Government funding in education was primarily supposed to help all the children in acquisition of basic education. New York City has a high population; the funding is higher to cater for all the students. Needs of the students from New York City are higher than those in other states. The government supplied the highest amount of funds in New York City Schools, but the inadequacy made them to achieve the poorest results.
Impact of Funding to quality of education
Fiscal Equity campaigns filed a court case to challenge the constitution on the governments role in funding these schools. The government had promised to finance public schools so as to enable them acquire basic education; but it failed because it did not provide adequate funds for the students. This was clearly shown by the outcome of their performance. Public schools were performing poorly compared to private schools. Funding had led to poor performance but could be improved if the state government provided adequate funds for the students in terms of needs, inputs and outputs (Campaign, 2003).
Effect of racial and economic integration on the quality of education
The quality of education in government funded institutions was lower than that of non funded institutions. This was because of the teachers in these funded institutions perhaps were not well motivated or qualified in their duties. The facilities such as libraries and books were also below the standards of the private schools. In The city of Rochester, there were 15 African American students who had poor performance in school. Majority of the students in their district were poor and racially isolated.
This was a clear indication that majority of African Americans were living in poverty. Their education quality was thus affected since they could only rely on the funded education that was not doing well at that time. Education quality was subject to economic status of the people. White people mostly got quality education because they could readily afford to pay fees for their children where schools are fully equipped. The state failed to incorporate all schools to one category and this was the major cause of separation of the rich and the poor students background (Paynter, 2003).
Basic Education and Segregation
The New York state constitution promised to be responsible for provision of maintenance and support of the public schools; so as to ensure that all children got the basic education. The initial idea was to desegregate children by taking all children to school to acquire common education. However, failure of the legislature to fulfill its mandate brought segregation. The rights of the children were violated. Children who were supposed to acquire quality skills to promote their productivity did not acquire quality education. Basic literacy of mathematics and communication was highly affected by inadequate funds in their schools. Public schools failed to change with time by failing to care for their present needs. The modern society was changing as well as the skills which could be useful to the society at that time (Campaign, 2003).
Public schools did not change with changes in the private schools such as technology. This created a good platform of separation and segregation between the rich and the poor. The outputs in funded schools could not compare with the outputs in the private schools and this also turned out in their results. The scores of the students from the funded schools were far much lower than those of non funded schools. As time went on, a greater gap was created since those from public funded schools were not competitive in the job market; and so their children were most likely to attend the same schools with low quality of education (Campaign, 2003).
Economic factors and Segregation
These problems led to amendment of constitution of the United States. Brown V. Board of Education worked towards integration of schools. The board stated that, Opportunity of an education&is a right which must be made available to all on equal terms (Paynter, 2003, p. 1). This was better than the previous Paynters claim that argued that segregation in schools was a violation of the New York Constitution. Brown won its case. However, this did not fully settle the case of inequality.
Conclusion
The new landmark was made by changing the approach of the problem from equality to adequacy. States started concentrating on individual pupils in schools. This made a great contribution to bridge the gap between the rich and the poor. This is mainly by improving the quality of education even to the poor. The court cases contributed greatly in changing of funding system as well as improving the quality of education (Burke, 2011).
References
Burke, A. V. (2011). Has the landmark school funding case improved students outcomes? Web.
Campaign. (2003). Campaign for Fiscal Equity V. State of New York. Web.
Paynter. (2003). Segregation of the New Yorks Schools. Web.
Poverty is one of the critical factors that determine childrens possibility for education. Despite the intention to promote knowledge as a primary universal human right, many poor countries do not provide their young populations with the necessary opportunities. A lack of funding, no classrooms, poorly trained teachers, and the shortage of learning materials are the barriers to education (Rueckert). As a result, children remain uneducated, cannot find good jobs, and become beggars, spoiling the image of a healthy and satisfied nation. Like broken and hardly repairable things, children should be re-used in new roles that could bring benefits and profits.
In many developed countries, children have to study and use various simulations to check their knowledge. For example, teachers offer them to take tests, develop improvement plans, and analyze interventions, relying on fictional scenarios. Dignified children should be able to work with real subjects, conduct experiments, and check if their practical application of knowledge is correct. There is no need to do harm to animals that become good pets for families or spend millions of dollars to invent a new simulation device. The idea to use children from poor families who live in developing countries as lab rats or experiments is the best solution that can be beneficial for educators, students, and those children who do not go to school.
