Category: Prejudice

Application of Theory

Social work theories are instrumental in explaining people’s behavior and helping people review their stances and prejudices. The book How to be an anti-racist provides insight into where racial prejudices come from and what one should do to eliminate them. While the work on combatting biases is, by all means, essential at a personal level, it is, first of all, a social issue that should be tackled by relying on social work theories that outline the basis of interpersonal interaction. The psychodynamic theory and, more specifically, Otto Rank’s existential ideas can help to explain many of the postulates of the How to be an anti-racist book from the social work perspective, shedding new light on how racial prejudices can be eliminated.

Although there has been a considerable rise in the anti-racial movement in recent years, some of the prejudices remain deeply ingrained in people’s minds. In terms of the psychodynamic theory, this can be explained by the fact that a person’s outlook is, to a large extent, formed by the experience he or she lived through. This experience, working at an unconscious level, may have a direct though unperceived influence on a person’s behavior. Since the history of racism counts hundreds of years while the ideas of abolitionism first appeared about two hundred years ago, the deeper attitude can still be pronounced in people’s behavior.

Nowadays, to be anti-racial, it is not enough not to engage in racial discrimination practices. Kendi (2019) states that “there is no neutrality in the racism struggle,” and to be anti-racial, one should actively voice anti-racial views and concerns. Anti-racial social work should be organized in the form of micro, mezzo, and macro practices. At a micro level, such work presupposes self-reflection to eradicate one’s racial prejudices. The method of self-reflection runs in line with the postulates of the psychodynamic theory that views self-reflection as a basis for personal growth.

At a mezzo level, social work to combat racism can assume a form of identifying unjust norms and creating spaces to fight them as a group. Such a movement as ‘Black lives matter’ grew out of a group of people who saw social injustice and were ready to fight it. While many people feel discomfort about confronting established views and practices, it is essential to combat racism in all its forms. Therefore, creating spaces for dialogue helps to establish a nonjudicial environment where people are not afraid to voice their concerns and suggest actions that may be instrumental in the fight against racism. At a macro level, social work includes joining anti-racial organizations and raising awareness about discriminatory practices at work or in other public areas.

The proposed measures run in line with Otto Rank’s ideas. The theoretician believed that “an individual as a creating force has the power of self-determination which can be used intentionally to shape her or his psychological world” (Koenig et al., 2019, p. 112). Thus, while the influence of ingrained ideas about Afro-Americans on an individual may still be great, it is within a person’s powers to change his or her outlook by will. In Kendi’s view, “being an anti-racist requires persistent self-awareness, constant self-criticism, and regular self-examination.” (Kendi, 2019, p. 7). To this end, every person can change if they seriously undertake such a task.

While social work should be aimed at providing opportunities for change and fighting deficient practices within society, it is no less important to work over alleviating a feeling of guilt that people may have when they do not conform to the standards accepted within their family or community. Thus, there may be a shared negative attitude towards people of color in places where the workforce is mainly white. Individuals who do not share a typical perspective may be frowned upon, which will foster a feeling of guilt. Kendi (2019) states that “some of us are restrained by fear of what could happen to us if we resist” but urges to combat this feeling (p. 13). To this end, therapeutic meetings with social workers may be organized where people can find support and encouragement in their fight against racism.

Unfortunately, racism has found its way into every corner of American life, and the examples of racial discrimination are numerous. Kendi (2019), in his book, speaks about structural racism, racism that has been institutionalized to marginalize minority groups. Thus, Kendi (2019) states that “White lives matter to the tune of 3.5 additional years over Black lives in the United States […] starting from infancy, where Black infants die at twice the rate of White infants”. Moreover, structural racism is embedded into many governmental practices where minorities experience additional difficulties in securing governmental services. A good example of institutional racism is the treatment of Afro-Americans and minority groups in the punitory system across the US. Thus, Afro-Americans get harsher and longer sentences by the criminal justice system than whites who have committed identical crimes. The incarnation rate of minority groups is also much higher than that of the white population. In daily practices, institutional racism has found its way into residential business, where agents would not sell or rent accommodation to an Afro-American in a neighborhood populated by wealthy whites.

The above-mentioned practice of discrimination may be well explained by the Critical Race theory, which states that racial prejudices find their way into everyday practices adopted at the highest level. Many laws and regulations have been formed under the influence of prejudices that have been transformed from purely emotional attitudes to the practices of segregation. The theory explains the direct connection between racial attitudes in people’s minds and the environment they form. That is why, to fully and irrevocably embrace the fight against racism, one should not only get rid of discriminatory practices but eliminate the very buds of racism in one’s mind.

Examining Anti-Racism Practices on an Individual Level

To commit to some of the steps to eliminate racial inequity outlined by Kendi, one should start with self-reflection thinking over the practices and ideas he or she adheres to, and striving to eliminate those that are, in essence, racist. Secondly, a person should not let racist practices go unnoticed and advocate for racial equality every time they see an injustice being committed. To combat one’s fear of going against the crowd, one may engage in support groups where people share the same ideas of equality and anti-racial stances.

1. While practicing these steps, a person should hold themselves accountable first to themselves and later to the group they belong to. Careful examination of the situations where one could have spoken against racism and did not do it helps to see where a person failed his or her ideals for the sake of socially established conventions. Moreover, the practice of considering a person’s failures helps in the future to remedy the situation instilling him or her with the confidence to act differently next time. Group accountability presupposes sharing stories of success and failures with subsequent analysis of how the described situation could have been improved.
2. In one’s work to be an anti-racist, one can be actively supported by family, friends, and the anti-racial groups a person may belong to.

A person should approach anti-racist work with vulnerability because racial ideas may be deeply ingrained in people’s minds, and trying to eradicate them through violence and harsh rhetoric may cause incomprehension and resentment. Vise versa, explaining to people where they might have been wrong and how their actions affect Afro-Americans may foster mutual understanding and make people willing to change.

1. It is difficult to acknowledge one’s beliefs as racist because of ego defense mechanisms that work to suppress conscious awareness of a person’s failings. According to Freud, ego mechanisms help individuals “to adapt to the environment,” repressing all thoughts that go against conventional beliefs (Koening et al., 2019, p. 103). Therefore, at a time when racism is finally acknowledged as evil, it is difficult to admit that a person has racial ideas in their mind. The same is true for racial practices exercised by some people who would not recognize these practices as racial.
2. Recognizing and sharing one’s beliefs can create an opportunity for self-reflection because recognition of one’s failures is a first step towards making changes within oneself as well as in one’s surroundings. Acknowledgment of a person’s racial ideas boosts reflection processes on how they can be eliminated. Sharing these ideas generates discussion about the best way to tackle the problem.
3. To help others in their reflection and learning, I can share the experience of eradicating in my mind ideas that, on careful examination, I considered racial. Moreover, I can tell others about the actions I undertook and the feelings I experienced when I confronted racial injustice issues for the first time. I think my experience can be instrumental in helping others in their reflection on racial discrimination issues and in their learning to stand up against racial prejudices wherever they see them.

References

Kendi, I. X. (2019). How to Be an Anti-Racist. One World. Web.

Koenig, T., Spano, R., & Thompson, J. (2019). Human behavior theory for social work practice. Sage Publications. Web.

Prejudice is the main theme in the article “Causes of Prejudice” by Vincent Parrillo. According to Parrillo (Vincent 504), sociology and psychology are the main causes of prejudice. The plot of the article is divided into two main sections. The first one is prejudice in the psychology perspective, and the other one is the sociology perspective. The psychology perspective section focuses on four distinct areas, and they include self-justification, frustration, personality, and levels of prejudice (Vincent 505). The article elaborates on three levels of prejudice, which include emotional, action- orientation, and cognitive.

