Category: Pregnancy

Introduction

Nowadays, the problem of smoking is one of the bad habits, which has adverse consequences on the health and mental condition of an individual while being widespread in the modern world (Proschanka 2011). Despite the pernicious effects on the health and sufficient functioning of the organism, smoking does not lose its position as being popular among women (Perkins 2006; Bordel et al. 2006).

In this instance, nicotine is viewed as an active component, which causes changes in the body and functioning of the organs of an individual (Perkins 2006; Bordel et al. 2006). Consequently, critical attention has to be paid to the development of this aspect during pregnancy, as it alters the flow of the advancement of a future child while being a reason for the psychological and physical illnesses in the future (Knopik et al. 2012). Meanwhile, the impact of smoking on fertility cannot be underestimated, and the absence of profound research related to this topic underlines its necessity and originality in the context of this case.

Consequently, the primary goal of this paper is to offer insights into the correlation between pregnancy and smoking while depicting it from scientific and practitioner perspectives. In this case, the literature review is used to portray a gap in knowledge in the existing literature. Meanwhile, based on the acquired knowledge the research question was formulated and tends to discuss the potential effect of smoking on fertility.

In turn, the methodology and sampling of the future study were determined to conduct a sufficient analysis in the future. In the end, the conclusions were drawn to summarize the critical findings of the paper while depicting the implications of the outcomes and originality of the study.

Literature Review

In the context of this section, it is vital to assess the readings, which tend to cover this topic while depicting their drawbacks and advantages, which will have a beneficial impact on the proposed research topic. In this instance, the selected articles tend to cover the aspects related to pregnancy, smoking, and the correlation of these components to fertility.

Nonetheless, it is vital to highlight the gaps in knowledge related to the selected topic of the research while depicting the essentiality of the understanding of the negative consequences to womens health and fertility. In this case, the various databases and academic journals were used to cover the chosen topic from the selected perspectives, as this approach will reveal the concepts of pregnancy, smoking, nicotine, and fertility.

The article The Effects of Nicotine of Fetal Human Development by Holbrook addresses the issues associated with maternal smoking and fetus development while referring to the disruptive nature of the nicotine (Holbrook 2016). Meanwhile, Holbrook highlights that smoking cigarettes during pregnancy results in malfunction of different organ systems and has adverse effects on mental stability while being reflected in the form of ADHD and various aggressive emotional responses (Holbrook 2016). The infants have a tendency to experience difficulties in cognitive development in comparison to the children of the same age (Holbrook 2016).

Nonetheless, the primary coverage of the topic is the possibility of usage of electronic cigarettes while being pregnant, and this article determines that this approach cannot be regarded as an alternative (Holbrook 2016). Based on the factors provided above, the reading tends to provide insights about the impact of smoking on the development of the fetus while depicting adverse consequences, which an infant might face after birth. Meanwhile, it tends to assess the alternatives to smoking and their appropriateness during pregnancy. Nonetheless, despite the clarity and logical rationale of the provided findings, the publication does not cover the correlation of this bad habit to the womans fertility, and this aspect underlines the necessity of research of the chosen sphere.

Furthermore, the publication Effects of Tobacco Smoking in Pregnancy on Offspring Intelligence at the Age of 5 by Eriksen, Kesmodel, Wimberley, Underbjerg, Kilburn, and Mortensen discovers the outcomes of smoking in the long-term while focusing of the measuring of IQ of the children of five years old with smoking mothers (Eriksen et al. 2012). This study portrays that smoking more than 10 cigarettes per day affects the scores adversely while the adjustment to the background of the families did not alter these findings (Eriksen et al. 2012). In this case, it could be highlighted that the publication offers new insights about the topic while emphasizing the consequences in the long-term. In this case, this fact underlines the necessity to pay substantial attention to womens health, as it is not covered in this research.

Meanwhile, the US Department of Health and Human Services tends to emphasize that smoking has an undesirable effect on both a woman and fetus, as it might be regarded as one of the potential causes of miscarriage, facing obstacles while getting pregnant, a pregnancy outside the womb, stillbirth, and death of an infant (2016). In this case, the consequences of smoking are discovered as a potential reason for the womans infertility due to the negative effect of components on the functioning of the hormones and systems of the female organism (The US Department of Health and Human Services 2016).

Despite the thoughtful and reflective description of all the stated aspects, it could be said that this publication lacks to provide a deep analysis of the correlation between smoking and fertility while using the generalization as the primary instrument. This fact underlines the necessity of conducting the research to discover the connection between nicotine and infertility among women.

In turn, the article The Epigenetics of Maternal Cigarette Smoking During Pregnancy and Effects on Child Development by Knopik, Maccani, Francazio, and McGeary tends to focus on the ability of the smoke to influence the structure of the DNA of the fetus while causing irreversible alterations to the health of the future child (Knopik et al. 2012). It could be said that this article discovers the issue from the genetic perspective while depicting that it has a negative impact on the development of the child (Knopik et al. 2012).

In turn, this emphasis is the primary limitation of the study, as it does not provide information about the topic from different angles while emphasizing the need for future research.

Lastly, some of the articles focus on the issues of fertility, as it is one of the critical problems associated with smoking. For instance, the article Nicotine Does not Affect Vascularization but Inhibits Growth of Freely Transplanted Ovarian Follicles by Inducing Granulosa Cell Apoptosis by Bordel, Laschke, Menger, and Vollmar highlight that nicotine has an impact on the ovulation and reproductive function (Bordel et al. 2006).

This aspect has a link with the follicular cell, and it emphasizes the connection between smoking and issues with fertility (Bordel et al. 2006). It could be stated that this publication reveals the understanding of the correlation between smoking and fertility and emphasizes its importance to womens health. Nevertheless, the continuation of the research is a requirement, as the popularity of smoking has a tendency to grow while influencing females fertility unfavorably, and the article is outdated.

In the end, it could be said that despite the profound analysis of the topic depicted in the readings, the gap in knowledge has a tendency to exist, as the presented publications tend to be limited to the particular timeframe or have limited coverage of the topic. The selected articles focus on smoking and its effect on the development of the infant and child in the long-term. Meanwhile, some of the articles chosen for the literature review cover the issue of infertility while portraying its connection to nicotine and smoking. Nonetheless, it offers a general understanding of the topic, and development of the profound methodology remains a need.

Research Question

Based on the findings of the literature provided above, it was revealed that the publications and articles have a tendency to have limitations, which have an adverse impact on the understanding of the presented topic while finding an answer to the research question. It was revealed that the majority of the journals have a tendency to focus on the adverse influence on the development of the child due to the changes in the structure of DNA during the pregnancy period.

This topic is highly valuable to the research study, as it depicts the necessity in future research and determines the negative outcomes of smoking on the fetus. Meanwhile, some of the readings cover the issue with female smoking, nicotine, and womens health, but they tend to have limitations related to the research methods. Nonetheless, despite the clarity and profound coverage of the topics displayed in the literature review sections, the studies lack the explanation about the negative impacts on the females fertility.

In this instance, the research question can be formulated as Does nicotine and smoking have an adverse impact on womens fertility?. The inquiry has been developed previously, but it lacks sufficient research about the topic and underlines the necessity of the continuation of the study in the desired field. It remains apparent that the subject is novel and original, as the literature review revealed the lack of research associated with finding the correlation between smoking and fertility.