In fact, the use of children for educational purposes is characterized by a number of logical advantages. First, becoming a subject of the study is a unique opportunity for a poor child to visit a classroom, observe how other students are educated, and even learn something new. Secondly, there are usually good conditions in schools and colleges, including clean and warm rooms. Thirdly, children as significant research subjects are fed and treated well to promote their functionality and long-term use. Finally, all these services and opportunities remain free for children, and their parents should not spend a dollar from their family budget.
At the same time, some lucky participants may not be satisfied with such education options because of the possibility of dying during a surgery performed by a student or being injured during another management intervention. Therefore, families are interested in the improvements of the government system and discovering new sources of funding. In addition, developed countries could share their personnel and develop altruistic strategies to support poor families. However, during the last several decades, no evident changes have been observed in India, Mexico, and many African countries (Rueckert). It is hard to believe that some decisions can be made quickly and effectively. The number of uneducated children continues increasing, challenging the expected wealth and prosperity of the nation.
In general, when children from low-income families cannot be educated, other ways to promote their contributions must be identified. It is hard to imagine another opportunity for a poor child to get into the classroom and even learn the material except being introduced as a research subject. Many children have to work with expensive equipment to demonstrate how they should apply theories and strategies in real life. Their mistakes are not evaluated properly, and the necessity to move from fictional situations to real tasks is never easy. The presence of real subjects like children is a benefit for the future of the nation and a free education option for poor families to learn something new and even use it if their children are able to survive such practice.
Poverty reduction has been an important issue in the advancement of welfare economics. However, welfare economists have traditionally excluded the conception of poverty as a capability deprivation phenomenon. Instead, common perceptions of poverty in welfare economics conceived poverty as an income issue. Many people have had varying views about the nature of poverty and its potential causes.
Such attempts center on alleviating poverty as a development policy agenda. These attempts have also focused on understanding poverty as an income issue. However, some modern researchers say that poverty is multidimensional. Therefore, the one-sided understanding of poverty as an income issue fails to capture the important human requirements that characterize poverty.
Through the analysis of a Nobel laureate in economics, Sen (1), and his colleague, Nussbaum (33), this paper demonstrates that poverty is a phenomenon of basic capability deprivation, as opposed to its conception as a low-income phenomenon. This argument suffices albeit the acknowledgement that low-income is equally a cause of capability deprivation (Sen 1).
Broadly, this paper explains the ten specific capabilities of Nussbaum (33) as supporting evidence to the arguments proposed by Sen (1), which show that poverty is the deprivation of capabilities (as opposed to a phenomenon of low income). Finally, this paper illustrates the importance of understanding poverty as a capability approach phenomenon, through the success of an antipoverty program (documented in a story titled, Swamp Nurse).
Low Income and Poverty Prevalence
Common perceptions about poverty have always premised on the principle that impoverished lives are the result of low income. Sen (1) however says people should view the role of low income (in causing an impoverished life) as an instrumental factor in the spread of poverty, as opposed to an end.
The capability approach is therefore intrinsically important in understanding poverty and its role in introducing low quality life. Sen (1) explains that income levels constitute only part of a series of other factors that generate capabilities. Moreover, other variables like age, location, family characteristics, and individual characteristics also affect income levels (Sen 2). For example, handicapped people are not fully empowered to earn as much income as people who are not handicapped.
Moreover, even if handicapped people have a stable income, they are unable to convert such income into useful capabilities (Sen 2). This example helps to decipher the understanding regarding real poverty because real poverty manifests when a persons capability to live a decent life diminishes.
Income distribution within the family setup also provides a similar analysis as that witnessed above. For example, if a family enjoys adequate income, but practices sex bias (say, against girls); it is highly likely that such income will not directly translate to capabilities (Sen (2). Sen (2) explains the commonality of this situation in most parts of Asia and North Africa because most families that are located in such regions discriminate against girls.
Therefore, boys tend to benefit at the expense of the girls. From the above understanding, income surfaces as an important factor that leads to capability empowerment (Sen 1; Nussbaum 33). The enhanced capabilities thereafter help people to lead a more productive and beneficial life. This happens when peoples incomes increase. Therefore, income levels occur as a product of enhanced capabilities (Sen 2).
For example, better education and improved healthcare services are common capability enhancers. However, they also help to improve a persons chance of earning a higher income because they provide them with an opportunity for freeing themselves from the shackles of low income.
Nussbaum (33) introduces another argument that affirms the undesirability of using income as an influence of poverty levels because she says that income levels may not necessarily translate into better social development because of social inequalities in the society. For example, in a society that suffers from social inequality, there is a high likelihood that there is bound to be no social cohesion as well.