It explains how they affect prejudiced behaviors. Vincent defines self-justification by stating that “it is denigrating a person or group to justify maltreatment of them” (Vincent 506). Vincent later addresses personality by defining it as the authoritarian development and aggression displacement as one becomes an adult. The prejudice segment is frustration, which entails scape-goating and relative deprivation. However, the sociology prejudice perspective, which makes the second part of the article, is explained in terms of economic competition and socialization. According to the author, socialization forms prejudice through culture, sub-culture, and attitudes and is transferred from one generation to another. On the other hand, economic competition brings prejudice through insecurity as a result of hostile behaviors. However, the author uses an educative tone to explain the root of prejudice in society.

Racism is the main social behavior presented in Vincent’s work and is common in modern-day society (Lindsey 232). Racism is believing that some characteristics and abilities belong to people of a particular race. It, therefore, holds that some of the racial groups are superior compared to others. However, racism and discrimination form a powerful tool that promotes fear and hatred during economic downturns, issuance of services, conflict, and war. In America, civil society grouping like Blacks Lives Matter has become vocal on the issue (Falcon 218).

Works Cited

Falcon, Sylvanna M. “The Globalization of Ferguson: Pedagogical Matter about Racial Violence.” Feminist Studies 41.1 (2015): 218- 221. Print.

Lindsey, Treva B. “Post- Ferguson: A “Herstorical” Approach to Black Violability.” Feminist Studies 41.1 (2015): 232- 237. Print.

Parrillo, Vincent. “Causes of Prejudice.” Rereading America: Cultural Contexts for Critical Thinking and Writing. Ed. Colombo, Gary, Robert Cullen, and Bonnie Lisle. Boston, MA: Bedford/St. Martins, 2013. 504- 516. Print.

The focus of the present paper is to analyze the study titled “Prejudice and Perception: The Role of Automatic and Controlled Processes in Perceiving a Weapon” Although Payne (2001) used two experiments to undertake this study, much of the focus will be directed at experiment one.

Social Psychology and Priming

Social psychology has been defined in the literature as the branch of psychology that attempts to study the way in which the personality, mind-set, attitudes, feelings, motivations, thoughts, beliefs, and behavior of a person influence and are influenced by factors occurring within the social context (Hewstone, Stroebe, & Jonas, 2012). The reviewed article is at the core of the social psychology discipline by virtue of its association with the topics of prejudice and perception. These topics, according to Hewstone et al. (2012), have been used by social psychologists to illuminate how the processes of aggression, bias, and stereotyping occur within the social context.

Priming has been described in the literature as an implicit memory/cognitive consequence in which exposure to one stimulus often makes individuals respond to another stimulus either automatically or manually (Hewstone et al., 2012). A good example of priming entails people of Caucasian origin having a perception that Africans are a cursed race due to Western media images that portray the African continent within the contexts of poverty, disease, hunger and starvation.

Brief Description of the Study

Payne (2001) used a model entailing priming the sampled participants with Black and White faces with the view to examining the effect of racial cues and biases on the visual identification of weapons. Specifically, the study’s main focus was to present a new and theoretically fascinating approach to differentiating the automatic and controlled procedures at work when group stereotypes are triggered by investigating whether priming participants with Black versus White faces prejudices their reaction time or precision of recognizing a weapon.

Hypotheses and Methods

The first section of the study (experiment 1) aimed to test two hypotheses, namely (1) the sampled respondents would respond at a faster speed to weapons when they were primed by a Black face compared with a White face, and (2) the racial prime used in the experiment would apply its influence in the automatic estimation while leaving the controlled estimation unchanged (Payne, 2001). In methods, the first section of the study used a quantitative research approach and experimental research design to test the hypotheses described above. Data were collected through the use of a Lickert-type questionnaire and the design of the study entailed a “2 (prime race: Black vs. White) X 2 (target type: gun vs. tool) factorial design, with both factors manipulated within participants” (Payne, 2001, p. 183).

Results and Confounding Variable

The results of the study revealed that the respondents mistook tools for weapons more often with a Black Face than a White Face, that they identified tools more swiftly when primed with a White face compared to a Black face, and that the racial primes influenced the perceptual identification of guns at the automatic level as opposed to the controlled level (Payne, 2001). These findings proved that the formulated hypotheses were correct. A confounding variable in this study may include previous experiences the participants could have had with Black people.

Personal Reflection

At a personal level, I agree with the findings in their entirety based on the fact that other research studies have also concluded that racial and ethnic orientations systematically prejudice important visual judgments regarding other people based on their race, skin color and religion, among other variables. For example, Matthews and Levin (2012) used an experimental design to demonstrate how perception of value threat from Muslims heightened feelings of disgust among non-Muslim participants and a propensity to change behavior with the view to maintaining traditional Western values. Additionally, in America today, most individuals who are fond of wearing Muslim attires such as Hijabs are at a greater risk of being referred to as terrorists due to the priming effect.

References

Hewstone, M., Stroebe, W., & Jonas, K. (2012). An introduction to social psychology (5th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell.

Matthews, M., & Levin, S. (2012). Testing a dual process model of prejudice: Assessment of group threat perceptions and emotions. Motivation & Emotion, 36(4), 564-574. Web.

Payne, B.K. (2001). Prejudice and perception: The role of automatic and controlled processes in perceiving a weapon. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81(2), 181-192. Web.

Introduction

In its common simple usage, stereotyping refers to generalizing or making broad and typical assumptions concerning the behavioral characteristics of certain groups of people, basing it on an often wrong image held towards the individuals in that group. Prejudice on the other hand refers to the attitude formed in regard to a certain group of people based on the fact that they are affiliated to a certain group (Musa 2). Considering these two definitions, we can clearly state that stereotyping leads to prejudice and eventually discrimination. Stereotyping and prejudice tends to place us and others on opposing sides with the basis being our affiliation to different groups. The eventual result is making conclusions and treating individuals based on beliefs towards that particular group, and often leads to resistance to new information concerning the group. Stereotyping acts as a source of reference to interpret new information by relating it to the beliefs held towards a certain group (Musa 5).

Stereotyping and prejudice is as a result of negative generalizations we hold upon certain groups of individuals, but which through a number of ways can be countered to suppress the tendencies to make stereotyped and prejudiced conclusions.

Stereotyping and Prejudice

Stereotyping and prejudice can stem from; downplaying others to raise our self esteem, it can result from direct competition for scarce resources (realistic conflict theory) or it can be caused by our tendency to categorize the world to ‘us’ and ‘them’. A broad source of stereotyping is the acquisition of the attitudes towards these groups as a result of social learning process. This is mostly applicable to the children as they grow up while acquiring information from parents, teachers and the social surroundings. The tendencies can however be reversed to form positive attitudes towards individuals and avoid generalization of behavior through a number of ways.

As a result stereotyping and prejudice, groups grow further and further apart thus discouraging interactions. It has been proposed that through increasing the frequency of contact between groups can help counter stereotyping and prejudice in a concept dubbed contact hypothesis. Here, groups which were segregated are encouraged to interact. According to Tamara, the hypothesis basis its theory on the fact that groups are generally similar in characteristics and status, and interaction helps realize the similarities thus the change in the perception. The interaction encourages corporation and interdependence hence creating a good atmosphere for getting to know the group members as individuals and not look at them as a general group. Once individuals familiarize, it is a precursor for reverting the negative stereotypes (12).

Another effective way to counter stereotyping and prejudice is through social learning. This is based on the understanding that the generalizations leading to stereotypes are actually learnt. Children mostly form these negative attitudes towards certain groups depending on the views of the significant others. The idea here is to filter the information fed to the children. Parents and teachers, who realize their stereotypes and prejudices, should aim at changing them and in the process causing the children to emulate non-prejudiced behavior.