Methodology

The critical goal of this section is to discuss the relevance of the methodological methods and sampling strategies to ensure the possibility to find an answer to the proposed research questions. It remains apparent that qualitative and quantitative research are often used during the research studies to present the topic from dissimilar angles while referring to the various sources of information. In this case, the research methodologies and approaches have to be determined, and the appropriate and suitable research study has to be proposed in the context of the presented case.

The quantitative research is one of the most common methods used to test the hypothesis while using descriptions to portray the findings (Silverman 2016). This research methodology tends to make estimations and determine the trends and behavioral patterns while acquiring the information with the help of the interviews, observations, and focus groups (Silverman 2016). In this instance, it contributes to discovering the problem from dissimilar perspectives and determining a profound understanding of the research topic by conducting the semi-structured interviews with the selected participants of the study. Nonetheless, the findings and outcomes to be biased due to the objective opinion of the researcher and the prejudiced interpretations of the results.

As for quantitative research, this approach has a tendency to use statistical and numerical data to design trends and establish particular tendencies related to the research question (Watzlavik & Born 2007). In this instance, surveys and statistics are used to acquire the required information to form an understanding of the preferences and facts related to the topic (Watzlavik & Born 2007). It could be said that this approach assists in describing the primary tendencies presented in the research topic, but the absence of the details is the main drawback of this research study. In the context of the offered case, it can be utilized to gather statistical information as a background study to determine the key aspects related to the topic.

In turn, the literature review could be regarded as an additional source of knowledge to increase the awareness of the subject, as it will contribute to the understanding of the topic and underlining the necessity of the research in the selected field. It could be said that this qualitative research methodology will have a beneficial impact on the assessment of the background evidence to the presented topic while underlining the gaps of knowledge, limitations of the studies, and the necessity to conduct future research. In this case, the generalization of the information about the connection of fertility and smoking will affect the understanding of the theme advantageously.

Based on the factors provided above, the chosen method is the qualitative interviews while selected the women who experience the issues with fertility will be interviewed to acquire novel information about the connection between infertility and smoking. The questions will cover the following topics such as issues with fertility, general health conditions, and previous pregnancies. In this case, the concept of semi-structured interviews is used to gather information from the participants, as it allows adapting the flow of conversation, discussion, and questions depending on the responses of the interviewee.

As for the sampling, the relevant sampling methodology has to be introduced to ensure acquiring the data from different perspectives and findings a critical and appropriate solution to the research question. In this case, the stratified sampling method will be applied, as it will ensure the coverage of different racial groups and ages to avoid the limitations, which were emphasized in the past Nonetheless, the primary participants (20) will be selected based on the results of the official medical examination and have a need to smoke as a bad habit. Meanwhile, the respondents to the semi-structured interview have to be females, as the initial goal of the study is to assess the consequences of nicotine on womens fertility.

Lastly, the specialized software will be utilized as an instrument to evaluate the results, analyze the findings, and determine the answer to the research question. The information will be classified by using different criteria such as age, location, and ethnicity while describing each group of participants individually. In the end, it could be concluded that the proposed research methods have to be utilized as a sequence of steps to ensure the coverage of the topic with supportive qualitative and quantitative data.

The usage of qualitative and quantitative methods are used to discover the issue profoundly to find the answer to the research question while providing background knowledge and critical information.

Conclusion

In the end, the overall paper revealed and emphasized that smoking has an adverse impact on pregnancy and its outcomes. Meanwhile, nicotine is detected as a primary active component, which determines influence the development of the fetus adversely while causing the introduction of an organs anomalies. In the context of the presented case, the literature review contributed to the understanding that the topic is not fully discovered yet, as the majority of the articles tend to cover the topic from one angle only while having a substantial number of limitations.

It is evident that the research question is not fully described due to the novelty and originality of the select perspective of the correlation between smoking and fertility. The semi-structured interviews will be applied as a primary research method to understand the connection between the attributes mentioned above.

It could be said that the proposed topic could have a beneficial influence on the functioning of the medical facilities while playing the role of the educator to prevent the females from smoking while being pregnant. Expansion of the knowledge in the selected issue will have a positive impact on the fertility of the women and increases the possibilities of pregnancy. This approach will contribute to the minimization of the impact of the negative consequences on the infants and fertility while creating the perception of smoking as a negative action. It could be said that the matters mentioned above underline the necessity to conduct the study due to the novelty and originality of the topic and its positive influence on overall females health.

Reference List

Bordel, R, Laschke, M, Menger, M & Vollmar, D 2006, Nicotine does not affect vascularization but inhibits growth of freely transplanted ovarian follicles by inducing granulosa cell apoptosis, Human Reproduction, vol. 21, no. 3, pp. 610-617.

Eriksen, H, Kesmodel, U, Wimberley, T, Underbjerg, M Kilburn, T & Mortensen E 2012, Effects of tobacco smoking in pregnancy on offspring intelligence at the age of 5, Journal of Pregnancy, vol. 2013, pp. 1-9.

Holbrook, B 2016, The effects of nicotine of fetal human development, Birth Defects Research: Part C.

Knopik, V, Maccani, M, Francazio S, & McGeary, J 2012, The epigenetics of maternal cigarette smoking during pregnancy and effects on child development, Development and Psychopathology, vol. 24, no. 4, pp. 1377-1390.

Perkins, K 2006, Treatment of nicotine dependence in women, in K Brady, S Back & S Greenfield (eds), Women and addiction: a comprehensive handbook, The Guildford Press, New York, pp. 360-379.

Proschanka, J 2011, Smoking and mental illness  breaking the link, The New England Journal of Medicine, vol. 365, pp. 196-198.

Silverman, D 2016, Qualitative research, SAGE Publishers, Thousand Oaks.

The US Department of Health and Human Services 2016, Smoking and pregnancy. Web.

Watzlavik, M & Born, A 2007, Capturing identity: quantitative and qualitative methods, University Press of America, Lanham.

Introduction

Various social problems that periodically arise in the society, as a rule, are reflected in state laws as the government usually takes appropriate measures to solve a particular issue. However, when it is about the problems of ethics and, in particular, the medical field, the situation is complicated by the fact that not legal but solely moral concepts play a key role. Certainly, many public issues related to the field of medicine are solved at the state level and are discussed during politicians meetings. Nevertheless, some topics are still controversial and quite often cause a wide public response. One of these themes is terminating the pregnancy, which is usually called an abortion. This issue is frequently raised in the society, and the subjects of discussion are both the initiators of this procedure and medical representatives who provide such services. One of the reasons why women of different ages decide to terminate their pregnancy is any genetic disease of the fetus and the risk of having an unhealthy child. Therefore, it is essential to describe possible results and consequences of such a procedure for women themselves and mention what ethical issues it affects.

Case Description

The case under analysis occurred in 2011. Suzanne and her husband were looking forward to the birth of a second child. They assumed that it would be a boy and even called him Oscar. However, their dreams did not come true; on the fifteenth week, the child was diagnosed with Downs syndrome, and the woman was immediately informed about it. According to Suzanne, the step to terminate her pregnancy was very difficult for them, but they considered this decision to be the only correct one since they saved both their future child and themselves from suffering (Treussard, 2014). This incident received some resonance as it became public.