In fact, Nussbaum (33) further says that some types of social inequalities may completely hinder the realization of efficiencies. Situations where people have a high income but the society limits their participation in political processes (because of social inequalities) explain this dynamic. Here, even though people may not be necessarily poor they still suffer from minimal opportunities of social development, which makes them poor (especially concerning the deprivation of social freedoms).
Ten Specific Human Capabilities
In this paper, the importance of social justice manifests through the understanding of social deprivation, as opposed to the understanding of income levels in the achievement of social justice.
Sen (3) pursues this argument by encouraging people to understand poverty as a deprivation of capabilities rather than the mere lowness of income. Sen (3) proposes some reasons he believes people should use to understand poverty as a deprivation of capabilities. One reason for his argument stems from the intrinsic importance of capability deprivation in assessing poverty levels, as opposed to the lowness of income (which is an instrumental assessment of poverty) (Sen 1; Nussbaum 33).
The second reason is the existence of other influences of capability deprivation, other than income levels (Sen 3). Therefore, an income level is just one among many other factors that affect capability deprivation. The third reason is the variability of the relationship between low income and low capabilities across locations, individuals, and communities (Sen 3).
Through the above analysis, Sen (3) proposes five components for assessing capability deprivation. These components include understanding the importance of valuing the real freedoms in establishing a persons advantage and understanding the individual differences in the process of transforming resources to activities.
Other components of his argument includes, understanding the varied nature of activities that produce happiness, striking a balance between the materialistic and non-materialistic factors that influence human development, and understanding the concerns of the distribution of resources in the society (Sen 13).
A respected political philosopher, Nussbaum (34), affirms the above argument by appreciating the importance of development and ethical issues in a persons quality of life. In her explanation, social contracts (the legitimacy of human authority on its subjects) outline a better approach than utilitarianism because it provides a better framework for social justice (Nussbaum 34). Her argument premises on the understanding that cooperation is often fostered for the benefit of realizing the mutual advantage between two parties.
In this context, Nussbaum (34) explains that the classical perception of social contract is unable to manage different issues that arise from the pursuit for basic justice and substantial freedom in human development (because there are substantial inequalities in the engagement of the parties involved). Through the inequalities identified in the protocol of engagement, Nussbaum (33) believes that it is impossible to realize social justice in situations where there is no symmetric power between the parties involved.
Through the above problem, Nussbaum (36) supports the capabilities approach by suggesting the acknowledgement of factors that affect human dignity. These factors constitute the ten human capabilities as proposed by Nussbaum (36). They include life, bodily health, bodily integrity, thought, emotions, practical reasons, affiliation, other species, play and the control over ones environment (Nussbaum 36). Through these ten human capabilities, Nussbaum (36) implies that poverty occurs when one or more of these capabilities are deprived.
Swamp Nurse Illustration
Lawana Marts experience with Maggie in the swamp nurse story depicts the importance of using the capabilities approach to reduce poverty. In this assessment, the swamp nurse story highlights an antipoverty program where nurses chose some children to undergo a vigorous training, which they designed to strengthen the emotional and intellectual capabilities of the children (Boo 9).
In the model program, the researchers realized that the childrens intellectual and emotional capabilities improved dramatically during the program, but when the children left the program and mingled with members of their communities, they lost their learned abilities (Boo 9). Boo (9) described this phenomenon as the fadeout effect. This phenomenon proved to be a great challenge to the programs anti-poverty policy that the researchers tried to implement in the community.
Nonetheless, despite the retrogressive trend witnessed in the program, the researchers still established that the sampled children still fared better than other children in the community did, because they posted lower juvenile crime rates and lower levels of juvenile delinquency (Boo 10).
This positive outcome prompted the U.S department of justice to approve the infant intervention program as a viable method for improving the welfare of the society when children are at a young age, rather than waiting for the children to grow and become unproductive members of the society.
The swamp nurse story shows the success of capability improvement as a strategy for reducing poverty levels. Even though the intervention posed different challenges, it still showed that it was possible to improve child welfare by adopting capability enhancers (intellectual and emotional empowerment) (Boo 10). This analysis excludes any income incremental factors.
Conclusion
After weighing the findings of this paper, it is vital to reiterate the argument proposed by Sen (3), which proposes that the widespread nature of poverty in the society occurs because of social injustice, human rights deprivation, and limited political liberties, rather than the mere lowness of income.