As a way to reduce stereotypes and prejudice, members of different groups can work towards denouncing the categorization of groups as ‘us’ and ‘them’, and instead view themselves as belonging to a single social unit. This encourages positive viewing of group members who were previously disregarded. The increased corporation brought about by working as a single entity helps reduce bias between groups. This is supported by the common in-group identity model developed by Gaertner and Dovidio in 1993.

Stereotypes are formed by processing information by categorizing the attitudes towards others in relation to the groups they belong. This situation can be countered by analyzing an individual and categorizing him/her according to their unique characteristics. This is referred to as weakening stereotypes through cognitive interventions. Getting to know the members of the other group gives you the opportunity to realize their individual successful outcomes and therefore propelling formation of positive characteristics towards them. This also encourages one to think accurately about others.

Apart from these known ways of countering stereotypes and prejudice, we as individuals can take the initiative to challenge them in a number of ways. The first step involves reviewing situations when people made conclusions about us. We then take time to analyze their basis of their assumptions on the group you are affiliated to perhaps. Step two involves now revisiting those instances that we misjudged others basing it on assumptions that were stereotyped and were probably wrong. The third step is to find out what exactly could have caused us to apply the stereotyping criterion. Chances are that you will realize that in several occasions your stereotyping reasons were wrong. Here, challenge yourself in trying to avoid bias stereotyping in the future. The final step is adopting a logical, critical thinking and applying facts and reason when analyzing people instead of stereotyping. We should allow people to prove their worth first and try to define them individually. This provides us with accurate data and facts regarding people and therefore eliminates stereotyping (Gary 19).

In conclusion, stereotyping and prejudice are manifested in several ways in the society today. These include racism, gender discrimination, religious stereotyping, and tribal stereotyping, among others. In countries like the US, there have been ranging debates on the use of racial profiling when handling criminal cases. The target mostly is the black Americans who are assumed to possess certain criminal qualities. While countering stereotypes and prejudice would foster a good relationship between individuals of different groups, it has proven a hard thing to do and up to today we find ourselves victims of stereotypes or stereotyping ourselves.

Works Cited

Gary, Grobman M. Stereotypes and Prejudices. 1990. Web.

Musa, Anisa, N. Prejudice, Discrimination and Stereotype. 2009. Web.

Tamara J. Ferguson Perceiving Groups: Prejudice, Stereotyping, and Discrimination. 2004. Web.

“What Does Modern Prejudice Look Like” by Shankar Vedatam

The Author, the Date, and the Intended Audience of the Primary Source

The article written by Shankar Vedatam explores the discussion from the Hidden Brain podcast, where several participants explored Mahzarin Banaji’s book about biases in modern society. Banaji was a Harvard professor who specialized in social psychology.

The article was written on April 22, 2013, while Banaji’s book Blindspot: Hidden Biases of Good People was published earlier in 2013. The article was published on NPR’s website as part of the Code Switch podcast series, while Banaji’s book was published by Delacorte Press.

The intended audience for the podcast includes psychologists interested in the latest research trends and ordinary people interested in science and psychology.

The Reason Behind the Creation of the Primary Source

The history behind the origins of Banaji’s book focuses on her friend’s experience with unintentional bias and favoritism. Banaji’s friend received a higher quality of medical care services when information about her prestigious position as a Yale professor became known to the specialists. Therefore, Banaji’s book presents an alternative view on the psychological research of prejudice mechanisms and the ways they can affect society.

The Perspectives Presented in the Source

Banaji’s position is that modern prejudice can take different forms, and the one that often can be found in the communication of modern people is favoritism. The author also explains that the seemingly insignificant problem of unintentional biases can cause significant harm to society by supporting prejudice. Thus, the podcast and the book explore Banaji’s perspective on the problem of prejudice in the form of favoritism in people who indirectly infringe on the interests of vulnerable segments of the population by practicing favoritism.

Two States. Eight Textbooks. Two American Stories by Dana Goldstein

The Author, the Date, and the Intended Audience of the Primary Source

The article was written by Dana Goldstein; the article also includes examples from different textbooks but does not mention individual authors, primarily focusing on publishers’ work.

The article does not provide additional information about the author’s position in society at the time the primary source was created. However, from the author’s extensive knowledge of the process of publishing textbooks, it can be assumed that the author was a journalist in the field of education.

The article was published on the New York Times website on January 12, 2020. Since the article uses several interactive elements, allowing the readers an opportunity to take a closer look at the differences between textbooks, the article was published on the New York Times website.

The intended audiences for the article are students wondering about the difference between textbooks in different states, educators, parents, and people interested in the modern domestic politics of the country.

The Reason Behind the Creation of the Primary Source

The article explains how political parties can manipulate the weaknesses of textbook publishers to form a favorable political position among the younger generation. The author provides many examples of how the same textbooks are edited differently in California and Texas states. Furthermore, the author explores how the interference of politics and religion in the educational process can negatively affect students’ perception of historical events.

The Perspectives Presented in the Source

The article mainly explores the perspectives of liberal and conservative parties but also includes important information about the publishers’ perspectives on the issue. The author explains that conservatives insist that schools should promote patriotism, while liberals support the idea of studying history from the perspective of disadvantaged groups. Lastly, publishers accept all possible changes to the Learning materials to remain competitive with electronic publications.

The Presence of Bias in the Primary Sources

Both primary sources explore how the spread of negative biases is supported in society. The first article explores how unintentional biases and favoritism harm the unprivileged groups of society and support the spread of prejudices. The second article explores how incorporating political and religious opinions into the educational process supports the spread of prejudices in the future society, hiding behind the ideas of patriotism.

The Representation of the Historical Event in the Primary Sources

Both articles focus on the problem of prejudices and external influence on people’s perception of the world. However, the first article shares a story of personal experience to effectively convey the idea about the potential harm of unintentional biases. On the other hand, the second article features a significant body of evidence to convey the importance of creating uniform learning standards to eliminate the problem of prejudice.

References

Vendatam, S. (2013). What does modern prejudice look like? NPR. Web.

Goldstein, D. (2020). Two States. Eight Textbooks. Two American Stories. New York Times. Web.

Introduction: The Origins of the New Ideas

Like any other subject or concept, esthetics is subject to changes, the esthetics of architecture as well. No matter how close two styles can come, there will always be some distance between them, the line marked by the new ideas and the new vision of the world. In spite of the fact that art is considered a phenomenon that lies beyond time frame and transient fashion tastes, it does reprint reality and social events, which the change in the architecture style after a number of world fairs in XIX-XX centuries signifies.

To evaluate the significance of the change in the architecture style which same to reign after the world fairs in XIX-XX centuries, one has to take account of the social events which took place in the world. Due to the galloping speed of the industrialization process, the new vision of architecture has been shaped, which resulted in the change of artistic style. Though social life is often considered completely detached from the artistic world, this was the case when social revolution shifted the concept of art as well. As Auerbach emphasized, depicting the world fair in Ireland,

However, the meaning of linen and lace, the two textile forms that I shall focus upon here, were not found in their [linen] decoration, but in their economic properties – that is, they were reviewed and discussed as industrial rather than aesthetic objects.¹

It is obvious that world fairs made the transition from one artistic or social idea to another smoother and more swift. Broadening the horizons of people’s frames of mind, World Fairs made it possible to evaluate the progress of the mankind and introduce new ideas to the entire world. To be more metaphoric, world fairs were the matter which brought the entire world together when there was no other means of communication available.

Therefore, it was obvious that the new vision of art which industrialization triggered concerned the economical value of an object, not its aesthetics. This meant that the new epoch was heralded. The art took another shape, peculiar and rather weird.