Nevertheless, it is rather difficult to try to condemn the woman and her husband in the fact that they committed murder and abandoned the fetus for some unclear reasons. The procedure of terminating the pregnancy was legal, the doctors performed the operation as quickly and qualitatively as possible, and the woman was not injured. Perhaps, many opponents of abortions were against this method and condemned Suzanne and her husband. However, if it is a question of such an intimate problem, it is significant for a family to endure such a test and take the decision that it considers necessary. In the case of Suzanne and her husband, no laws were violated. The abortion was carried out on the fifteenth week, which does not contradict any ethical standards.

The case described is a very vivid example of how a genetic disorder can affect the choice of future parents. Today, quite a few people decide to keep children with any serious health problems. However, it is rather difficult to blame those who decide to have an abortion. This procedure should be strictly individual, and if a woman has sufficient grounds, no one has the right to stop her. Nevertheless, current practice shows that an increasing number of countries are against abortions, and both women themselves and medical providers that perform these procedures are persecuted by some people. Moreover, there is a tendency to ban abortions at the state level, and such practice exists in some countries. Therefore, it is important to consider what consequences such operations will have for not only women but also for doctors and their managers.

Possible Outcomes and Implications for Healthcare Providers

One of the primary reasons why medical workers can be prosecuted is performing an abortion if there is a complete or partial ban on such procedure in the country. A complete prohibition implies that there is no possibility of performing an abortion at the patients request. Partial prohibition implies the possibility of terminating the pregnancy with the consent of interested parties or in accordance with pre-determined causes, for example, if the patient is a minor.

Apparently, the case of Suzanne was completely legal and legitimate. The possibility of terminating her pregnancy is allowed when families have good reasons for it. The case ended well for the woman, and she had no problems with her health. However, in case of any complications and serious problems, doctors would be the first to experience public anger and possibly even threats. An error in this sphere of work is unacceptable, and medical providers have a large responsibility (Grossman, White, Hopkins, & Potter, 2014). Perhaps, in order to remove responsibility from doctors, the governments of some countries completely prohibit abortion and provide severe penalties for violations of this law.

Performing Abortions Without Legal Grounding

The case with the permanent blocking of the possibility of performing abortions for quite objective reasons proves that the modern governments views are rather conservative. The situation in Indiana, where the court limits womens rights with regard to the possibility of terminating an unwanted pregnancy, confirms the fact that the public cannot fully assess the problem (The Associated Press, 2017). Moreover, both those medical workers who would perform the operation and also their management would have severe problems. All the leaders of medical structural units, as it is known, are responsible for their subordinates, and a conscious violation of the law would obviously lead to not only the dismissal of the head but also to imprisonment.

The procedure of terminating the pregnancy is officially illegal if the government imposes certain bans on its implementation. As Dickens (2014) notes, the countrys norms define abortion as an act of womens will; however, in some states, there are bans on performing this procedure. A person who carries out such an operation with the consent of a woman is also liable to punishment. The provision of premises and any other form of cooperation to conduct an abortion is punishable by imprisonment. Therefore, even in case of severe genetic disorders of the fetus, some clinics may reserve the right to refuse to provide women with appropriate medical services, which may be caused by a state ban. Even if the family is fully prepared to be responsible for the consequences of a particular operation, a special government ban significantly limits doctors opportunities in this area. That is why many women are fighting for the removal of such restrictions. They want more time to decide whether they can leave their child or not because, in most states, the maximum allowable period at which abortions can be performed is twenty weeks (Hern, 2014). The goal of women is to make it possible to independently decide on the possibility of terminating an unwanted pregnancy.

Implications for the Management

The official ban on abortion does not negate the fact that women with complications caused by unprofessionally performed operations on terminating pregnancy attend hospitals illegally. Nevertheless, the authorities are actively fighting against such practices, and the punishment for the management of clinics that secretly perform these medical procedures is especially severe. A prison term that threatens a medical worker who committed an abortion is up to a few years. However, if it is a systematic violation of the law, it is possible that the person responsible for performing such an operation may be punished more severely.

The situation with the disease of the fetus radically changes the approach to solving the problem. The right of women to terminate the pregnancy because of the diagnosis given to their future child is considered to be essential in most developed countries, and the motives of those who seek the help of doctors are understandable (Grossman et al., 2014). Undoubtedly, the management of medical institutions will be responsible for those who perform these operations and report to their superiors on the number of patients with such problems. An ethical aspect is certainly taken into account since this issue is rather delicate and many factors should be considered: medical secrecy, the right to refuse surgery, etc. The consequences for management in case of a poorly executed abortion procedure will surely be negative. Therefore, it is in the interests of clinic representatives to do everything so that women who address them with health problems of their fetus could have the opportunity of full access to medical service.

Potential Threat of Abortion Full Legalization

Despite rather strong protests that continuously arise, it is possible that if the authorities completely legalized abortions, it cannot be stated unequivocally that the situation would improve. According to the World Health Organization (2015), the right of the woman to terminate her pregnancy can be caused by a number of factors: health problems, low social status, personal motives, etc. Nevertheless, such freedom can open negative prospects for many causes. For example, a large number of abortions performed in unsanitary conditions, which inevitably leads to the fact that prenatal clinics will not be able to cope with many women who will come to them. Moreover, if the quality of operations is kept low, which is theoretically possible at a small price, the number of women with gynecological problems is likely to grow. The state will have to allocate much money for patients treatment at the expense of budget funds, and the quality of all the operations will surely worsen due to the ever-increasing flow of women with complications. Therefore, full legalization of abortion can lead to dangerous consequences if the state and the leadership of relevant clinics do not control the scope and quality of these procedures.

Conclusion

Thus, ethical issues that are affected in the case of Susanne concern well-known problems of some peoples disapproval. Some citizens do not like the idea of full legalization of abortions since they consider this procedure to be a murder. Nevertheless, modern society assumes free decision-making, and if a particular family has good reasons for terminating the pregnancy, for example, genetic disease of the fetus, they probably have the right to do, as they want. The consequences for healthcare providers and managers can be dangerous if abortion is officially banned in the country or procedures are performed unskilled. Women should have more time to make a specific decision after they are told about the problem with the fetus.

References

The Associated Press. (2017). Judge permanently blocks Indiana law on genetic abnormality abortions.CBC News. Web.

Dickens, B. M. (2014). Ethical and legal aspects of noninvasive prenatal genetic diagnosis. International Journal of Gynecology & Obstetrics, 124(2), 181-184.

Grossman, D., White, K., Hopkins, K., & Potter, J. E. (2014). The public health threat of anti-abortion legislation. Contraception, 89(2), 73-74.

Hern, W. M. (2014). Fetal diagnostic indications for second and third trimester outpatient pregnancy termination. Prenatal diagnosis, 34(5), 438-444.

Treussard, S. (2014). Aborting my baby Oscar was the kindest thing I could do for him: Woman who made the agonising decision to end her childs life after discovering he had Downs syndrome.Mail Online. Web.

World Health Organization. (2015). Health worker role in providing safe abortion care and post abortion contraception. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.