To address the different challenges that surround poverty alleviation, Sen (3) implores people to acknowledge the importance of promoting different kinds of freedoms, if the poverty fight is to succeed. The social, political, and economic opportunities that are available to the people therefore determine the main instruments of fighting poverty in the society.
This paper also shows that Nussbaum (34) supports the capabilities approach by proposing that the failure of human capabilities and the prevailing limited opportunities in the social, political, and economic fronts explain widespread poverty.
People who are involved in social development may learn a lot from both Sen (1) and Nussbaum (33) arguments because through the understanding of where the poverty of capability exists, they may effectively propose policy changes that address the real causes of poverty, and not the perceived causes of poverty.
Works Cited
Boo, Katherine. Swamp Nurse, New York: The New Yorker, 2006. Print.
Nussbaum, Martha. Capabilities as Fundamental Entitlements: Sen and Social Justice. Feminist Economics 9.2 (2003): 33-59. Print.
Sen, Amartya. Poverty as Capability Deprivation Development as Freedom, New York: Random House Digital, Inc., 2011. Print.
In wealthy nations, concentrations of poverty always exist and persist. The major reason for poverty concentration is income inequality. The causes can best be understood using three theoretical perspectives: labor market dynamics, institutional view, and socioeconomic environment view.
This paper therefore explores the causes of such concentrations and localities of poverty using the three theoretical perspectives. It then provides remedies for the inequality witnessed and gives an analysis of why the causes and remedies to income inequality in rich nations may differ from those of poor economies.
Poverty definition
Poverty is a deprivation of basic needs and well being in people. In simple terms, poverty is best understood as the lack of money or commodities in general and the inability to access opportunities to functions within a society [Handbook: pp1]. The use of income paradigm helps to monetize the concept of poverty.
Even though the average income of people living in developed countries is above the poverty line, the nations still experience concentrations of poverty especially when it comes to income inequality. The gap between high income earners and low income earners is widening despite the fact that there a reduced gap between the rich and the poor.
Reasons for concentrations of poverty
There are three main perspectives that help understand the causes of income inequality in developed countries. The three include socioeconomic environment view, institutional view, and labor market dynamics.
Labor dynamics
Two approaches can be used to explain how labor dynamics increases concentrations of poverty in developed economies. The first one is skill-biased technical change. According to this approach, there is creation of a technological shift that favors a portion of the labor market and leaving the other portion trying to cope with the situation. For instance, advances in technology will favor highly skilled workforce over the low skilled workforce.
Essentially, demand for high skill labor has been on the rise within developed countries thereby creating biasness in the labor market. As the demand for high skilled labor increases, the wages also increases leading to a wage inequality in the labor market. This may be illustrated using a supply-demand model. When new technologies are introduced, supply of skilled labor expands at a slower rate than demand does. There is competition between innovation and education.
As for low-skilled labor, both supply of and demand for it decreases over time, resulting in no upward pressure on wages. At the same time, skill-biased technical change leads to increasing labor market premium to skill and thus increasing wage in high-skilled labor market. Therefore, distributional problems arise. In addition, changes in international trade patterns and off-shoring also have impact on demand for skills, especially for people at the bottom of skill-income distribution.
Additionally, the effects of the labor market dynamics on the poverty concentration can be explained using the traditional models. The Kuznet hypothesis and Lewis model predict that income inequality should follow an inverse U-curve along the process of development [Understanding poverty pp63].
Empirically observed curves over a long term do not provide strong supports to this hypothesis. Kuznets stressed development as a process of economy moving from rural (labor-intensive) sector to urban (IT-intensive or labor saving) sector. His argument seems to be supported by the 1913-1948 inequality declines in many developed countries. But they seem to be due to specific economic shocks and circumstances that do not have much to do with labor migration. [Understanding poverty p64]
Institutional view
Both formal and informal institutions play important roles in disparities of incomes. In formal institution, expansion of educational infrastructure cannot match up with the expansion of innovation and technology.
There is unequal distribution of resources through redistribution and welfare transfer. Redistribution of resources occurs through mechanisms such as divorce charity, welfare, monetary policies, and taxation. The currently existing policies and government interventions on redistribution of incomes do not favor income equality.
The regulation in labor market lack control over executive compensation. In as much as high income earners are taxed, the policies on taxation do not favor the low and middle income earners. In regards to the informal institution and social norms, executive compensation has been noted to have a phenomenal increase in the US between 1970 and 2000. This rise is disproportionate to the rise in executives productivity and efficiency. In Europe during the same period, no such observation was made.