On a Journey to the Brave New World: First Ideas

Because of the long-lasting tradition, the architectural principles, which reigned before intuitionalism, took certain shape, could be called rather classical, with the “natural emphasis” which was inherited from the Greek and Roman standards. Due to the reign of the classical style in architecture, innovations were rather rare occasions in XVIII century art. As Pohl explained,

The Adam brothers rejected contrived and strict rules in favour of basic aesthetic principles which ‘naturalize’ architecture within a picturesque whole. The inspiration came from Greek and Roman architecture. […] However, the naturalization of architecture within its principles of the picturesque does not imply a ‘democratization’ of architecture.²

The ancient canons of architecture which were obviously out-of-date, bearing precious yet old concepts of architecture needed reconsideration badly. Owing to the old principles of constructing, art came to a complete standstill. It was evident that any changes were strongly required; otherwise, art would stick in the mess of the obsolete ideas.

However, the early attempts to create a new structure of society with a different value system and emphasize the necessity to develop industry emerged several times even at the very beginning of XIX century. It cannot be denied that the world fairs which have been taking place since the middle of XVIII century have influenced the world architecture greatly, contributing to the artistic interpretation of the social changes which took place in the world.

France appeared to be the country which first introduced the idea of industrial architecture and the industrial art in general to the public, which is not quite surprising – France ahs always been known for its liberal and socialistic ideas, “liberty, fraternity and equality” principles. Therefore, the exhibition which was arranged at the world fair in 1844, at the French Industrial Exposition, was the sign of the changes coming up quickly. Due to the ideas that had been brewing here for quite long, industrialization finally entered people’s lives through the sphere of art.

Among the first exhibitions which made the entire world talk about the new trends in architecture was the Great Exhibition in London, also known as the Crystal Palace Exhibition. Without this event, the world would have never known about the way architecture could be interpreted from the position of industrialism. Featuring the new architecture style called crystal architecture, the organizers of the exhibition shaped the idea of industrialism which had already been introduced to the world by French artists.

The particular style of architecture called crystal architecture was new to historians, and the magnificent specimen in Hyde Park would, no doubt, be spoken of… as one of the great features of the age… to be ranked with railways, the penny postage and other inventions.³

It must be admitted that the new art style caused great stir in the society, drawing much attention to industrialism, which met the aims of artists fully. With help of crystal architecture the ideas of industrialism could be conveyed better, since the glass and metal embodied what Mallgrave further on called “industrialism versus piety”4, a protest against the technological ignorance.

However, a single exhibition was not enough for the new concept of art to spread wider, which the adepts of industrialism in architecture understood perfectly well. As a result, a number of other exhibitions, which featured the ideas of industrialism and exposed its specimen in all their grace, followed. With help of the new concept of art, people finally combined aesthetics together with comfort – not quite successfully for aesthetics, thought. Due to the changes in the architectural concept, people had to adjust to the new style, which the further exhibitions encouraged.

Shaping the New Concepts: Evolution

Though it might seem that the new idea of architecture brought changes only to the exterior of buildings, not touching upon their interior, it would be a mistake to think that the change touched only upon the surface. With help of the new means of evaluating architecture and its beauty, artists could also express their ideas with help of the interior of houses. Among the most well-known innovations in the building interior the Milam reels which won the first place in the International Fisheries Exposition in Bergen:

The Milam reels won medals at the International Fisheries Exposition in Bergen, Norway, the Columbian Exposition in Chicago, the International Exposition at Paris, and the Louisiana Purchase Exposition in M. Louis.⁵

Thus, it can be considered that the ideas of industrialism intruded each sphere of art, leaving none of their aspects unattended. This signified that the era of industrialism began, taking full swing and spreading further with each exposition made on the international level. With help of International Fairs, industrialism quickly found its way into various aspects of the then art, shaping people’s ideas in specific way.

Another Step towards Industrialism

The more new tendencies of industrialism spread around the globe, the more cluttered and untrimmed the interior became. Opposed to the classical, almost impeccable interior design of the bygone era, industrialism proclaimed innovative ideas which were bound to produce revolutionary effect; yet all what they managed to produce within the walls of a house was a mess.

Thus, Schievelbush marks that the attempts of the late nineteenth-century architects’ to create a piece both impressive and filled with the air of industrialization were doomed to failure. However, what was soon considered a tasteless idea was further turned into high fashion, as Schievelbush claims:

In the course of the century, the functional purpose of that elastic upholstery fell by the wayside: it became an end unto itself and expanded in direct ratio to the expansion of industry. Siegfried Gieldon has hinted at this connection by remarking that the over-stuffed furniture typical of late-nineteenth-century culture arose in Western countries simultaneously.⁶

As one can see, the upholstered furniture of XIX century was soon out of fashion. Taking a look at a perfect specimen of the abovementioned piece of furniture, one can understand that the classicism ideas were pouring over the edge – the sphere of art needed changes.

It cannot be doubted that the new ideas of industrialism produced revolutionary effect, with their authentic simplicity and comfort-oriented style. Despite all, the new art lived much longer than the ideas of industrialization, filling artists with new ideas and the ways to put them into practice.

As the industrial revolution conquered the world, influencing people’s lives and entering the world to change it completely, people accepted the new ideas with gratitude. It seemed that the comfort which the industrial revolution brought to the population was so long-wanted that people eagerly sacrificed the aesthetics of the exquisite art and architecture. As Schivelbusch explained,

The industrial revolution, in the production of goods as well as I travel, destroyed what one might call the ‘esthetic freedom’ of the pre-industrial subject. This pre-industrial subject had a live interaction with its object engaging all the senses, whether as an artisan working as a craft or as a traveler participating in the ‘organic’ motion of the vehicle through the landscape.⁷

It cannot be considered though that the transition from an object which was granted with certain spiritual and cultural value to the one completely deprived of any aesthetics was swift and sudden. Like any other event in the world of art and culture, it was quite predictable and even obvious. For instance, Schivelbusch considered that it was mechanization that predetermined the cultural shift:

The ‘esthetic freedom’ of the pre-industrial subject was discovered at the very moment when the pre-industrial methods of production and transportation seemed threatened by mechanization: this is a typical process of romanticization, one that even the young Marx was not entirely immune to.⁸

Where the Road Ended

Though the exhibitions which were held at the very beginning of the XX century also featured the ideas of industrialism, the pace of the movement slowly slackened, and the new style faded away. Tracing the World Fairs held in the early 1900ies, one can claim that the trend lost its luster and finally exhausted. One of the last world fairs featuring the concepts of industrialism was the Italian General Exhibition in Turin in 1884.

Speaking of the latter, it would be reasonable to mark that the art of the industrialism epoch also practiced the false medieval style for the creations to gain the specific style and become both impressive and innovative. What is most curious is that this device is still utilized in the modern art; for example, post-modernism often interprets the old specimen of art to make them convey new ideas to the public more efficiently.

It is also quite peculiar that the early industrialization had its impact on the world politics as well, establishing new priorities in the world economy and politics. Despite the seeming absence of connection between art and industry, art and politics and art and economy, the new brand helped to advertise new political and social ideas to the world. With help of the World Fairs held in 1850ies-1900, the roles of the world political leaders have been gradually shifted to those countries who contributed to the development of the industrialization ideas. According to the records made by Mallgrave,

Britain’s early lead would be increasingly challenged in the nineteenth century by France, Germany, and the United States. The impact of industrialization, however, was everywhere the same. Changes in production required mass migrations of workers in rural areas, the expansion of old cities and the creation of new ones, new and splendier models of transportation (canals, later railways), the creation of a middle class of entrepreneurs, and the emergence of urban working class. ⁹

Thus, it was clear that the new ideas brought not only the new style of art, but also sufficient changes to the society. Changing the social system to the core, these innovations created new social layers and contributed to the development of the new social ties between various social classes. Thus, with help of the new art ideas, the world was able to realize that the new era was coming, with its changes and with its concept of the world and people as a part of this world.

