terms. His popularity and good reputation led to him being nominated in the first ballot. He vied for presidency against Alfred Smith who was the Democratic candidate. Both presidential candidates pledged to help the country improve its economy. Hoover promised that he would use his presidential powers to improve the life of farmers. This was because farmers had for many years not been getting profit from their labor with the past regimes buying their products at low prices (Carcasson pp. 349-365). He also promised that he could facilitate in reforming the present immigration laws to help improve the life and maintain the American culture. President Hoover promised the Americans that he would embrace the past regimes culture of nurturing isolationist foreign policy. After serving the country in the capacity of secretary of commerce, Hoover had the monetary policy fully managed by central reserves.
President Hoover’s achievements
Some of Hoover’s achievements during his tenure as the American president include introduction of the good neighbor policy. After he was elected the United States president, he embarked on a travel across the Latin American countries with a bid to improve their relationship with United States. During the tour, Hoover promised these countries that he would use his powers to ensure that he brings down the American political and military influence in these countries. Basically, he assured the countries that he was ready to ensure that they developed a sense of good neighbor with the Latin American countries. In 1928, he authorized the production of State Department paper that criticized America’s influence in Latin American states (Fausold, p. 328). To show his desire to ensure that there was a cordial relationship between United States and Latin American states, he ordered the withdrawal of American soldiers from Nicaragua in 1932. He also signed a pact with Haiti government that sought to ensure that the country was given its independence. Hoover took the responsibility of ensuring that Chile, Bolivia and Peru solved their indifference amicably where he acted as the mediator. It is from this policy that President Roosevelt built on to improve the relationship between America and Latin American states.
President Hoover’s failures
Despite Hoover being popular, he considered as one of the American presidents who greatly failed the country when their services were greatly required. His monetary policies are believed to plunge the country into depression. It was usual for American presidents to come in and the rescue the when it fall into crisis. This was not the case with Hoover. He left the Americans to struggle with the depression without letting the government give a helping hand. Being unable to overcome the crisis, America adversely suffered from the depression. Even after him helping other countries in the world when they were faced with hunger during thee First World War, Hoover did not help the Americans during the depression leading to most of the American facing starvation (Wueschner, p. 76). During his tenure, the country’s economy was seen to depreciate with more that 6.4 million people losing their jobs. It is during this period that rate of unemployment in United States rose to 24.9 percent. During his presidency, the country’s gross domestic production also depreciated by over twenty five percent.
Another failure by president Hoover is his lack of ensuring that all Americans were equally treated in the country. He never talked on matters to do with civil rights during his entire period as the American President. To him, he had a view that African Americans and other races in the country would liberate themselves by getting educated. He aimed at ensuring that all other races left their cultures and got assimilated to the white culture. Despite John Parker being criticized for passing judgments against African Americans, Hoover went on and decided to appoint him to the Supreme Court. This was met with a lot of opposition and the move was opposed in the senate making it hard for parker to be appointed to the Supreme Court. During his presidency, there were rules that denied African Americans the right to vote despite them being given the opportunity in the 15th Amendment in the country’s constitution (Hart pp. 419-444). However, Hoover was reluctant to taking the initiative of ensuring that these laws were removed from the country giving African Americans the right to vote.
As a move to revive the country from the depression, Hoover decided to return the taxation he had relieved the public. This was a double blow to the citizens as they were to incur other expenses in paying more taxes despite suffering from economic depression (Doenecke pp. 311–340). He led to estate tax being doubled and raised almost all forms of taxes that were being collected from the masses. He was criticized by his rivals for increasing the nation’s debt, heavily taxing the citizens, hampering the growth of trade in the country and increasing tariffs. This resulted to him being defeated convincingly in 1932 presidential elections.
References
Adams, Samuel. Incredible Era: The Life and Times of Warren Gamaliel Harding. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1939.
Barber, William. From New Era to New Deal: Herbert Hoover, the Economists, and American Economic Policy, 1921-1933. New Jersey: McGraw Hill, 1985.
Barry, John.Rising Tide: The Great Mississippi Flood of 1927 and How It Changed America. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1997.
Carcasson, Martin. “Herbert Hoover and the Presidential Campaign of 1932: the Failure of Apologia” Presidential Studies Quarterly 28.2 (1998): 349-365.