The social economic environment view
This perspective is best understood under the view of informal institutions [Groups 146-147]. At individual levels, parental income on offspring education has been identified to have an impact on income disparity witnessed in developed countries. Most young people opt for high education in order to attain high income.
Those with low levels of education cannot attract certain kinds of jobs with high income levels. At the social levels, there is clustering of poverty which affects individuals social economic outcomes. Poverty level in urban centers within developed countries is framed on the living conditions of dwellers. There are neighborhoods for the wealthy, the upper middle class, and the lower middle class.
There are also neighborhoods that enclave on ethnicity and racial backgrounds. This clustering creates an effect on the individual and social economic outcomes. The behavior of individuals within these groups and neighborhoods is influenced by the characteristics and earlier behaviors of elder members of the group. Peer group effect has also been identified to play a role in the economic outcomes of the individuals in the groups [Groups 147].
Remedies
Reducing income disparity witnessed in developed countries can be achieved through various mechanisms. The two major ways may include redistribution through benefits and taxation, and ensuring smaller income differences before taxation. However, the redistribution methods should ensure a progressive tax system and estate tax.
Both approaches cab be used collectively or combined to address the situation of income inequality within developed countries. The nature of government activities relating to the economy of a nation makes it impossible to have equal income distribution, especially in a free market economy or a mixed market economy. Income distribution will always be unequal. However, government interventions and regulations can help reduce the disparity.
The idea of wage compression and minimum wage encourages investment in non skilled labor thereby reducing the biasness witnessed whenever there is technical change [Understanding poverty p68]. Regulations in the labor market need to be structured in way that encourages parity in income levels. For instance, there are no regulations to review the compensation for the c-level management.
Why different
Institutional and geographical factors have been described to be at the center of differences in prosperity. The nations located in the tropics are not as rich as those located in the temperate areas. This does not necessarily imply that climatic conditions have a major role in economic outcomes, but it is a determinant of prosperity. Additionally, the institutions within these areas greatly differ. The main reason for this difference is because of the shaping that transpired during the colonial era.
As the Europeans settled in different areas, they set institutions based on the need of each location. For instance, the whites created institutions that attracted economic progress and investment in geographical areas associated with temperate climate. At the tropics, the kinds of institutions set up in these areas were extractive in nature making these areas to be less prosperous.
Geography becomes an important factor to explain the difference because of the historical role it plays in economic outcomes. Some of the nations that are rich today have been rich since history and this can be attributed to their geographical location. The tropic areas were also once richer than the temperate areas, but the impact of colonial activities turned the tables for these areas [33].
Institutions vary over time and across countries. They affect both the economic prosperity and the distribution of income. Good and effective institutions have the implication of enforcement of the rule of law and property rights. They give rise to well-functioning markets, development of infrastructure, and innovation. They also increase social welfare. But the change from dysfunctional institutions to good ones may be blocked by powerful groups whose interests may get hurt if the change takes place [p20-21].
Conclusion
Based on the discussion developed in the paper, it is apparent that even though the average income of people living in developed countries is above the poverty line, the nations still experience income inequality. In order to understand the causes of inequality in rich nations, three theoretical points of view have been used: labor market dynamics, institutional view, and socioeconomic environment view.
Recommendations on solutions to the problem have also been provided. The remedies focus on two major areas: redistribution of income and ensuring smaller income differences before taxation. Lastly, institutional and geographical factors have been used to explain the differences in remedies and cause of poverty between developing nations and developed economies.
Bardy authored an article published by the Canberra Times, indicating a likely rise in poverty and unemployment due to increased taxation during the coronavirus condition. The report focused on the Jobseeker payment in Australia that faced a new rate. The payment that focused on relieving people from plunging into poverty during the current pandemic would no longer meet its objectives, as stated in its program (Bardy 2021). If more people got into poverty, the cumulative figure would rise to around 4 million, pointing to a total increase of more than a million (Bardy 2021). However, only 9500 Australians would be lifted out of the same situation if the payment remained as before.
The modeling that led to the conclusion used various figures for adults. The primary target was earnings, and numbers $310 a week, some $560 a fortnight, and $625 in 2 weeks were considered (Bardy 2021). These figures added to the number that never had any jobs before the pandemic, with some struggling to set up their businesses simultaneously (BBC News 2021b). The government on its side defended the move while trying to justify the new measures benefits, a move that would still not benefit the country. Thus, the increase in taxation threatens both people trying to establish their business and those who already have a job.