Pregnancy and Its Effects on Heart Health

All women planning pregnancy should be aware of changes to the heart associated with gestation. It is not a secret that being pregnant puts extra stress on the various systems of your body, which involves drastic increases in the volume of blood to support the nutritional needs of the developing fetus.

Pregnancy and Its Effects on Heart Health (Cont-d)

Due to changes in blood volume, the heart has to pump more blood per minute, which results in the increased cardiac output and heart rate. These and other changes can be particularly dangerous when it comes to women with specific pre-existing diagnoses, such as congenital heart defects, chronic hypertension, and diabetes. As you can see from the infographic, pregnancy is compared to the natures stress test on womens cardiovascular system.

Heart Disease and Preparing for Pregnancy

Women with pre-existing heart diseases who wish to conceive should make decisions with reference to professional advice and make sure that they have timely access to relevant services. Before starting the attempts to get pregnant, it is highly recommended to visit your cardiologist and an obstetrician who is trained in high-risk pregnancy care to get additional information regarding contraindications to pregnancy in your specific case. Similarly, these specialists can support you in adjusting your current lifestyle to reduce the risks of complications to a minimum and make changes to your current medication plan since not all heart drugs are absolutely safe in pregnancy.

Prenatal Assessments and Cardiovascular Health

After becoming pregnant, it is of utmost importance to get regular health and pregnancy development assessments if you have increased risks of heart conditions or even a confirmed diagnosis. Aside from weight and blood pressure measurements and blood and urine tests, high-risk patients may need to undergo specific non-invasive heart function assessments. Electrocardiography is applied to learn more about the electrical activity of the heart. Next, your provider might implement echocardiography or an ultrasound of your heart to exclude the presence of blood clots and evaluate the valves functioning. Health providers will carefully evaluate your ECG and echocardiography results since changes on these tests are common in both normal and problematic pregnancies (Elkayam, 2019). Finally, there are safe submaximal stress tests that involve moderate exercise and the assessment of the bodys cardiovascular response to stress (Elkayam, 2019). Such tests are sometimes used in pregnant women to get a full picture of their heart health.

Symptoms and Concerns to Be Reported

There is a series of warning symptoms that pregnant patients at risk of heart disease should be able to recognize and report to their healthcare providers as soon as possible. Paying attention to your general well-being is critical, and warning signs to be reported may include unreasonable fatigue, cough with blood, and chest pain.

Symptoms and Concerns to Be Reported (Cont-d)

HEDU Africa (n.d.) has prepared an infographic to discuss the warning signs in pregnant patients (see the slide).

Complication Prevention Recommendations

Pregnant women are often curious about the preventive measures they can implement to minimize the risks of cardiovascular disease and other complications. As a rule, all patients are recommended to utilize pregnancy healthcare services on a regular basis to let providers stay aware of the key health risks and propose treatments and lifestyle changes. Aside from regular appointments, it is essential to follow all medication recommendations. After becoming pregnant, women with chronic conditions often need their medication plans to be corrected to minimize harmful influences on the fetus, and following updated recommendations is critical, whereas self-medication involves substantial health-related risks.

Complication Prevention Recommendations and Lifestyle Changes

Communicating and collaborating with care providers to stay updated on your health is important for reducing anxiety, stemming from the sense of uncertainty. However, following general lifestyle improvement recommendations can also be helpful in promoting heart health in women with and without pre-existing heart problems. It includes avoiding exhaustive physical activity, getting enough rest on a daily basis, such as daytime naps (if possible), and making efforts to normalize your BMI and preventing excessive weight gains. Protecting cardiovascular health in pregnancy also requires breaking bad habits, which is often challenging to do without professional assistance.

Learning Objectives and NCLEX-Style Questions

The teaching presentation is aimed at increasing the awareness of heart problems in pregnant women and those planning pregnancy. After its implementation, patients are expected to meet three measurable learning objectives related to knowledge. They include the ability to demonstrate a basic understanding of essential pregnancy-related changes affecting the heart, worrying symptoms that require medical attention, and key recommendations for pregnant patients. Three NCLEX-style questions have been developed to facilitate the measurement of learning outcomes and knowledge gains, and the first question refers to the common health effects of becoming pregnant.

Q1. Which of the following is not among the normal effects of pregnancy on the heart?

• Increased blood volume
• Increased heart rate
• Low resting heart rate
• Increased cardiac output

The next multiple-choice question encourages the respondents to recollect information on the common symptoms of cardiovascular issues in pregnant women and find one incorrect answer. Finally, the last question is related to the third learning objective and encourages the audience to find one potentially problematic behavior in pregnancy.

Q2. Which of the following is not a common symptom of cardiovascular issues in pregnancy?

• Syncope
• Leg swelling and tiredness
• Chest pain
• Headache

Q3. Which of the following does not promote a healthy pregnancy?

• Eating a balanced diet
• Self-medication
• Regular weight gain tracking
• Breaking bad habits

References

Elkayam, U. (2019). Cardiovascular evaluation during pregnancy. In U. Elkayam (Ed.), Cardiac problems in pregnancy (4th ed., pp. 17-31). Wiley Publishing.

HEDU Africa. (n.d.). Shortness of breath during pregnancy can harm your unborn baby. Web.

CardioSmart. (2018). Pregnancy complications and heart disease risk. Web.

Iftikhar, S. F., & Biswas, M. (2020). Cardiac disease in pregnancy. StatPearls. Web.

Mayo Clinic. (2020). Heart conditions and pregnancy: Know the risks. Web.

The preparation for pregnancy can be frustrating for a woman, and the role of a nurse is to provide assistance to the patient in this process. In the first case study, a 25-year-old female comes to the office on 1-15-13 and states that her home pregnancy test was positive. The patient also reports that her last menstrual period (LMP) was on 12-1-12. These identifiers can be used by a clinician to calculate an estimated delivery date (EDD) with the help of Naegeles Rule (Morgan & Cooper, 2018).

To further support the suggested EDD, one can also perform an ultrasound (Tharpe, Farley, & Jordan, 2017). Schuiling and Likis (2017) state that home pregnancy tests are trustworthy as well, pointing out that the symptoms of nausea and breast changes are common in pregnancy. After establishing the date, the patient and her clinician develop a care plan that includes the necessary procedures, treatments, and information.

Applying Naegeles Rule, one can calculate that the patients EDD will come 9-8-13. According to this rule, one needs to use the womans first day of the LMP (December 1, 2012) as the basis of all measurements. Then, a clinician should add seven days and nine months. This calculation includes a menstrual cycle lasting for 28 days with 14 days of ovulation (Morgan & Cooper, 2018). As a result, the date September 8, 2013, is found; this calculation, however, may not be final. According to Schuiling and Likis (2017), an ultrasound is another reliable way of determining when the baby is due. Overall, the patients LMP is a factor that contributes to ones calculations.

The first visit should cover all essential information about the patients medical history, her nutrition, physical examination and diagnostics (Tharpe et al., 2017). The patient undergoes an interview with a nurse, during which they discuss the patients prenatal health, both its mental and physical aspects. For example, the pregnant womans current concerns, nutrition, obstetric and gynecologic health, family, environment, and physical abuse are covered during the interview (Centers for Disease and Control Prevention [CDC], 2018).