Coolidge, Calvin. Have Faith in Massachusetts: A Collection of Speeches and Messages (2nd ed.).Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1919.
Doenecke, Justus. “Anti-Interventionism of Herbert Hoover” Journal of Libertarian Studies, 8.2 (1987): 311–340.
Fausold, Martin. The Presidency of Herbert C. Hoover. New York: Routledge, 1985.
Ferrell, Robert. Presidency of Calvin Coolidge. Kansas: University Press of Kansas, 1998.
Fine, Gary. “Reputational Entrepreneurs and the Memory of Incompetence: Melting Supporters, Partisan Warriors, and Images of President Harding.” American Journal of Sociology, 101.5 (1996): 1159-1193.
Grant, Philip. “President Warren G. Harding and the British War Debt Question, 1921-1923.” Presidential Studies Quarterly, 25.3 (1995): 479-487.
Hart, David. “Herbert Hoover’s Last Laugh: the Enduring Significance of the ‘Associative State’ in the United States.” Journal of Policy History, 10.4 (1998): 419-444.
Kane, Tim. “Economic lessons of President Hoover.” 2004.
Kelly, Martin. “Calvin Coolidge-Thirtieth president of the United States.” 2010.
McCoy, Donald. Calvin Coolidge: The Quiet President. New York: Macmillan, 1967.
Morello, John. Selling the President, 1920: Albert D. Lasker, Advertising, and the Election of Warren G. Harding. New York: Praeger, 2001.
Murray, Robert. The Harding Era 1921-1923: Warren G. Harding and his Administration. New Jersey: Prentice hall, 1969.
Payne, Phillip. “Instant History and the Legacy of Scandal: the Tangled Memory of Warren G. Harding, Richard Nixon, and William Jefferson Clinton.” Prospects 28 (2003): 597-625.
Silver, Thomas. Coolidge and the Historians. Carolina: Carolina Academic Press, 1986.
Tester, John. “Brother, President Warren G. Harding.” 2010.
Wueschner, Silvano. Charting Twentieth-Century Monetary Policy: Herbert Hoover and Benjamin Strong, 1917-1927. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1999
Ronald Reagan was the 40th president of the United States. He was, perhaps, the most successful president in the world’s history. His presidency saw the United States of America obtain sustainable economic stability, and it also gave citizens trust and confidence in the White House. These advancements are, arguably, the threshold of America’s financial success. By using appropriate economic policies, President Reagan helped reduce both federal spending and taxes in the United States.
By doing so, he attracted a significant amount of investment in his country. Although he has his school of critics, Ronald Reagan made such an outstanding contribution to the United States that his success as a president can be compared to very few presidents in the United States history.
His confidence in what e believed in was instrumental in his success as a president since, with excellent communication skills, he made his ideas known and let people express their views of his opinions. He was able to fight Soviet Communism until its effect in the U.S. was negligible. He led the United States in the rivalry between the U.S. and the Soviet Union and ultimately made the U.S. win over the Soviet Union. He is also credited for creating the West emerge victors in the cold war in which the rivalry mentioned above between the U.S. and the Soviet Union took center-stage.
Reagan was a President like no other. He was always waiting for people to demand his services as a leader for him to run for whatever position. Before he ran for Governor in California, he had never thought of himself being a politician. However, he was a political activist who frequently criticized the government and fought Soviet Communism with all his might. He began fighting communism during his acting years when it was made clear that communism was terrible because he was once a proponent of communism. After realizing its negativity, Reagan did all he could to fight communism while expressing his belief in conservatism.
These two principles, coupled with his unbeatable communication skills, were bound to get him very far even as a film actor. The people of California mounted pressure on him to run for the governorship.
He was very hesitant at first, but he later gave in and gave it a try. He won the governorship position in California with a commendable margin. After serving California’s people for one term, the Californian people were impressed with his ideals and policies, and thus they gave him a second term in office. He then got involved in the campaigns for various presidential candidates until his supporters mounted pressure on him once again to run for the presidency, and the rest is history (Nosotro 1). Thus, it can be summarized that President Ronald Reagan was a true leader who had confidence in what he believed in and was not afraid to make his ideas known.