The author provides relevant concerns on the governments need to reconsider the payment cuts for people without jobs. Mostly, it isnt easy seeking and successfully getting employment due to the situation arising (Kawol & Nordt 2020). Reducing the payment only means people will have to seek extra money for their use and sometimes get to poverty. It is also unclear when the economy would stabilize again amid the COVID-19 situation (Australian Government no date). Helpless citizens need more intervention by the government to remain stable before they can resume their jobs. These issues are significant in avoiding any calamities that would arise from the countrys lack of employment (Gilfillan 2020). It would be better to reduce its spending on non-urgent development programs to contain the current looming poverty.
Although some concepts of the arguments are compelling, for the most part, the findings and arguments do not look quite convincing. The number of people earning different figures a week or a fortnight could vary, depending on the changes in their lives. The authors needed to find information about those who got some employment and use the model to recalculate the figures. The governments measures to revive the economy may also lead to new employment opportunities that may result in more jobs (Visontay 2021). Expectations about the end of the pandemic could lead to more opportunities, a factor that does not feature in the authors analysis (BBC News 2021a). These considerations could be pointers to new economic development and increased revenue by the government and people.
Given the insufficient number of factors studied in detail and the need for further, deeper analysis of the existing meanings and situations, this article is not convincing enough. Despite their significance and importance, the concepts used are not helpful in further studying the economy due to insufficient in-depth analysis. The existing article touches upon many important topics; however, most of them are practically not disclosed, which complicates the understanding of both the text and applying this study to economics.
Bardys analysis focuses on macroeconomic factors, viewed in the context of the spreading COVID-19 pandemic, which affects the entire economy. Difficulty finding a job leads to changes in key concepts such as demand and supply curves. As a result of job losses, people who needed money to cushion them during the hard times increased. With the government providing the same amount to the JobSeekers, the figures had to reduce significantly over the period. According to Balleer, Link, Menkhoff, and Zorn (2020), the publics high demand meant a low or reduction of the governments number of funds. Other issues identified included unemployment rates that may lead to a rise in credit value by the citizens within the period.
Though these numbers were evident in the article, the author does not use exact economic principles in his work. The primary focus was on the well-being of the people affected. The texts main emphasis was placed on the presentation of statistics, which were exceptionally poorly explained. As mentioned above, the entire text looks very unclear due to preliminary analysis, which complicates its understanding. In particular, interpretation is complicated due to insufficiently clear use of terms or their complete absence. A reader can guess that specific terms are implied, but they are not indicated directly.
I have to give the authors credit for presenting a concept that is currently worrying every state in the world. According to Strauss (2020), unemployment rates rise daily and subject people to sufferings and economic distress. Governments cushioning people through relief payments is becoming tricky if they cannot collect revenues too. The effects on the social life and economics of the country are highlighted. Poverty is difficult to handle, and the state could use this article as a revelation to their plans. Despite the excellent approach to highlight Australians plight, the article needed to incorporate every factor that may lead to a twist in the economic situation shortly. These would include the likely increased earnings by the people if more employment opportunities were explored. The methods applied by the government to revive the economy also differed and never brought in better results over time. I would also have considered how this trend changed over the last year by bringing in the monthly analysis of drops in employment and earnings. Doing so would reveal the critical concepts that the government needs to handle as they revive the economy.
References
Australian Government, no date, Analysis of Australias food security and the COVID-19 pandemic, Web.
Balleer, A, Link, S, Menkhoff, M, Zorn, P 2020, Demand or supply? Price adjustment during the COVID-19 pandemic, CESifo Working Paper No. 8394. Web.
Bardy, D.J 2021, JobSeeker cut to plunge Canberrans into poverty, new analysis, Canberra Times, Web.
BBC News 2021a, COVID: Brisbane lockdown ends ahead of Easter weekend, Web.
BBC News 2021b, UN: Covid jobs crisis most severe since the 1930s, Web.
Gilfillan, G 2020, COVID-19: Labour market impacts on key demographic groups, industries and regions, Web.
Kawol, W and Nordt, C 2020, COVID-19, unemployment, and suicide, Lancet Psychiatry, Vol. 7, Iss. 5, pp. 389-390. Web.
Strauss, D 2020, Hidden joblessness threatens economic recovery in US and Europe, Financial Times. Web.
Visontay, E 2021, End of December more realistic target for all Australians to get Covid vaccine, AMA says. The Guardian, Web.