During a physical examination, a nurse records the patients vital signs, height, weight, BMI, skin changes (hyperpigmentation, erythema, striae). Breast issues such as their enlargement, tenderness, vascularity are reviewed (Tharpe et al., 2017). Then, an abdominal examination and pelvic evaluation are performed as well. If the patient does not complete the initial assessment, she may encounter some unforeseen issues.

Diagnostics include blood tests (CBC, blood type and Rh factor, antibodies, HBsAg, HIV, syphilis, Rubella titer). Urine tests for culture, chlamydia, and gonorrhea are required (Schuiling & Likis, 2017). If the womans medical history has specific issues, they are assessed accordingly. Later, the patient undergoes a series of screening tests at different periods of gestation. These are maternal serum screening, nuchal translucency, noninvasive prenatal testing, quad screen, and anatomy ultrasound (Schuiling & Likis, 2017). Such tests allow one to document concerns about the fetus and the pregnancys progression. If they are missed, the patient may put her and her childs well-being at risk.

In regards to the patients treatment, vital supplements with folic acid and iron are suggested to support the pregnancy. Moreover, a diet should be discussed with the patient; pregnant women should avoid some foods (for instance, unpasteurized milk and juices, prepackaged meals, or rare meat) (Schuiling & Likis, 2017). On the other hand, they should consume high-folate foods and choose products that appeal to them (CDC, 2018).

The patients awareness of different screenings should be raised  the woman is offered various diagnostics for abnormalities and defects risks, and she should be educated to decide whether she needs these tests. Education also covers hygiene practices, infection prevention, proper cooking for dangerous foods, STIs, common symptoms, pain relief, and possible complications (Schuiling & Likis, 2017). The patient can also request some information about particular concerns  breastfeeding techniques, medication, mental health, environmental dangers, physical activity, or vaccination. Overall, the management approach should be holistic; the patient is allowed to make decisions, but a nurse should ensure that they are based on reliable data.

References

Centers for Disease and Control Prevention. (2018). During pregnancy. Web.

Morgan, J. A., & Cooper, D. B. (2018). Pregnancy, dating. Web.

Schuiling, K. D., & Likis, F. E. (2017). Womens gynecologic health (3rd ed.). Burlington, MA: Jones & Bartlett Publishers.

Tharpe, N. L., Farley, C., & Jordan, R. G. (2017). Clinical practice guidelines for midwifery & womens health (5th ed.). Burlington, MA: Jones & Bartlett Publishers.

What Experience, Situation, or Subculture Did the Researchers Seek to Understand?

The researchers of A Latino Young Photovoice Project on Teen Pregnancy sought to understand the community of Pacific Northwest, namely  the tendencies leading to early pregnancies among Latina girls of teen age. The research explored the relationships and cultural habits of the Pacific Northwest community that encouraged or prevented the rate of teenage pregnancies. The aspects the researchers focused during the process of data collection were risks, pressure, education, community resources and Latino values.

Did the Researchers Want to Produce a Description of an Experience, a Social Process, or an Event, or Is the Goal to Generate a Theory?

The goal of the photovoice research was to produce a description of the events happening in a specific community and provide the members of the Pacific Northwest society with a chance to communicate their impressions and experiences. The research was designed to initiate changes and dialogue within the community in order to stimulate future policies directed at changing the current situation. Photovoice research was intended at a method of storytelling directed at communication between the members of the community about the issues of teen pregnancy.

How Was Data Collected?

The data was collected through the hired participants, who were selected from the representatives of the Latino teenage community. The young people were given two disposable cameras each and were asked to take pictures of everything that, according to their idea, increased or prevented the rate of teenage pregnancies in their community. The participants also were handed out journals for notes and comments. The participants of the research had one month for photographing various scenes and objects and then they were requested to mail the cameras to the researchers.

How Did the Researchers Control Their Biases and Preconceptions?

In order to control their biases and preconceptions the researcher familiarized themselves with the data collected during the research. After that the data was analyzed with the help of thematic analysis. Similar concepts captured by the participants were categorized according to the themes they carried. This stage of research had several phases, the researchers were very careful and through defining, coding and naming the themes this was done to avoid preconceptions and make the research objective.

Are Specific Pieces of Data (e.g., Direct Quotes) and More Generalized Statements (Themes, Theories) Included in the Research Report?

The research includes direct quote that identifies the meaning of photovoice report, its function and the effect it has on communities. Besides, the six-step process of data analysis was based on another research, so the experts of current study used the same titles for the steps of the analysis process. Further the research report also uses quotes from the journals of the participants in order to support and explain the concepts they captured on the photographs.

What Were the Main Findings of the Study?

The research demonstrated that some of the main factors contributing to the high rates of teen pregnancies in Latino community are connected to the lack of education, family and communication issues and absence of empowerment. In order to reduce the social problem all of these aspects have to be addressed.

Conclusion

I fully agree with the results of the findings and the established factors increasing the risk of early pregnancies among Latina teens. The same factors are known to contribute to early pregnancies in other cultural and ethnic groups. This is why it is very unlikely that if some other community became the object of this study the findings would differ. Adolescents that lack health literacy and education, or that experience family issues and lack of communication with their parents and other adults with authority such as teachers and medical workers are undergoing the same risks.

Reference List

Noone, J., Allen, T. L., Sullivan, M., McKenzie, G., Esqueda, T., & Ibarra, N. (2014).

Escuchando a Nuestros Jovenes: A Latino Youth Photovoice Project on Teen Pregnancy. Hispanic Health Care International, 12(2), 63-70.

What experience, situation, or subculture did the researchers seek to understand?

The purpose of this study was to analyze the problem of teen pregnancy among Latino girls. The researchers targeted girls below 20 years. The authors mainly focused on the Hispanic (Latino) culture. The study was critical towards analyzing how different minority groups can deal with teenage pregnancy (Noone, Allen, Sullivan, McKenzie, Esqueda, & Ibarra, 2014).

Did the researchers produce a description of an experience, a social process, or an event?

It is agreeable that the authors wanted to examine and analyze a unique social process. Teen pregnancy remains a major challenge in every society (Noone et al., 2014). The article analyzed the issues surrounding the targeted social process. The authors used the above approach in order to produce quality results. The targeted youths offered the best views towards understanding the challenges associated with teenage pregnancy (Noone et al., 2014, p. 68).

How the Researchers Collected Data?

The researchers obtained the best data using a qualitative approach. The researchers used a Photo-voice Method for their study (Noone et al., 2014, p. 67). The method entailed the use of different photos. The respondents used SHOWeD Method in order to analyze their photographs. This method is useful whenever completing different sociological studies. The targeted respondents identified the challenges associated with the above problem. The researchers encouraged their respondents to revise their displays. The approach was relevant towards producing acceptable results.

How the Authors Controlled their Biases and Preconceptions?

Biases are dangerous because they can result in negative research findings. The authors completed a literature review before completing their study. The strategy was useful towards examining the issues associated with teen pregnancy (Noone et al., 2014). The respondents controlled their biases in order to get the best results. The researchers embraced the use of Thematic Analyses (TAs). Such analyses reduce preconceptions and biases. The authors also used Independent Analyses (IAs) in order to control every bias.

Did the Researchers Include Specific Pieces of Data and Generalized Statements in the Report?