However, it cannot be denied that the world fairs held in 1850ies-1900 contributed to the shaping of the industrialization as a notion in people’s minds greatly, yet they emphasized mainly its benefits. Like every other ideology, this one also had its flaws, which people failed to see since the very beginning, once charmed with the splendid effect of the World Fairs expositions. The exhibits, cold and perfect, could not warn about the difficulties which the world was to pull through as the industrialization was taking its toll on the development of the world.

Conclusion

With help of the World Fairs in 1850-1900, people had an opportunity to get a better idea of what industrialization is and what it can suggest to the world. Offering a deeper insight on the technological innovations of the XIX-XX century and on the ways to enhance the process of development, the World Fairs had a great impact on the way the industrialization ideas spread across the world.

Unless the World Fairs exposed to the world the benefits of industrialization, there would have never been such eager interest in its ideas and the desire to contribute to the technological development of the world. In addition, without the World Fairs people would have never known about the inventions which further on would turn the world upside down and give food for even more intriguing and incredible discoveries.

Therefore, it can be considered that the World Fairs held in 1850-1900 influenced not only the sphere of art, but also the wohere of technology; it can be also suggested that the changes which happened in the social sphere were also due to

Without world fairs, the pace of the progress would have been greatly hindered. Due to the fact that the communicational means were not developed in the world by that time, it would be rather problematic to convey the idea of industrialization in such a vast and at the same time precise manner in such small amount of time.

With help of the World Fairs, people had an opportunity to understand the way the new vision of the world influenced technological development and the social relationships. Therefore, it can be considered that the precious impact of the World Fairs on the process of industrialization determined further development of the mankind.

Bibliography

Auerbach J. A., Peter H. Hoffenberg, Britain, the Empire, and the World at the Great Exhibition of 1851. Ashgate Publishing, Farham, UK, 2008.

Hatter R., G. Burch, A Walking Tour of Historic Frankfort, Gene Burch, Frankfort, KY, 2002.

Hobhouse H, The Crystal Palace and the Great Exhibition: Art, Science, and Productive Industry: A History of the Royal Commission for the Exhibition of 1851. Continuum International Publishing Group, London, UK, 2004.

Mallgrave, H. F. Modern Architectural Theory: A Historical Survey, 1673-1968, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2005.

Pohl, N, Women, Space and Utopia, 1600-1800, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., Farnham, UK, 2006.

Schievelbush, W. The Railway Journey: The Industrialization of Time and Space in the 19^th Century. University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, 1987.

Footnotes

1. J. A. Auerbach & Peter H. Hoffenberg, Britain, the Empire, and the World at the Great Exhibition of 1851, Farham, UK: Ashgate Publishing, 2008. p. 61.
2. Pohl, Nicole, Women, Space and Utopia, 1600-1800, Farnham, UK: Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2006, 85.
3. H. Hobhouse, The Crystal Palace and the Great Exhibition: Art, Science, and productive Industry: A History of the Royal Commission for the Exhibition of 1851. London, UK: Continuum International Publishing Group, 2004, 77.
4. H. F. Mallgrave. Modern Architectural Theory: A Historical Survey, 1673-1968, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005, p. 120.
5. R. Hatter & G. Burch, A Walking Tour of Historic Frankfort. Frankfort, KY: Gene Burch, 2002, 24.
6. W. Schievelbush, The Railway Journey: The Industrialization of Time and Space in the 19^th Century. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1987, 123.
7. W. Schievelbush, The Railway Journey: The Industrialization of Time and Space in the 19^th Century. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1987, 121.
8. W. Schievelbush, The Railway Journey: The Industrialization of Time and Space in the 19^th Century. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1987, 123.
9. H. F. Mallgrave. Modern Architectural Theory: A Historical Survey, 1673-1968, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005, p. 120.

There are very few things that can be as hideous as prejudices. They create a false image of cultures and nationalities, lead to major misconceptions between people of different national backgrounds and reduce the representatives of various cultures to goofy stereotypes. I believe that eliminating prejudices or at least driving their impact on the relationships between people of different cultures is the job of a junior diplomat.

Since eliminating prejudices in intercultural communication demands bringing the cultures in question closer to each other and helping the opponents find a point of contact, it is reasonable to suggest that a person who has a multicultural background can help in transcending cultural boundaries. Therefore, a student who comes from a multi-cultural family can offer efficient help in fighting prejudices.

Coming from a family with a Caucasian mother and a Chinese father, I know exactly what gaps there can be between two different cultures; moreover, I have seen certain cultural misunderstandings and have got familiar with the ways to overcome these misunderstandings. Moreover, growing in a multicultural family, I have learned about prejudice and where they come from. Now that I understand that people with prejudice against different cultures simply use their bias as a shield from feeling confused or anxious when talking to a foreigner, I feel that I can contribute my experience to fight prejudice on an international level.

I am aware of the fact that prejudice concerns not only culture but also age. However, I believe that I also have vast experience with the given issue, since, at one point, I had to deal with my prejudice against my younger sister. Now that I have realized with the help of my younger sister that being young or old does not make a person any less intelligent, professional or responsible, I suppose that I am ready to fight age prejudices as well.

With that said, I must mention that being enthusiastic is not my sole asset. I have also proven to be a good leader, being the President of the Japanese Club for three years running. Besides, I have considerable academic success, with Honors Chemistry, Honors Math, and AP World History (3.8 GPA). Despite all these awards, my life does not revolve only around studying – I am also a self-taught artist, and nowadays I create Manga-style drawings and paintings.

On the one hand, I do understand that the idea of fighting prejudice might sound strange when it is voiced by q fifteen-year-old teenager. However, I believe that the issue with prejudices concerning different cultures, Oriental ones, in particular, has recently got out of hand. What is even more frightening, in my surrounding, not only other students but also teachers express stereotypical ideas concerning people of Oriental cultures. The recent example that I could observe when listening to the lecture during a Japanese class only proved my suspicions right. If even a certified professional makes obvious misjudgments when talking about different cultures, the rest of the people obviously will.

Therefore, it is clear that, though prejudice has become an unpleasantly frequent part of communication between people of different nationalities, prejudices and stereotypical images can still be destroyed so that people could turn over a new leaf in the history of international relationships. Once people realize that prejudice

Introduction

Stereotypes and various kinds of prejudice against people of different races and ethnic groups are rather often held by students and people on the whole. This is a rather important issue due to the fact that racial conflicts that might be caused by various misunderstandings and stereotypes can be the reasons for serious, even armed conflicts, and human society is to fight against them by all means. Special importance is attributed to these issues in the so-called multicultural societies where the representatives of various races, cultures, and religions have to live together. Thus, the education should reveal the major prejudice against this or that race and ground it’s being mistaken in its essence. The present paper is one of the steps that are necessary in order to achieve this goal. This paper will focus on the dismantling of the prejudice that can be met in our society against people from Brazil.

Assumptions

Brazil is a country that has few stereotypes connected with it. The nation has never demonstrated any sins or characteristic features that allow people to form any kind of prejudice. Brazilians are famous as skillful and talented soccer players, successful sportsmen, gifted movie directors, etc. However, stereotyping is the universal phenomenon that is innate in the psychology of every human being, and certain people have formed stereotypes against Brazilians (Meyers, 2006). The major one of them is that Brazilians are criminals, and communication with them is dangerous for people as far as rates of crime in Brazil are higher than in the majority of the countries of the world. Thus, the stereotype that I wanted to dismantle was that Brazilians are dangerous because the majority of them are criminals who murder people, steal kids, and busy themselves with burglary.