The decision of the Soviet Union to reduce aid to Vietnam posed serious economic, social and political challenges to this country. The union had stood by this country and supported it since the end of the Second World War. However, a decision was made to stop all forms of aid that supported Vietnam, and it became inevitable that this country would fail. However, there have been tremendous improvements in the lives of Vietnamese due to the high economic growth rate witnessed in recent years. This discussion examines the impacts of Vietnams economic growth rate on poverty and inequality.
The Vietnamese Communist Party (VCP) proposed an economic stimulus plan that involved gradual changes in the economy and political stability that gave preference to liberalization. Major policies were initiated in 1986, and this moved Vietnams economy from a centralized system to a free market. The policy had profound impacts on the economy and inequality in the following ways. VCP was influential in shaping the future of Vietnam and ensuring that its citizens lived a better life.
Main Text
First, the virtual de-collectivization of agriculture opened room for all people interested in farming to invest in this sector and develop the economy. Significant land reform policies were established to privatize ownership and ensure locals had a stake in building their nation (Turley and Selden Par. 2). The problem of food shortage was solved within months because people invested heavily in the agricultural sector. Moreover, job opportunities were created because more land was available for cultivation. The standards of living improved and this was reflected in the increase of the national gross domestic product and per capita income. The gap between the rich and poor was significantly reduced because people that were employed to work for the rich started earning income from their farms.
Secondly, the government allowed private employers to recruit a maximum of 10 workers. The economy expanded and absorbed most people in informal employment. Poverty levels decreased because of a lower dependence rate. A significant part of the population was active in employment, and this means that the numerous income-generating activities improved the economy of this country (Son 9). The income share held by the highest 20% of individuals increased while that of their counterparts decreased. The problem of social and economic inequality was controlled by the reduction of restrictions on private companies and increased autonomy for enterprise managers.
However, the elimination of direct subsidies and price controls was a significant boost in the agricultural sector. The use of modern technology in agriculture reduced the demand for human labor. Therefore, there were limited job opportunities in the agricultural sector (Turley and Selden Par. 4). Industries offered more opportunities than firms because the former required human labor to sustain the production and distribution processes. Moreover, modern technology replaced the need for human labor in firms.
Conclusion
The creation of new industry ad service jobs propelled the economy of this country by increasing employment opportunities and creating room for tertiary investments (Son 17). The rate of economic growth was spurred by a liberal economic and political system that targeted individuals with investment powers. Vietnams economy has tripled its productivity because more people invest their earnings in income-generating activities. The poverty gap decreased significantly because of the newly created employment opportunities. The transition from a centrally-based to a liberal economy motivated private investors to invest in the manufacturing sector.
Works Cited
Son, Hyun H. Poverty Centre. Vietnam: Jobs, Growth, and Poverty. Hangzhou: International Poverty Center, 2005. Print.
Turley, William S. and Mark Selden. Reinventing Vietnamese Socialism: Doi Moi in Comparative Perspective. San Jose State University Department of Economics, 2010. Web.
The Impact of the Economy Growth Rate on Unemployment Rates
Unemployment rates will become lower in case economic growth in Africa takes place. This is explained by the fact that a variety of working positions will be created (Khapoya, 2010). African people are mostly employed in the agricultural sector, but with economical expansion, working positions might be established in industrial areas. This will become a very positive outcome for the African population because industrially based jobs offer higher levels of payment. In addition, such jobs have a permanent basis, but not a seasonal one (Eberstadt, 2010). Therefore, due to economic expansion, the population will receive a chance to be employed throughout the year.
The Impact of the Economy Growth Rate on Food Prices
The impact of the economic growth rate on food prices is very positive as under the influence of economic growth, more products and goods are produced, competition levels among enterprises are raised, and thus, the food prices go down to attract customers (Eberstadt, 2010). In addition, the prices for certain goods, which were artificially high due to their deficit, will become reasonable (Khapoya, 2010).
The Impact of the Economy Growth Rate on Country Security
The level of country security in Africa will become higher due to economic growth. This is explained by the fact that economic stability causes political stability. If authority is firmly established in the hands of strong, confident, and stable leaders, the level of country security raises. Citizens come to be better protected in such important areas as political stability, health care services, and educational services. In addition, economic stability results in lowering the level of organized crime (Binns, Dixon & Nel, 2012). The examples of many poor African countries show that due to economical instability, people there are pushed to engage in serious crimes such as piracy and kidnapping. On the contrary, if the local population in an African country enjoys economic stability, employment, and confidence in the future, the level of crime in it is insignificant compared to poor African countries (Mwabu & Thorbecke, 2004).