Scholars use generalized statements and specific pieces of data in order to produce acceptable results. The authors of this article used direct quotes. This approach was useful towards supporting the targeted arguments. The researchers used various ideas from different authors. Some themes such as Education, Social Risks, Community Resources, Pregnancy, and Social Values are evidence in the report (Noone et al., 2014, p. 66). Such themes supported the study findings.

Findings of the Study

Many teenagers will always engage in risky practices and behaviors. Many Latinos do not have access to quality education. Many Latino girls do not use contraceptives. The Latino society outlines different sexual roles for women and men. This situation has created more problems in the targeted society. The authors encourage every society to create better education systems. New methods of communication will discourage more girls from engaging in risky behaviors (Noone et al., 2014). Every society should be ready to address this issue of teen pregnancy.

Conclusion

The ideas presented in this article can address the above social problem. The findings are also applicable in different societies. The authors have used the best approach to get their results. The authors would have observed similar trends if they undertook their study with teenagers from another ethnic group. The scholars would have obtained similar results in Africa, Europe, and Latin America. However, the number of affected individuals would decrease significantly in the developed world. This article offers the best concepts towards dealing with teen pregnancy.

Reference

Noone, J., Allen, T., Sullivan, M., McKenzie, G., Esqueda, T., & Ibarra, N. (2014). Escuchando a Nuestros Jovenes: A Latino Youth Photo-voice Project on Teen Pregnancy. Hispanic Health Care International, 12(2), 63-70.

Abstract

The issue of adolescent pregnancy is of concern to the US policymakers because of its effects. It is considered an urgent issue in modern American society because a number of lives have been lost through illegal abortions and neglect. The major risks associated with adolescent pregnancy include health problems, increase in school dropouts, reduced career aspirations, and poverty.

The issue of adolescent pregnancy has been of concern to the extent of formulating policies aimed at empowering single mothers. In this article, the history of adolescent pregnancy is addressed amicably. Furthermore, the article analyzes the causes of adolescent pregnancy, as well as its consequences. Scholars note that teenage pregnancies are in the decrease in the United States. However, adolescent pregnancy is a social phenomenon that should be addressed with urgency. Statistics show that at least one million teenagers become pregnant each year.

Introduction

The US is the leading country among industrialized states in terms of adolescent pregnancies. Out of ten pregnancies recorded, four occur in women below twenty years. National statistics prove that women below fifteen years become pregnant each year. Teenage pregnancies affect the economy of the country in a number of ways.

For instance, adolescent mothers rely on the government and other non-governmental organizations for basic services, such as healthcare and medication. Teen mothers face serious social challenges, including increased school dropouts. Mothers below fifteen years rarely complete high school while mothers below twenty years rarely proceed to colleges.

Adolescent Pregnancy in Early America

It is factual that teenage pregnancy has been an issue of concern for the last two centuries yet policymakers have placed much focus on the issue in the last two decades. The issue of pregnancy in the previous decades was not discussed in the public due to the skewed societal structure. Since the 1970s, scholars started conducting research to establish the prevalence of the problem in society.

In native societies, such as the Puritan society, a teenager was allowed to carry a pregnancy at any age because it showed maturity and readiness to take up feminine responsibilities. During colonialism, teenage pregnancies were considered economic hazards because of limited resources. The church mistreated adolescent mothers because they were considered immoral.

In this case, teenage mothers were forced to marry the old men who were divorced or widowed. In the 19th century, there was a decline in teenage pregnancies because of the influence of the church. The church urged young individuals to exercise self-control and self-discipline. In the early 20th century, women were ensured that they marry before they could give birth. The problem was serious because some teenagers were forced to drop out of school to avoid stigmatization and shame (Sawyer, Pinciaro, & Anderson-Sawyer, 1998).

Teenage pregnancies have been common in the US since independence yet policymakers have not taken time to evaluate the effects of the problem. The society is changing at the rate that many had not predicted. In the 1950s, teenage mothers married those responsible for pregnancies to legalize the union. However, this culture is no longer upheld in modern society.

Few men would take responsibility by marrying the girl they impregnated. This is mainly attributed to the unfavorable economic conditions that impede the financial capability of individuals. After the reforms witnessed in the 1960s, feminist scholars noted that adolescent pregnancies were an issue of concern because it affected the capacity of women to achieve academic goals. It is required that a woman abandons school to take care of the baby. After the 1960s reforms, feminists proposed that girls be allowed to continue with education even after becoming pregnant. Between 1960 and 1975, there was a fifty percent increase in unwed pregnancies among adolescents.

Even though sex before marriage is not allowed in American society, over forty-seven percent of youths admit having engaged in sex before marriage. American society detests unwed pregnancies because teenage mothers are never supported. The society believes that teenagers should be sexually dormant because the cost of bringing up a child is unbearable to adolescent mothers. A study conducted by Tuner in 2004 suggested that adolescent females have negative views towards teenage motherhood (Kraft, 2009).

Causes of Adolescent Pregnancies

In the United States, scholars have delved into research to establish the causes of early pregnancies in the country. Some factors, such as family organization, age, aims, and sexual mistreatment, have been reported to influence teenage pregnancies. These factors are believed to cause teenage pregnancies. The factors are explored in detail in the subsequent sections.

The Family Structure

Scholars and policymakers believe that the structure of the family influences the sexual behavior of the child in a number of ways. In the US, adolescent females engage in sexual relationships for purposes of comfort. They relate with stable men for short periods to enable them to survive. Some adolescents feel that their parents do not provide adequate love and hence they opt to relate with strangers who provide adequate affection.

Through interaction, the self-esteem of adolescents is enhanced. Unfortunately, adolescent females end up becoming pregnant in the hands of people they trusted before. Single-parent families have many issues that force adolescents to seek relationships outside the family unit. For instance, the adolescent might be interested in interacting with the person of opposite gender yet the father figure is unavailable in the family. This forces the adolescent female to look for somebody outside the family who can act as a father.

A family with a stable structure has high chances of bringing up the adolescent child in accordance with the societal rules and regulations. In this regard, the chances of adolescent pregnancies in such a family are minimal. Scholars note that the family is in a better position to prevent teenage pregnancies because it interacts with the child on a daily basis.

Families without the father figure experience serious problems because the girl child lacks the guidance of the father. In families, some parents do not discuss issues related to sex with their children. Children from such families are likely to engage in premarital sex. It is therefore advised that parents take responsibility by ensuring that they introduce sex education to their children.

Age at First Intercourse

In modern society, scholars observe that puberty occurs at an early age as compared to the previous years. This is attributed to the foods that human beings consume. Similarly, adolescents tend to engage in sex at an earlier age because of the early changes in their bodies. In fact, it is possible to find a sexually experienced adolescent in American society. From 1988 to 1995, the number of adolescents who had sex before attaining the age of fourteen doubled. It should be noted that the puberty age is not directly related to pregnancies.

However, early engagement in sex predisposes the adolescent female to teenage pregnancy. Adolescents are always in constant pressure from friends to engage in sex. Moreover, families have lost their primary socializing roles to the media and the peer. All these combine to influence the teenager to engage in premarital sex. Research shows that adolescent females whose mothers were victims of teenage pregnancies have high chances of becoming mothers at a tender age. Moreover, families with teenage mothers would witness adolescent pregnancies because of peer influence (Yorgason, Linville, & Zitzman, 2008).