Early Life of Ronald Reagan
Born on the 6th day of February in 1911, Ronald Reagan grew in his Tampico Illinois home to be a respectable and all-around person. His parents were John and Nelle Reagan, and they took him to Dixon High School, where he was a football-playing average student. He went to Eureka College, where he undertook a course in Economics and Sociology. Later as a President, he jokingly remarked that he got a chance to play football for four years in college. Thus in college, he was part of the college football team, and he also acted in plays organized by the school. He was part of the Swimming team of Eureka, a group he created. It can thus be seen that President Reagan was an all-round student in college by being an average student in academics and participating in college co-curricular activities.
Professional Life of Ronald Reagan
After completing college, Ronald Reagan worked at a radio station in Davenport, where he broadcasted sports. In 1937, he went to California for Spring Baseball training, where he met a Warner Bros agent who signed him as a radio announcer in a film. This film was the beginning of a career in movies that saw him making more than 50 films. He is best known as an actor for his Knut Rockne-Al movie.
After acting in Hollywood for some time, Reagan became a member of the SAG (Screen Actors Guild) board. This was from the year 1947. He then became more interested in politics with a keen interest in national politics. He was against the ideas of communism, and he thus worked hard to ensure that communism did not find a place in Hollywood. Due to his activism against communism and the impressive stand he took concerning politics, he was elected as the president of the SAG by its members.
He then worked as the president of the SAG for the next six years, during which time he developed a great interest in politics and formed significant networks in national politics. He then retired from films but remained very close to SAG, dating many young starlets after his wife divorced him. However, he later acted at a nightclub for $30 to pay a debt of $18.
After his career in the film industry, President Reagan became actively involved in President Nixon’s national politics and later became the governor for the State of California. He later vied for the presidency in which he won with a record vote margin. His presidency was also characterized by numerous achievements that he is remembered among the most successful American presidents. He used controversial but appropriate economic policies to change most of the problems that the U.S. was experiencing as he took office. He also helped to bring down the Soviet Union, which was a threat and rival to the United States of America, and he also helped the West come out of the cold war victorious.
Life as a politician
As stated in the discussion above, President Reagan was actively involved in the Republican Richard Nixon presidential campaigns. He gave two hundred speeches in the campaigns on behalf of Nixon. After four years, he became interested in politics, where he actively campaigned for Barry Goldwater as a presidential candidate. After being in the political limelight for more than half a decade, conservative Republicans were very pleased with him, and they regarded him as their hero.
He was therefore requested by these conservatives to vie for the Californian governorship in the year 1966. After he was asked by his fellow conservatives to run for Governor in California, he refused at first, but after serious consideration, he gave in. He won the nomination with the Republican Party in June and won California’s Governorship with an overwhelming vote difference. After his first term as the Governor of California ended, he was voted back into office by the Californian people who had admired his work (“Ronald Reagan – Governor of California” 1).
Another essential thing to note about the political life of Ronald Reagan is that Reagan was initially a Democrat. In the greater part of his life in the film industry, Reagan argued his political beliefs with a Democrat base. However, in the year 1962, after actively campaigning for Presidential candidate Nixon, Ronald Reagan became a Republican after he had severely changed political parties.
Ronald Reagan’s Presidential Campaign
In his transition from the governor to president, Ronald Reagan gave reasons why he decided to run for president in 1980. He explains how after unsuccessfully campaigning for Ford, Carter’s predecessor, many supporters came to him urging him to run for president. He also showed great interest in the administration of President James Carter. The Carter administration was built on, among others, a policy for reducing military spending, which did not augur well with Ronald Reagan.
They also implemented their so-called “national economic planning” (Wroe 29), which, to Ronald Reagan, could have destructive effects on the United States’ economy, which had a strong foundation in freedom of investment. To Reagan, what the U.S. needed was not a carefully planned and strict transformational economic policies but strategic incentives to investment that would attract investment in the United States and make the economy grow (Samuelson 1). Ronald Reagan made all these concerns and solutions to problems known to his supporters during the campaigns.