Appropriateness of the Event

To achieve the above-stated goal, I made out a plan to visit a multicultural event that was to take place in our city. It was rather difficult to find such a kind of event in our city because it is not large, but finally, I managed to find the link to the international student conference that was to take place on Monday, October 20^th, in our city. The internet site that was advertising this event is busy with the overcoming of the interracial prejudice in the multicultural society of today. That is why I am strongly convinced that the conference of my choice is the appropriate event that is helpful for reaching my goal. The very conference gathered numerous students from all over the world, and Brazil, as the fifth largest country in the world according to its territory, could not be ignored by the organizers of the event. The participation of Brazilian students was a nice chance for me to obtain information about modern Brazil directly from the objective and non-biased youth.

Event Description

The very conference started as the celebrated meeting of all its participants in the conference hall of the University and was followed by the division of students into respective groups according to the spheres of their interest, including geopolitics, economy, crime, and means to fight it, etc. The total number of students at the conference amounted to 2 500 persons, and thus it was impossible to place them all in one class. This is what the division into groups was used, and as I was interested in the issues of crime in Brazil, I joined the latter group. Students from Brazil were rather active participants of the discussion that took place in their group. As enthusiastic and young people, they displayed a readiness to share the information they had and hoped that their participation in the event would help in overcoming the crime and one of the major stereotypes about their country.

Reflection

Having the aim of clearing out the stereotypes and attempting to dismantle the prejudice against Brazilians, I asked one of the students from the Brazilian delegation to take several minutes of his time in order to answer my questions on this issue. The student, whose name is not revealed for privacy policy purposes, agreed at once after coming to know the purpose of the interview. From his answers to my questions and from his own remarks, it became evident to me that criminality in Brazil is not much harder than in many other countries. The student agreed that it is one of the major issues of the Brazilian society and cause of prejudice against it, but insisted on the point that the prejudice does not reflect the overall picture of the society. Brazilians, according to him, are rather friendly and peaceful people who are fond of sports and life, and the situation with a crime is the problem that is typical of any society.

Theoretical Integration

As the information was obtained, I had the field for thinking as the theoretical data and statistics I had contradicted the answers of the student. According to the Brazilian government, more than 40 000 people are annually murdered in the streets of Brazil in the 2000s, and this figure is on the rise from year to year. However, the communication with this particular student and his colleagues from the Brazilian delegation left no impression of danger about these people. As a student studying psychology, I have a considerable understanding of human motivations and can thus conclude that the stereotype, although built on the specific data, is the result of human imagination and the ability to exaggerate facts. Crime is typical of any society, and its presence in Brazil is not enough reason to judge all Brazilians as criminals.

Discussion

After the information necessary for this paper was obtained and the theoretical integration thereof was carried out, the need to discuss the data of the interview and research arose. On the one hand, it can not be denied that Brazilian society is worldwide notorious for the high rates of crime. It is also evident that this problem demands serious consideration and the development of means for its overcoming. As a result, the Brazilian government takes respective measures in order to reduce crime rates and introduces the Brazilian National Special Force, National Public Security Force, and other bodies to fight crime in Brazil. On the other hand, statistical data and governmental programs are not the reasons to stereotype all Brazilians as criminals because every society has its problems, and Brazilian society is not an exception. Moreover, young Brazilians with whom I could communicate display their deep understanding of the issue and readiness to fight it. Thus, I think that stereotyping is completely mistaken in relation to Brazilian people.

Summary

To sum up the findings of the interview with the representative of Brazilian culture, it is necessary to say that the prejudice against Brazilians as criminals turned out to be completely mistaken, as well as the majority of the stereotypes people, have in respect of other nations. I managed to carry out the interview with the Brazilian student who presented the most updated and objective information about crime in his country. Based on the information I already had on Brazil and on the answers given by my respondent, I can state that Brazilian society understands the issue of crime as one of its major issues and does everything to overcome it. Nevertheless, stereotype against Brazilians has no grounds and is mistaken.

References

Myers, D. (2006). Social Psychology. McGraw Hill Higher Education; 9th edition.

Introduction

Prejudice at workplace is a social malpractice having its origin from racism and segregation ideologies. Prejudice is manifested through cases of gender discrimination, racial outbursts and other associated work imbalances, which prevent development, and advancement of opportunities available in organizations (Mankin 18). Social interaction allows for exchange of innovative ideas as well as disbursement of opportunities that perpetuate career development and growth. Prejudice at workplace undermines any prospects for mutual interaction among employees that could lead to sharing of noble and innovative ideas. For instance, gender discrimination is a form of injustice preventing people from pursuing their careers satisfactorily. Employers with a chauvinist mindset have created barriers blocking women from advancing in the corporate ladder at workplace. In addition, recruitment and selection are sometimes pegged on gender parities and dimensions.

Equity at workplace is therefore a complex phenomenon that is based on cultural beliefs and organizational culture. Conceptualization of discrimination and prejudice at workplace is an important parameter when pursuing equity and justice. The attitudes developed by employees in a work environment characterized by prejudice and discrimination are crucial in managing the vice. The perceptions and attitudes developed by workers, as regards to prejudice while on duty are a serious deterrent to achieving organizational goals and objectives agreed (McMahon & Niemeyer 12). Both the conscious and unconscious biases that manifest in work prejudice decrease opportunities available for constructive social interactions. Discriminatory decisions by management such as dismissals and salary suspensions are conceptualized as crucial workplace dynamics based on prejudice. Power differentials within management hierarchy constitute another institutional practice of discrimination.

Disparate treatment theory

Discriminatory bias is exhibited through gender disparities and racial segregation of workers. Managing diversity is a major problem underpinning liabilities associated with discriminatory bias and gender oppression. There is need for affirmative action and designing of appropriate work structures, which ensure that social and economic operations are effectively structured. According to the disparate treatment theory, deliberate reliance on vague stereotypes and policies serves to limit interaction apart from preventing affirmative action (Kelley 20). Women, disabled persons and other minorities are subsequently excluded from important employment opportunities because of stereotypes and discrimination beliefs. In the modern age, women and other minority groups in the society have made significant progress towards attaining lucrative employment positions. However, there remain barriers to advancement in view of the corporate leadership, management and career progression. Inequalities also exist in remuneration since women and minorities are particularly underpaid academic credentials notwithstanding. Training and work experience is limited to the affluent members of the society especially patriarchal beneficiaries.

Social science theory (motivational and cognitive perspective)

The approach taken by the social cognitive theory is based on the premise that categorization of workers at workplace distorts complexity. Categories have a negative connotation to employees’ attitudes since colleagues perceive one another differently due to the underlying social classes. Stereotypes are a normative construct that influence the manner in which exchange of information is done. Events are conceptualized through specific processes that identify with beliefs and cultural practices that match with organizational culture. Such discrimination is therefore exemplified by wrong decision-making and problem solving interventions like sidelining women from active participation in leadership at workplace (Handel 32). Women in such settings are perceived as the weak gender thereby denying them promotions and training opportunities for career advancement. Cognitive stereotypes condemn women to lower cadre jobs at the disguise of their motherhood responsibilities. Women are therefore expected to spend time with their families instead of travelling from place to place for work. There is also the element of favoritism derived from the social need of a group of workers to a state of belonging and companionship. Negative group stereotypes escalate to form discriminative biases that restrain workers from achieving equity and justice at workplace. Self-defeating strategies are developed from such stereotypes that are then entrenched in policymaking processes. Exclusion and devaluation of persons based on their gender and social class becomes a common practice, which is even tolerated by the mainstream society.

Reorganization of the workplace

Egalitarian norms and principles have shaped the modern globalized workplace from the primitive segregation and exclusive ideologies into hierarchical and bureaucratic systems. Under this new structure, job security is valued, career development and advancement cherished and mutual interaction esteemed. Coexistence, advancement and autonomy have provided the foundation for a competitive, globalized and knowledge-based job market (Koppes 15). Organizations are therefore dynamic in terms of their strategies for hiring, training and promoting employees. Outsourcing has been extensively implemented in management practice. Employment agencies and firms are usually contracted to select and recruit part-time employees for large organizations with a view of minimizing on bureaucracy and prejudice.