Future Expectations

In American society, some adolescents believe that economic forces threaten their lives. Teenagers conclude that they would not make it in life because their chances of success are minimal. They prefer carrying pregnancies in the hope that whoever impregnated them would proceed to marry them. Moreover, some adolescents might opt to carry a pregnancy because they could not continue with their studies. Some prefer carrying pregnancies because their families are abusive and hard on them.

Adolescents might think that attaining post-secondary education is impossible for them because of limited resources. Others do not have options in case they fail to proceed with their studies. Carrying pregnancies become an option for such adolescent females. In most families, there are no role models to show teenagers the way.

Many parents do not take an initiative of bringing role models to talk to their children. Adolescents end up becoming pregnant since it is the best option. Some are encouraged by the idea that marriage is the easiest way of attaining social status. The pregnancy is used by the teenage to claim marriage. Some adolescent mothers believe that giving birth would make them sexually acceptable (Burris, Frechting, Salsman, & Carlson, 2009).

Sexual Abuse

In many families, children are often abused sexually. The child may change her perception regarding sex and end up developing negative sexual behaviors. Adolescent females may end up initiating sex at a tender age because they were introduced to it when they were still very young. This ends up affecting their lives forever. Teenagers may as well as develop a promiscuous behavior, which is a health hazard to the adolescent girl. Research confirms that teenagers are left with negative feelings regarding sexual abuse, which leads them to behaviors that cause pregnancies. A number of adolescents claim that their first sexual encounters were voluntary.

However, research shows that over forty percent of girls aged between thirteen and fourteen years had involuntary sexual intercourse with an older colleague. A study conducted in 1998 confirmed that a teenager who was abused at childhood would probably become pregnant at a tender age. The study established that stepfathers or close relatives had abused sexually over two-thirds of teenage mothers.

The abused women felt a sense of low self-esteem and depression, which forced them to engage in sexual activities. Adolescent mothers are known to have children whose fathers are over twenty years. This study shows that sexual abuse is the major cause of adolescent pregnancies in the US and other parts of the world (Reifler, 2006).

Effects of Adolescent Pregnancies

Adolescent pregnancies have implications to the mother, as well as the child. The effects are a long time because the mother might be worse economically. Furthermore, the father of the child might be reluctant to take responsibility. The society does not care about the adolescent mother because it is believed that she is immoral and careless.

This stereotyping affects the existence of adolescent mothers because it does not provide them with opportunities. The teenage mother is advised to understand the aspects of adolescent motherhood and its consequences in case she is to cope with the challenges. There are a number of consequences. Some of them are discussed in the subsequent sections.

Career Opportunity

An adolescent mother cannot be aware of the opportunities presented by the egalitarian society because of their academic incapacities. Consequently, adolescent mothers end up attaining diminutive career aspirations. Moreover, they can only achieve less prestigious goals because they can be employed in less [prestigious occupations.

Their job choices are few as compared to their age mates who are not pregnant. In their entire lifetime, adolescent mothers would be unable to attend college and seek professional work. The economy end ups generating a huge number of unemployed youths. Women who give birth at a tender age would end up performing less prestigious duties as compared to their compatriots who give birth at an advanced age. The unemployment rate for adolescent mothers is very high in the US. Pregnant youths can simply be employed in sectors with an oversupply of workers (Rich, 2001).

Bleak Future

The future of the adolescent mother is unpredictable because she cannot provide the basic needs to the baby. For instance, the adolescent mother is unable to educate herself and the child. This would expose the family to economic uncertainties. Moreover, the adolescent mother might be incapable of attending postnatal care because of insufficient funds.

This complicates the health of the baby and the mother. The child would definitely achieve low academic levels because the mother would be struggling to bring him or her up. In case of an inability, the mother would not be able to support the child, which might lead to the street beginning. Research shows that women who give birth at the tender age are likely to have many children as compared to women who delay their births. This is a big problem because the mother would have many children whom she cannot support. Moreover, children would suffer more because they do not have a father figure (Cottrell, Hansen, & Close, 2008).

Economic Effects

Apart from social effects, the adolescent mother is also faced with economic challenges. The adolescent mother is unable to achieve high academic standards that would be needed in the labor market. Adolescent mothers depend heavily on the government, which is unpredictable. Adolescent pregnancies affect the GDP of the country because the country is forced to spend resources on providing services such as healthcare and food (Williams, Zenilman, Nanda, & Hayley, 2008).

Teenage pregnancies force females to abandon the places they call home because of stigmatization and shame. Such female adolescents end up in the streets. The government uses many resources to provide security to street families. In fact, reported cases of mental sickness are high among street dwellers. Street dwellers struggle to put something on the table every day. This means that their major concern is related to basic needs.

Conclusion

Teenage pregnancy in the US is an issue of concern to policymakers and implementers. This is because of its effects on the economy and society. A number of factors, as discussed above cause teenage pregnancy. However, the social structure is the main cause of teenage pregnancy. Teenagers engage in pre-marital sex because of hard economic situations and negligence from parents. The effects of teenage pregnancy on the economy are serious to the extent that the government has taken initiatives to stop the menace. However, the problem is expected to persist because of deformed policies and the growing spirit of individualism.

References

Burris, J., Frechting, E., Salsman, J., & Carlson, R. (2009). Factors Associated With the Psychological Well-Being and Distress of University Students. Journal of American College Health, 57(5), 536-543.

Cottrell, B., Hansen, M., & Close, F. (2008). Vaginal Douching Among University Women in the Southeastern United States. Journal of American College Health 56(4), 415-421.

Kraft, D. (2009). Mens Sana: The Growth of Mental Health in the American College Health Association. Journal of American College Health, 58(3), 267-275

Reifler, C. (2006). Epidemiologic Aspects of College Mental Health. Journal of American College Health, 54(6), 372-376.

Sawyer, R., Pinciaro, P., & Anderson-Sawyer, A. (1998). Pregnancy testing and counseling: A university health centers 5-year experience. Journal of American College Health, 46(5), 221.

Williams, R., Zenilman, J., Nanda, J., & Hayley, M. (2008). Recruitment Strategies and Motivations for Sexually Transmitted Disease Testing Among College Students. Journal of American College Health, 57(3), 357-60.

Yorgason, J., Linville, D., & Zitzman, B. (2008). Mental Health Among College Students: Do Those Who Need Services Know About and Use Them? Journal of American College Health, 57(2), 173-81.

Rich, J. (2001). Primary care for young African American men. Journal of American College Health, 49(4), 183-186.

Teenage pregnancy is a major social and economic problem in most countries of the world. Menken (2018) asserts that around 16 million adolescents give birth each year, accounting for 11% of all births worldwide. Lack or defect in sex education, ignorance of sexual behavior, socio-economic problems, and other factors contribute to the onset of early sexual relations, which entails unplanned and unwanted pregnancy. Therefore, teen pregnancy can lead to a deterioration in the physical and psychological health of a teenager, as well as negative socio-economic consequences.