As mentioned above, the administration of James Carter was reducing its expenditure on the military, yet its performance in national security was a disappointment. The American government was facing competition so stiff from communism that it was on the verge of losing to the latter. The government was heavily relying on a volunteer army, and the military lacked strategic composition while the government was sitting back, watching enemies develop nuclear Armageddon.
These problems had to be highlighted by any presidential candidate against James Carter during the campaigns. Thus, Ronald Reagan emphasized them and promised to reverse the situation by freeing the hostages held captive in Iran as soon as he took office. He also promised to prioritize military spending and increase the United States’ strategic forces to give it competitiveness, which would make peacekeeping easy. The people of the United States knew that he was an anti-communist crusader and thus his campaigns only the efforts he had made in fighting communism and the potential he had in strategizing America for the cold war. By the end of the campaigns, the American people were sure that it is Ronald Reagan they needed if they wanted to be secure (“Ronald Reagan – Presidential Campaigns” 1).
Other aspects of the Carter government that did not impress Ronald Reagan and which he bitterly highlighted during his campaigns were the general economic state in which the United States was. Unemployment was at a record high, inflation had also gone up, and interest rates were again increasingly climbing. Worse still, the economic policies of the Carter administration did not promise a reversal of the situation. Ronald Reagan was even predicting that the United States would plunge into recession due to the Carter administration’s economic policies.
Another primary concern that made Ronald Reagan give in to the pressure of running for president from the American people was that the administration was making Americans lose faith in America’s greatness as a nation. The president always reminded the public that their country had passed its prime and that they would be better off if they braced themselves for less in days to come. He made Americans believe that they had made their country a country with very slim chances of progressing, which made people urge Ronald Reagan to run for president with great zeal (Schuster 1).
During his campaigns, Ronald Reagan promised American voters that he would see that taxes are significantly reduced when they allow him to be their president. True to his words, after he got to White House, Ronald Reagan facilitated the most considerable reduction in American taxes in the history of the U.S. He proposed a strategic tax reduction policy spanning a period of three years and affecting all stakeholders of the economy. This is even though the tax cuts mainly affected people in the high-income category and corporate tax-payers. The reasoning was that these people could convert the tax reduction into investments in the U.S., which would, in turn, help to grow the economy of the U.S. The proposal mentioned above got the approval of the Congress in 1981 July.
This was after Congress had lowered the reduction by a quarter. President Reagan insisted that tax cuts would be an effective way of growing the economy more sustainably than the idea of increasing government spending to grow the economy. Despite this, President Ronald Reagan also increased government spending in some ways. He proposed a massive increase in the military budget to strengthen the armed forces, which had weakened in the 1970s decade (Sandhyarani 1). Congress gave him the go-ahead but with substantial cuts to his initial proposal. This was one of his campaign policies after he promised Americans to increase the United States’ military competitiveness in a bid to secure American citizens.
As the Reagan government tried to fulfill its campaign promise to reduce government spending, they sought to make significant cuts in the amount of money spent domestically. This task was challenging as the government was trying to make strategic spending changes in the military. Some aspects of the economy could not be easily controlled, like interest on the national debt. Other aspects of the economy that could not be touched were Medicare and Social Security. This left several small programs that were almost 10% of the budget. Most of the latter programs targeted poor Americans, and most cuts were on these programs (Morris 1). In a nutshell, a reduction in domestic spending was realized but not as it was anticipated during the campaigns.
Other things that Ronald Reagan highlighted during his campaigns are the importance of liberty to the American people. He stressed that the American people would be liberated by the law and consequently empowered to participate actively in nation-building. He also made it clear that he was a proponent for individualism and also for a community that shuns the ideas of communism with all its might.
He had grown to disdain communism with so much intensity that nearly every speech he gave had to make that point to the audience. He was sincere with his beliefs and feelings, and thus he spoke things from his heart. This, together with his impeccable communication skills, earned him a multitude of followers. Also, among his campaign policies was the suggestion of states’ limited power in running government affairs (Rosenberg 1). This was meant to ensure that states are answerable to the federal government to ensure that the administration of the states was done correctly.
Major Successes as a politician
Ronald Reagan’s presidency was characterized by many successes. Having gotten political experience as the governor of California and having unbeatable oratorical skills from his career in Hollywood, Ronald Reagan was, indubitably, destined for success as the United States president. His success can also be attributed to the prolonged political activism before his election as a governor.