Recruitment and selection process should be clear and concise to the job context. The most appropriate selection approach for hiring an employee for a particular job should use a criterion, which matches job description with relevant skills, competencies, and work experience (Doyle 24). Job description provides sufficient information for the initial stages of the hiring process to take place. Modern globalised workplace demands that employees are not necessarily specialized for particular task. Job descriptions are currently broader in details apart from basic requirements of the tasks. Human resource professionals should therefore utilize an integrated approach that measures applicant’s ability to learn new skills at work beyond the specifications of their employment position.

That notwithstanding, a basic criterion should used to match specific skills, competencies and credentials of prospective employees with minimum requirements for particular jobs. Recruitment and selection approach therefore follows a procedure where job applicants are introduced to recruiters, asked to fill application forms, interviewed and finally tested for consistency to certain personnel scores (Millard 17). Data obtained from completed application forms facilitate the process of hiring the right person for the job in question. Applicant’s data is also useful in predicting future performance levels for recruited employees. Performance, experience, skills and competencies are some of the terminologies applicable during hiring. The best criterion for hiring should be free, fair and value-based in order to match the right skills and qualifications of prospective employees with various job contexts.

Modern relationship between politics and religion in the United States

Introduction

There is an apparent close relationship between religion and politics in the United States. Religion has a played a big role in social and economic transformations during various political events in the American history. However, modernization has led progressive decline in a God-centered religious perspective to a human-centered notion characterized by secularization (Calhoun-Brown & Wald, 2007). As such, religious decline has reflected human response to the conquest dimension of religion in American politics. Americans are more interested on how relevant religious doctrines practices and doctrines apply to their natural lifestyles. Christianity has been the main religion in America since the slave period. Slave laborers employed to work in industries experienced much suffering which prompted their strong belief in Christianity as a source of relief.

The oppressed majority of the American poor population dominated the society at a time where social exploitation was rampant. Religion therefore persisted because of extreme social difficulties which confronted the society. This religious ideology during the early years of the American history was subsequently exposed to widespread criticism as modernization and civilization took the centre stage in American politics. As such, the previous political relevance of religion and ethnicity got displaced by modern factors characterized by “social classification, occupation standing and socio-economic status” (Bird& Clegg, 2007). Political life in the United States has therefore shifted progressively from ethnic-based religious ideologies to more “mature political systems” which characterize an industrialized society. Contemporary United States is a secularized society with much decline of religious institutions and ethnic practices.

Nature of relationship between religion and politics

According to the premise of secularization, religion is regarded as a specialized institution with limited political influence. Religious affiliation is an independent matter which is supported by social institutions in society. According to Marxist theories in religion, modernization has a positive impact on economic development while it negatively leads to the decline in religious belief (Dark, 2005). However, the church in America has resisted a total shift towards secularization as a strong religious institution which plays an increasingly greater role in development programs particularly charity. Church membership and loyalty among the various Christian denominations is a product of religious consciousness and support from the American public.

Organized religious organizations are always ranked above “state institutions, mass media, labor unions and government corporations” among others in opinion polls (Calhoun-Brown & Wald, 2007). Religious intolerance within the political sphere has been reinforced science and modern civilization trends which have a greater emphasis on human-oriented perspective in governance and development. For instance, the 2000 presidential campaigns pitying Senator John McCain and incumbent President George Bush demonstrated the contest that exists between religious traditions and political processes. The electioneering process was marred by accusations and counter-accusations critical to policies in Iraq among other contentious issues. President Bush is on record as having sought the support of state-friendly church organizations in his bid for a second term in office.

Essentially, the churches defended President Bush Republican campaign by portraying him as a god-fearing leader who was being used by God to conquer terrorism propagated by Islam. President Bush narrow victory in the 2000 election is a consequence of the strong support from both the Catholic and Protestant voters who turned out in large numbers to defend their religious cause. In addition, there are controversial issues between religion and national issues such as “abortion, pornography, homosexuality, stem cell research, and euthanasia and women empowerment” (Simmons, 2008). Church-state relations are also contested on other dimensions which include issues on taxation, public property ownership and government-funding for organized religious institutions. Republicans have also been quoted pushing for tax preferences to married couples instead of single mothers in support of the Christian family institution.

During the 1990’s, various religious uprisings in America accompanied with religious conflicts led to the collapse of European communism. Religious differences and political controversy in the American society are therefore deep-seated. On one hand, American churches are known to push for a transparent society which upholds human rights. The church is also very proactive in organizing humanitarian relief for political refugees and the marginalized in the society (Bird& Clegg, 2007). Historically, the American church contested the participation of United States in various wars. For instance, American invasion of Iraq, Iran and Afghanistan received significant opposition from the church on humanitarian grounds.

Religious differences between Christians and Muslims compounded with conflicts in civilizations and the American foreign policy has led to the emergence of significant Islamic fundamentalism. Perpetrators of terrorist attacks in American territory base their grievances on religion particularly Islamic fundamentalism. Terrorist attacks on Pentagon and the World Trade Center on September 11, 2001 were reacting to the controversial American foreign policy in Middle East (Dark, 2005). The Muslim world and the United States have therefore been engaged in political conflicts and wars. The Muslim world considers United States and their associates as crusaders due to their affiliation with Israel. In response, United States has been involved in wars against Iraq and Afghanistan as an attempt to destroy regimes that support terrorist groups. However, American forces have been accused of insulting innocent civilians in Iraq and Afghanistan during war further fueling tensions between the Muslim world and the predominantly Christian west.

Organized religious organizations subscribe to their sacred obligation to engage political actors and institutions in constructive dialogue through defined processes characterized by processes such as “exchange, bargaining and negotiation”(Gökay& Fouskas, 2005). On the other hand, modernization and the process of secularization have prompted the loss of legitimate authority of the religious social sphere in political realm. In the modern secular world, people define their destiny through their personal identity in the marketplace. As such, political interests are aligned with social stratification of the society which excludes religious principles that are inconsistent with science and modern civilization. The religion of the modern world places legitimate authority on individualism and social reform. Religious institutions which have survived historical evolutions of the modern life are those which are concerned with social welfare and centers for development.

The general perception is that religious controversy cannot be tolerated within the political realm due to economic constraints arising from outdated traditional rituals. Contemporary United States is no longer manipulated by religion but is influenced public relations intrigues. Religion has remained the domain of social development as a specialized institution consistent with individual conviction. Church membership is a voluntary exercise thereby preserving the status of organized religions. Religious institutions have therefore preserved their defining traditions and beliefs by resisting secular forces. These organized religions are popular because of their great contribution in social and economic development. Churches are equally a major beneficiary of private philanthropy from well-wishers in various sectors such as health, education and community development. The industrialized economy of United States is therefore benefitting from the survival of organized religions concerned with social reform. Churches, which are typically involved with emotional and spiritual worship alone without paying attention to economic development, are rendered inconsequential.

The public is more concerned with supporting organized religions financially provided in accomplishing economic projects in the same manner people contribute toward state projects by paying taxes. The underlying objective is based on promoting social and economic wellbeing. Above all, church sermons are dedicated on issues of importance to the society such as justice, morality, life and death. On the other hand, other churches and religions have comprised on their traditional values by adapting to the secular cultures emerging from the modern world. Modernization is identified by institutions such as “cities, industries, schools and the marketplace” (Calhoun-Brown & Wald, 2007). The political agenda is occupied with issues such as “abortion, life extension, genetic engineering, euthanasia, in vitro fertilization, embryo experimentation among others”. Organized religions are therefore involved with issues such as fighting for the rights of workers and the marginalized politically. The church preaches against poverty and the oppressed in the society in order to direct political actions and decisions appropriately. The church and state are therefore separated by a diversity of issues which are currently compounded with religious pluralism. Democracy has actually contributed towards religious pluralism and ethnic diversity in United States. There is widespread controversy on whether religion refers to certain practices and practices of a particular faith or a personal conviction about life. United States is therefore no longer being considered a “nation of God” but a secular state that subscribes to modern civilization and diversities in economic systems (Dark, 2005).