Early pregnancy contributes to the deterioration of the physical health of adolescents. According to Menken (2018), pregnancy, abortion, and childbirth during adolescence are among the leading causes of maternal death worldwide. Most adolescent girls are not yet physically developed enough for safe pregnancy and childbirth. Menken (2018) notes that in early adolescence, anatomical or functional narrowing of the pelvis is observed in 50-66% of girls, as a result of which there is a high probability of disruption of normal labor. Moreover, during pregnancy, nutrient requirements increase, which, in turn, can lead to slower growth of the girl. Pregnancy and childbirth in adolescents often occur with such complications as early and late gestosis, miscarriage, impaired uterine contractility during childbirth, the birth of underweight children, fetal hypoxia during pregnancy and childbirth. Thus, the complicated course of childbirth occurs in most young women in labor, which leads to a deterioration in the physical health of adolescents.

Even if the birth ended without harm to the reproductive and somatic health of the young mother, the psychological consequences can be very unfavorable. According to Müller (2020), early pregnancy has a destructive effect on the formation of a system of value-semantic orientations of an individual, emotional-volitional sphere, parental and sexual behavior. The most vital problems of underage mothers also include difficulties in relationships with others, low self-esteem, and, as a result, self-doubt, the desire for the approval of actions by loved ones, and a strong dependence on their opinions. Adolescents are more likely than adults to develop postpartum depression. Müller (2020) affirms that more than 50% of pregnant minors and 45% of new mothers under the age of 18 suffer from anxiety and depression and require psychological and psychiatric help. Thus, early pregnancy can significantly undermine the psychological health of a teenager.

The social consequences of teenage pregnancy can be very serious. Dropping out of school and a lower educational level in the future not only hinder the development of a person but also limit opportunities for earning a lifetime. Moreover, according to Gorry (2019), teenage pregnancy can be the cause of unplanned marriage. Often people who marry as teenagers are characterized by a lower level of education, social status, and official position. Incomes in such families are low, and the families themselves often break up due to various reasons, including socio-economic ones. Thus, teenage pregnancy contributes to negative social consequences.

Therefore, nowadays, the problem of early pregnancy among adolescents is particularly relevant. The negative aspects of teenage pregnancy are harm to the physical and psychological health of adolescents, as well as negative social consequences for them. Due to the insufficient formation of the body, the girl is not ready to bear a child, which gives rise to several somatic disorders. From a psychological point of view, pregnancy also has a negative impact. In addition to the medical aspect of this problem, there is also a social aspect, taking into account the interruption of education, financial difficulties, and problems with marriage.

References

Gorry, D. (2019). Heterogeneous consequences of teenage childbearing. Demography, 56(6), 21472168. Web.

Menken, J. (2018). The health and social consequences of teenage childbearing. In F. Furstenberg, R. Lincoln & J. Menken (Eds.), Teenage sexuality, pregnancy, and childbearing (pp. 163-183). University of Pennsylvania Press. Web.

Müller M. (2020). The consequences of teenage pregnancy  a gendered poverty trap?. In M. Müller (Ed.), Decision-making process around teenage motherhood (pp. 225-252). Springer. Web.

Girls from disadvantaged families are much more at risk of early pregnancy. Firstly, children from dysfunctional families often suffer from a lack of sexual education. Pregnancy at a young age is a consequence of early sexual initiation, improper or no contraceptive use, and a lack of awareness among adolescents (Yglesias, 2012). Secondly, early pregnancies of girls from disadvantaged families are directly linked to their disadvantaged economic status (Hanes, 2012). The wealthier the family, the more dignified the upbringing it can provide and vice versa (Engber, 2012). Girls from disadvantaged families mostly give birth because it seems the only way out of their situation and the only way of life.

The problem of teenage pregnancy prevention is handled inter-agencyly. Three types of services  the family planning service for preventing early pregnancies, the medical service work together effectively. The main task of these services is to provide adolescents with access to quality sex education (Rector, 2012). It is not a question of keeping away from knowledge about ones sexuality or informing about the possibility of contracting an STI, the increased likelihood of getting infected when intoxicated, or HIV/AIDS. Most researchers see sexuality education as more than just information about biology and contraception. The main thing is to raise positive standards in the younger generations and provide the foundations of morality. It means the formation of values of a healthy lifestyle, childrens self-esteem, a conscious attitude to parenthood, positive marriage, and family attitudes, and a culture of gender relations. Sexuality education is not limited to contraception and protection from disease but is part of personal formation and includes health issues and moral, legal, cultural, and ethical aspects.

References

Engber, D. (2012). Are Humans Monogamous or Polygamous? Web.

Hanes, S. (2012). Teenage pregnancy: High US rates due to poverty, not promiscuity. Web.

Rector, R. (2012). Marriage: Americas Greatest Weapon Against Child Poverty. Web.

Yglesias, M. (2012). Why Are Teen Moms Poor? Web.

Introduction

Teen pregnancy is common in the United States as teens are increasingly having sex before 16. Notably, since the responsibility lies equally with teen mothers and teen fathers, there is a need to develop government programs to inform and support father teens. Besides, to reduce the incidence of unwanted pregnancies, it is possible to conduct screening for adolescent fatherhood risk following addiction, depression, suicide risk screening practices. This paper aims to explain what techniques and programs to help father teens exist in the United States.

Risk Factors

Interestingly, all potential teen fathers in the United States are now equally at risk of unwanted pregnancy. Scientists note that the level of risk does not depend on the parents level of education, the dependence of families on government assistance, race, ethnicity, marijuana use, and delinquency (Assini-Meytin, 2019). Therefore, scientists have concluded that it is necessary to create intervention programs that will consider these facts.

Programs for Teen Fathers

Many programs provide support for teen fathers in the US. These are the OPA Teen Pregnancy Prevention (TPP) Program, the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (ACA), and Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2010. TPP Program is a grant program funding various organizations throughout the US to prevent teen pregnancy (Teen Pregnancy Prevention Program, n.d.). Within the framework of this program, innovative approaches to teen pregnancy are being implemented. It also promotes the prevention of sexually transmitted infections among teens. The rest of the listed programs also work in the format of funds.

Teen Screening

Hospitals often conduct teen screening looking for problems like addiction, depression, suicide risk, anorexia, poor self-image, or external stressors like bullying, abuse, parental, or family problems. Nurses often use questionnaires as screening tools, as this practice has proven effective (Hooper, 2019). The screening was carried out in emergency departments, as this is where adolescents most often seek help in stabilizing their mental state. Accordingly, similar questionnaires can be developed for potential teen fathers to reduce unwanted pregnancies.

Thus, it was discussed what practices and programs exist in the US to help father teens. It was found that today all groups of young people are equally at risk of becoming a teen father, regardless of race, ethnicity, or social status. Support for adolescents at the state level is carried out mainly in grants that finance various programs. However, the state has the opportunity to directly contact adolescents through interviews in emergency departments, where adolescents can seek help in case of unforeseen situations.

References

Assini-Meytin, L. C., Garza, M. A., & Green, K. M. (2019). Racial and ethnic differences in teenage fathers early risk factors and socioeconomic outcomes later in life. In Child & Youth Care Forum (Vol. 48, No. 3, pp. 361-376). Springer US.

Hooper, A. (2019). Effectiveness of two psychiatric screening tools for adolescent suicide risk. Pediatric Nursing, 45(4).

Teen Pregnancy Prevention Program. (n.d.). Web.