Among Ronald Reagan’s significant achievements was the fact that he was the reason why the cold war that had troubled the world for decades came to an end. He was able to engineer the triumph of the U.S. in the cold war and bring the same to an end due to his excellent strategic planning skills and unbeatable communication skills (Cannon 83). For instance, he was very close to the Prime Minister of Britain at the time, a Margaret Thatcher, which enabled him to change the standoff between the United States and countries in the East.
Additionally, the historical speech he delivered in Germany, West Berlin, calling for the demolishing of the Berlin Wall, was a huge step towards the end of the cold war since the Berlin Wall was one of the Cold War cradles in Germany. To prove how critical this speech was to the Germans, the defense minister in German, a Theodore Guttenberg, is currently advocating for the commemorating of President Reagan by naming a street after the former president of the United States.
Also, among Reagan’s reasons for making the West emerge victors in the cold war was his ability to form healthy and productive alliances. He maintained close ties to the Israelis, and by so doing, he became the president of the United States who was the “most pro-Israel ever” (D’Souza 57). He had also developed a close alliance with countries in the Middle East, which enabled him to monitor the popularity of Soviet Communism and ensure that it was checked. This ability to form strategic alliances, therefore, made him destroy Soviet Communism, which was a threat to America’s advancement.
As the 40th president of the United States finished his two terms of office, he had a reason to be proud of America’s progress during his time as the president of the United States. Among the reasons why he had seen so much success is the breakthrough that his innovative program for revolutionizing the American economy had seen. This program is dubbed the Reagan Revolution, and its primary purpose was to make the American people be able to live without relying heavily on the government. By the end of his two terms, he was convinced that he had honored his campaign pledge by restoring “the great, confident roar of American progress and growth and optimism” (Morris 93).
A myriad of historians believes that Ronald Reagan was the reason why the White House enjoys unequaled trust and honor. This is because the image of the White House had been tarnished by occurrences that took place before Ronald Reagan became the president of the United States. Some of the events include the Vietnam War that had seen a large faction of American citizens losing trust and confidence in their government. This was mostly because the policies implemented during the Vietnam War were authoritative to the extent that young people were being required by the government to go and die on the battlefield. Many American lives were lost as American citizens advocated for the recalling of the troops by the day.
However, after Ronald Reagan became the president, he gave the American presidency a new face by making unequaled progress as far as the American people’s welfare was concerned. Other events that had tarnished the image of the American Presidency before Reagan’s time were the Watergate Scandal and the Pentagon Papers.
Among the successes that the former president of the United States saw is his ability to stimulate and maintain economic growth through his appropriate application of economic policies, which came to be known as Reaganomics. As controversial as it may be, Reaganomics worked for the United States during Ronald Reagan’s presidency. It involved significant economic policies geared towards reducing government spending and counteracting this with a parallel reduction in the rates of taxation of income (Ackerman 1). This was meant to attract investment and subsequently lead to the growth of the economy.
At the same time, the government of the United States focused on reducing regulation and closely monitoring the supply of money to U.S. citizens in a bid to reduce the rates of interest and inflation. By the end of his stay in the White House, President Reagan had accomplished most of the things that he and his supporters had hoped to achieve using the economic policies (Niskanen 1).
For instance, he helped to reduce federal spending by about 1.5% during his time in office. This was amid increased spending in defense. He thus moderated the fiscal trends that had been adopted by prior administrations and did not completely change them. For instance, the central transfers were unscathed as President Reagan moderated other budgetary policies. Such transfers include Medicare and Social Security. He also realized this reduction in federal spending by proposing reductions in the number and budgets of other domestic programs while drawing up his first budget. Corporate tax rates were cut to 34% from a staggering 48% hence attracting investors (“Ronald Reagan” 1).
When President Reagan got into office, there were seven hostages in Iran. Although these hostages are the reason that Reagan became somehow infamous during his presidency, he ensured that they were released from hostage when he got in office, and this can be viewed as an achievement. This is even though analysts suspect that during campaigns, Reagan and his campaign team delayed the release of the hostages, which was being organized by his Democrat counterpart Jimmy Carter.