Works cited

Bird, Wayne & Clegg, Taurus. Missing in America: Making an Eternal Difference in the World Next Door. Pittsburgh, PA: Group, 2007

Calhoun-Brown, Aaron & Wald, Dick, K. Religion and Politics in the United States. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2007.

Dark, Doyle. The Gospel according to America: a Meditation on a God-blessed, Christ- haunted idea. Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 2005.

Doyle, Christine. Work and Organizational Psychology: An Introduction with Attitude. London: Rout ledge, 2004.

Gökay, Bass & Fouskas, Valiance, 2005. The new American Imperialism: Bush’s war on Terror and Blood for Oil. Westport CT: Greenwood Publishing Group.

Handel, Jeremy M. The Sociology of Organizations: Classic, Contemporary, and Critical Readings. London: SAGE, 2003.

Kelley, Kathryn. Issues, theory, and Research in Industrial/organizational Psychology. London: Elsevier, 2002.

Koppes, Laura L. Historical Perspectives in Industrial and Organizational Psychology. London: Rout ledge, 2007.

Mankin, Donald A. Classics of Industrial and Organizational psychology. Moore Pub. Co., 2008.

McMahon, Timothy J. & Niemeyer, Walter E. Classics of Organizational Behavior. New York: California Waveland Press, 2005.

Millard, Lynne. Understanding occupational and organizational psychology. London: SAGE, 2005.

Simmons, Protas D. Faith and Health: Religion, Science, and Public Policy. Macon: Mercer University Press, 2008.

Introduction

Have you ever wondered why your unique business stopped working? Are you following trends and changing the company to satisfy consumers? Business model innovation is a great way to improve your business and take it to the next level. Business innovation allows you to adjust strategies and grow your company. BMI is a set of innovative solutions for business promotion and distribution. The first part will define the terms “cognitive differentiation” and “cognitive integration”. The second part will discuss the principles of BMI in more detail. The third part focuses on ontological humility and the relationship to biases and decisions. The study of reciprocal influences allows organizations to function successfully and take into account society’s cognitive features.

Cognition

The innovations of business models are inherently linked to the concepts that shape human cognitive functions. Egfjord & Sund (2020b) discuss the ideas of cognitive differentiation and cognitive integration applicable to different business models. In “Do you see…” the authors draw attention to radical innovations in business and the need to adapt to them (Egfjord & Sund, 2020b). Attention is drawn to the differences in cognitive processes that can contribute to understanding the barriers to cognition. In “A modified Delphi…” the authors explain the benefits of the Delphi model and its organization through cognitive mapping (Egfjord & Sund, 2020a). Understanding these mechanisms is impossible without defining the terminology used by the authors.

Cognitive differentiation is understood as the dimensions of a person’s meaning or constructs revealed to him in his systems of meaning. It is reasonable to use a differentiation grid, which describes the measure of a person’s professional complexity (Murray, 2008). Applying this definition to business strategies and innovations, one can argue for a person’s diversity and ability to assume future outcomes of events (Wilkinson & Dewell, 2019). Cognitive integration describes the very process of a person’s penetration of knowledge into his professional activities, allowing him to innovate (Murray, 2008). The term provides a clear picture of the relationships within an organization and how to improve its effectiveness. By relying on human cognitive functions, foresight and strategic decisions become more accessible.

Business Model Innovation

When considering innovation to organize a company in a new way, it is impossible not to mention strategic assumptions. One may judge innovation as necessary for company growth and finding better ways to sell a product or service (Ghinoi & Toma, 2021). Another sees innovation as growth for employees and managers to realize their potential. Egfjord & Sund (2020a) discuss innovation as a subject of collective reflection on company strategy and mission. In general, attitudes toward innovation are only formed positively when the internal environment is comfortable.

Business Success in Reorganization

The company must be reorganized to implement new business models successfully. Ghinoi and Toma (2021) believe that BMI is only an additional source of innovation. However, Ramdani et al. (2019) emphasize that BMI cannot be implemented without reengineering. The authors point out that reengineering will change design thinking and allow BMI to be more effective. In addition, if a company first changes from within and then uses BMI, it can evolve in a new direction faster. A designed company feels more confident and embraces innovation more easily.

Planning and Assumption

The assumption is an unstable cognitive characteristic due to variability as part of life. Necessary assumptions, however, will allow for the formation of a vision about a subject. Sufficient assumptions are a bit of a stingy and stingy characteristic because they are limited. Flawed assumptions can build on misconceptions about corporate strategy. Additional literature, stock, and market analysis are used to avoid misperceptions.

Now it is worth paying attention to strategic planning: innovations are necessary for the company’s growth. But which company is considered more successful, all other things being equal? It is probably the one that puts all the ways to implement BMI into its plan (Ramdani et al., 2019). Radical ideas for many companies are synonymous with failure because strategies are not appropriately designed. However, if managers and senior executives build future change and BMI into the company’s mission, the chance of success is significantly increased. Companies that want to accommodate BMI should change the organization according to new strategies. The redesign will allow departments to work quickly and efficiently because they will result in the form of a goal.

Ontological Humility. A Look at the Double Publication

According to the paper’s author, the double publication is a controversial ethical component in science. On the one hand, it makes sense to publish the same material in different journals to reach different audiences. On the other hand, this practice dramatically diminishes the dignity of journals and makes them not as meaningful. This practice is detrimental, especially for young researchers, because it takes away available space for new publications. In the context of Egfjord and Sund (2020a; 2020b), the double publication can be justified because the methodology and results are interpreted somewhat differently, but both researches are still very similar studies (APA, 2017). Nevertheless, both publications fully characterize the problem of cognitive perception and interaction, allowing the reader to conclude the BMI problem personally. APA rules show that the same study can be published twice if it is part of one large study (APA, 2017). This rule works in the case at hand, although it is still a moot point. In the author’s opinion, it is unethical to resort to double publication, so it will not be used in the future.

The Falsity of Assumptions

Assumptions are formed as a result of evaluating the facts that are provided to the reader. False perceptions become a significant problem when planning business strategies and their implementation. But initially, what is the false representation or the wrong evaluation? A dual genesis is likely revealed in the formation of false preconceptions. Even if it is not intended to be negative, a word can be misrepresented because of errors in material preparation. For example, a manager holds a meeting and talks only about the marketing area while the development area is not touched. As a result, the marketing department receives positive feedback, while the development department cannot evaluate the output results. Thus, a false assumption about the purpose of their work is formed, and efficiency is lowered. Some structures are more predisposed to obtain different information, while others want only specifics. In the end, false assumptions can go to a new level and affect all structures.

False assumptions have a negative impact on all work activities, as they prevent you from thinking critically about the task at hand. As a result, rank-and-file employees are reluctant or incorrect to perform their functions, and senior managers do not try to change the situation because they do not see a solution. The company may be losing profits because the sales department does not think it is necessary to offer the product, and the marketing department does not do quality advertising.

It is suitable for everyone to recognize false assumptions because they limit our possibilities. One of the techniques to recognize and deal with assumptions is reflection and analysis. A person must learn to recognize what has led to false biases. Another technique is to ask oneself the right questions: the questions will help identify the causes and eliminate them. The method of realizing that not all moments in life can be controlled will also be helpful. Thus, managers will recognize that sometimes the game is worth playing and will identify the starting points of bias formation and ways to implement the work correctly to achieve high performance.

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