President Reagan also made major achievements by removing archaic regulations in the airline industry. This included his intervention that led to the breaking down of the union for air traffic controllers. Despite this, the policy platform he created during his presidency saw the creation of approximately 15 million jobs. This meant that the American economy was bound to grow, with an additional 15 million people being involved in nation-building during his presidency.
He also made a substantial investment in the military capability of the United States, which was one of the reasons he was able to make the West emerge victorious in the cold war. His foreign policy of peace went a long way to bring peace to the world since countries were no longer at liberty to engage in war as they thought appropriate. This was also enabled by his investment in the military, which made other countries dread involvement in a war that could invoke the U.S. to intervene.
After building the military capacity of the United States, the Soviet Union was forced to overspend in a bid to equip its military. This is because they were in competition with the United States, and any military move by the United States was counteracted by the Soviet Union. This strategic move, by President Ronald Reagan, of forcing the Soviet Union to overspend in building its military is one of the main reasons why he was able to bring down the latter (McDouglas 1).
The monetary policy did not produce the best results, but its improvement during Ronald Reagan’s time cannot be ignored. Reagan adopted a policy initiated in 1979 that was meant to reduce the growth of money and consequently reduce interest and inflation rates. Strategic interventions in the foreign exchange markets also had an impressive effect on the value of the dollar.
Failures of President Ronald Reagan
Although President Reagan enjoyed two successful terms in office, he also had a few hiccups during his time as the United States president. Among the dark days of his presidency is the period in which the Iran-Contra Affair was publicized. A score of political activists and historians consider this time as the lowest point that the presidency of Ronald Reagan reached.
President Reagan had shown a long-standing disdain for Soviet Communism, and he was using all means possible to fight it. As a result, he made efforts to give financial and training support to anti-communist insurgencies like the Contras, who he regarded as “the moral equivalent of our Founding Fathers” (Wolf 1). This was amid legislation that prevented the involvement of the CIA in Nicaragua, the base of the Contras in fighting communism. It was, therefore, nearly impossible for President Reagan to give financial support to the Contras. Then there came a chance for the president to show his support to the Contras.
With Iran and Iraq at war, Iran sought to buy U.S. weapons. Despite the rules against the selling of military equipment to Iran, McFarlane consulted the president, explaining that the sale would give the U.S. a chance to influence the Middle East. The president had been guilty about his inability to set free seven hostages held by the Iranian government (Neufville 1). He, therefore, accepted the deal on condition that the American hostages would be freed. In the process of the weapons-for-hostages agreement, it was found that some of the money that was supposedly paid to the CIA was not paid.
Thorough investigations showed that the funds had been diverted to the Contras, hence the phrase Iran-Contra Affair. This affair seriously affected Reagan’s reputations as he could not disclose the truth about the transactions since they were against the law. President Reagan suffered a lot of embarrassment as people sought to know his involvement in the weapons-for-hostages deal. This is because the answers he gave to the press were very inconsistent, and they showed that there was a lot of information that the president was not willing to give out. The Iran-Contra Affair saw several government officers resign, and others tried to agree (Gregory 1).
President Reagan also disappointed his supporters with his seemingly uncontrolled spending in defense, which hurt his efforts to reduce federal spending. His first term was characterized by significant growth in defense spending, which was higher than his campaign proposals. His reduction of federal spending was, therefore, not significant when compared to national output. In 1989, when President Reagan was in office, federal expenditure decreased to 22.1 of GDP from a previous 22.9 in 1981 with slight increments between the years. His supporters were greatly disappointed by his administration. The federal deficit and federal debt were also unimpressive as President Reagan retired after two terms (Gregory 1).
Social Life
He had strong faith with much love for his family as well as his country. Reagan married his first wife, Jane Wyman, in 1940. They had met at a function where Reagan was filming Brother Rat, one of his films. After they were married, they were blessed with two kids. The first was their biological daughter Maureen Elizabeth who was born in the year 1941, and an adopted son, Michael Edward. He was adopted by the family in the year 1945. In 1947, the family lost their third child, born prematurely and lived for only a day. Jane divorced Reagan in the year 1949 as her career flourished while that of her husband stagnated due to the war’s effects. She also won custody over their two children.
In 1951, when Reagan was serving as the president of SAG, he was approached by a lady who was being mistaken for a communist because she shared her name with another lady. She was Nancy Davis, and she was very concerned about the false identity she was being given because she was an actress. The two agreed that they would go out for dinner as the young actress explained her predicament to Reagan.
They met for dinner and started dating. In early 1952, the Hollywood couple got engaged, and barely three months later, the couple married with their two friends as their only witnesses. In October of the same year, the couple was blessed with Patricia Ann, a daughter, and six years later, Ronald Prescott, Reagan’s son with Nancy, was born. Michael married and gave the couple Cameron and Ashley as their grandchildren. So far, Reagan has been the only U.S. president to have separated from his wife.
Having participated in several co-curricular events during his schooling days, President Reagan had an excellent social foundation and a healthy interaction with other people, especially in the jurisdiction of duties. During college, his participation in the football team won him a career as a Sports Announcer on the radio after completing his college. He was also involved in the swimming club during his college days and developed enviable skills in interpersonal relationships.
However, much of his eloquence development can be attributed to his career in Hollywood, where he was an actor. His ability to relate with others and do good things without monopolizing credit for them is one main reason why President Reagan was able to become the fortieth president of the U.S. This is because he generously campaigned for other people like President Nixon and Ford without even considering himself as a potential presidential candidate. This worked to his advantage in that he got to be known to the electorate, and by making his ideas known to them, they were able to judge him and consider him a potential president. His supporters approached him after campaigns and urged him to run for governorship in California and later for president.
Regardless of the right policies that President Reagan had during his campaign for the presidency, he had a lot of critics and haters. During the time, some of the members of the press were relentlessly suggesting that he was dying his hair due to his age. Others suggested that having been an actor who read scripts written to him by other people, he was unable to come up with anything reasonable. They suggested that Reagan was using other people to write his speeches, which he delivered perfectly due to his experience in Hollywood. This prompted Reagan to adopt a different approach in addressing audiences. He would ensure that the speech sessions were interactive, with his speech being guided by the responses from the audience.
Last days of Ronald Reagan
During his last days in office, the former President Ronald Reagan started experiencing memory problems. He once joked with his personal doctor in the White House during a check-up session, “I have three things I want to tell you. The first is that I am experiencing problems with my memory. I cannot remember the other two” (Reagan 39). After his retirement, he was found with Alzheimer’s disease.
He opted to make the official diagnosis public instead of keeping it to himself and his family, and thus he wrote an open letter to the public to this effect. The letter was dated 1994, the 15th day of November. After this diagnosis and public announcement of his condition, the former president’s health continually worsened. His memory was in such a bad condition that he, his wife, and his aides feared that he might trip in a public place while making a speech. Ten years after his Alzheimer’s diagnosis, he died. This was on the 5th day of June in 1994 when he was 93 years of age.
Conclusion
Reagan’s career in politics was, in a way, delayed. Until to date, he still is the oldest president of the United States of America. He was inaugurated at the age of seventy years. During his time in office, Reagan had gained the confidence of the civilians in his regime as a governor and with his policies and political views according to many Americans’ views on his administration. Therefore, his election was like no other as he got more electoral votes ever received by a candidate vying for the presidency in the United States.
With the discussion above, it is clear that President Reagan was a good leader. Except for the period during which the Iran-Contra Affair was made known to the public, the American people trusted him and believed he was the most honest president ever. He always made his intentions and predicaments known to the public, which made it easy for the public to know the reasons for his actions.
He was a leader who was committed to the welfare of the American people because, during his presidency, many things changed for the better in the U.S. First, he negotiated the release of hostages who were being held in Iran. This was an achievement since the hostages were captured during the James Carter regime, and by taking it as his duty to free the hostages, he made the public respect and trusted the White House. He also came up with the aforementioned economic policies, which helped to repair the American economy. This was a great achievement because some critical economic parameters were not appealing, as President James Carter left office.
For instance, interest and inflation rates were on the rise, and federal spending was uncontrolled. He took a conservative approach while reducing tax rates to attract investment, and by the end of his two terms as the president of the U.S., a lot had changed for the better as far as the economy of the U.S is concerned. Most of these things were highlighted in his campaign for the presidency and, thus, he did accomplish his promises though some were not exactly completed.
Despite the turbulence he experienced in his first marriage, President Reagan was a dedicated family man who loved his wife and children alike. He was very close to the children he had with his divorced wife, and he shared an unbreakable bond with his wife. His family supported each other even during the difficult times of his presidency. For instance, during the assassination attempt of the president, his wife was by his side until he recovered.
After weeks in a coma and as he took his last breath, he opened his eyes and looked at his wife in the eye with clear eyes, signifying the bond they shared. As he died, he had all family members with him, showing how close the members of the family were. He was a man who respected people, and before he came into the political limelight, he acted due to public demand. In a nutshell, President Reagan died knowing that he had made a great and patriotic contribution to his country and expecting the best for the U.S. in the future.
Works Cited
Ackerman, Frank. Reaganomics: rhetoric vs. reality. Boston, MA. South End Press, 1982. Print.
Cannon, Lou. President Reagan: The Role Of A Lifetime. New York. Bell & Bain, 2000. Print.
D’Souza, Dinesh. How an Ordinary Man Became an Extraordinary Leader. New York. Wadsworth Publishing, 1999. Print.
Gregory, Anthony. “Ronald Reagan’s Good Rhetoric, Bad Policies, and Vile Followers”. 2004. Web.
McDouglas, Henry. “Small town to Tinseltown”. 2007. Web.
Morris, Edmund. A Memoir of Ronald Reagan. California. Barnes & Noble, 2000. Print.
The President of the USA is one of the most influential persons in the world. and all his actions and words are given great attention. That is why he tries to think all his speeches through and avoid clumsy moments. However, this statement could hardly be applied to George Bush, one of the most contradictory presidents of the USA who gave birth to Bushisms, semantic errors in a speech which change its meaning completely.
Among a great number of various Bushisms, I could outline my two favorite ones. The first one is “I trust God speaks through me. Without that, I couldn’t do my job” (“Bush on God in 50 Quotes”). The usage of this sort of appeal in the given context alters the meaning of the phrase completely and makes people believe that he really hears voices in his head. Another Bushism is related to the previous one, as George Bush likes to appeal to God and refer to him as to the companion. “God loves you, and I love you. And you can count on both of us as a powerful message that people who wonder about their future can hear” (“Bush on God in 50 Quotes”). Both these phrases sound strange especially when they are pronounced by the President of the USA (“How To Talk Like Bush”). The choice of words and metaphors is not appropriate as public speeches presuppose the usage of specific stylistic devices and appeals (De Saussure 123). When saying that God speaks trough him, Bush could also offend feelings of religious people who have their own vision of the way Gods messages should be delivered.
Dangerous Virus Causes Religious Hallucinations
According to the latest news announcements, the USA is at the edge of a great disaster. A famous pharmaceutical company conducted research aimed at the investigation of the strange behavior that has been noticed recently. The client who wanted to remain unknown was scared by a person crying out nonsense, and incoherent words. This event was fun and scary at the same moment. That is why an individual was asked politely to come to the laboratory and participate in the investigation. Surprisingly he agreed. The results of the research were astonishing! A dangerous and extremely virulent virus was found. Science is still not able to describe its nature and origin as well as the way it appeared.
However, the main symptoms are already investigated. A person starts to hear voices in his/her head, mainly religious hallucinations. The sick individual used to cry “I trust God speaks through me. Without that, I couldn’t do my job”. The given phrase accompanied almost any action, and he was really sure that he was doing right things that could save humanity. In several days the first signs of the development of complications appeared. Hallucinations became more complex. The individual started to use more sophisticated phrases, and it could be taken as the evidence of the progressive religious hallucinations: “God loves you, and I love you. And you can count on both of us as a powerful message that people who wonder about their future can hear.”
Considering the great threat, the pharmaceutical company has already announced the creation of the vaccine that should be used to protect people from this horrible disease. The price will be rather high, but everyone should obviously buy it to protect their families and preserve the ability to speak coherently.
Works Cited
“Bush on God in 50 Quotes.” Candides Notebook, Web.
De Saussure, Ferdinand. Course in General Linguistics. HardPress Publishing, 2013.