The Impact of the Economy Growth Rate on Agriculture Industry
The impact of economic growth on agriculture is ambivalent. On one side, economical growth will cause growth in the agricultural industry, on the other side, economical growth usually results in the development of industrial areas of production.
Positive Outcomes for Groups in Society
A decrease in poverty among the representatives of different social groups will take place as a result of economic growth, and its outcomes include the growth of employment rates, a fall in prices, and country security. The poorest and socially unprotected people will acquire a better level of social payments from governments as national budgets will become enough financed for this. In addition, due to the creation of new jobs, people from all social layers and groups will have an opportunity to find jobs or to change their former jobs for jobs with a better level of payment. Besides, the representatives from all social groups will benefit as a result of improving the level of national security as political stability will result in lessening the levels of crimes and improving the quality of the state services such as healthcare and education. Thus, a conclusion can be made that economic growth in Africa will result in the social stability of the local population.
References
Binns, T., Dixon, A., & Nel, E. (2012). Africa: Diversity and Development. London: Routledge.
Eberstadt, N. (2010). The Global Poverty Paradox. Commentary, 130(3), 16-23.
Khapoya, V. (2010). The African Experience. An Introduction, 3rd ed. New York: Pearson Education.
Mwabu, G., & Thorbecke, E. (2004). Rural Development, Growth and Poverty in Africa. Journal Of African Economies, 13(1), 16-65.
The phenomenon of poverty is one of the most pervasive and persistent, as well as consistently ubiquitous. People are affected by poverty even in the states that are deemed as the safest financially, which is why it is important to look at the phenomenon of poverty as a composite product of socioeconomic, sociocultural, and sociopolitical factors. Poverty strikes vulnerable groups especially strongly, causing them to suffer from the lack of essential resources. As a rule, special populations including racial and ethnic minorities are stricken by poverty particularly fiercely (Rao, van Ruijven, Riahi, & Bosetti, 2017). Due to the combined effect of the absence of social support, cultural ostracism, and low availability of crucial resources, special populations endure especially powerful damage from poverty and the outcomes that it entails. By improving the current programs and allowing them to focus on community-specific needs to tackle specific issues, one will be able to alleviate the effects of poverty on special and marginalized populations.
Types of Populations Affected
When considering the groups that suffer from poverty particularly strongly, one should mention racial and ethnic minorities. Due to the presence of discrimination against the members of the specified communities, poverty often affects people belonging to racial and ethnic minorities (Zazzetta et al., 2017). Therefore, the specified category needs to be recognized as the one requiring social protection.
Women and girls belong to another frequently marginalized group that suffers from the absence of financial resources significantly as well. The specified category is affected by poverty especially strongly since women and girls face a very specific kind of poverty that the other categories do not. Namely, the phenomenon of period poverty as one of the main effects of the lack of financial resources and corresponding hygiene products needs to be mentioned as the issue that affects women and girls in particular.
In addition, poverty has a direct effect on people from racial and ethnic minority groups. Due to the presence of prejudices and low financial resources, the specified groups have very few education options and the resulting job opportunities. As a result, their income drops to a drastic level, which creates a loop of poverty in the specified setting. The effects that poverty has on the specified populations is dire. People experience social ostracism, major health issues, impediments to their professional growth, and other major issues that range from inconveniences to severe threats to their lives. Therefore, the problem of poverty and its impact on the lives of special populations need to be explored in greater detail. Thus, social programs for providing assistance to the specified demographic can be created.
Causes of Poverty
To examine the effects that poverty has on people, its causes need to be considered closer. Unequal wealth distribution along with limited access to education and financial resources currently represent the major factors leading to poverty. The resulting lack of employment opportunities create the environment escaping which becomes nearly impossible (Kalokhe et al., 2017). The lack of educational opportunities, in turn, leads to few to none employment options for people belonging to special groups, hence an even sharper rise in poverty, which closes the vicious cycle.
Outcomes of Poverty
Considering the populations mentioned above, poverty has a tremendously negative outcome on their well-being and quality of their lives. Namely, studies mention that, in vulnerable groups, poverty and the associated financial struggles, as well as social issues that it entails, are likely to cause severe mental health issues (Ahmed, Haq, & Bartiaux, 2019). In addition, the loss of a significant amount of access to a range of healthcare services ,means that vulnerable communities suffer from a variety of diseases to a much greater extent than those with a more substantial financial support.
Research also indicates that women and girls living in poverty are much more likely to become the victims of domestic violence and abuse, as well as sexual assaults, than their wealthier counterparts (Chant, 2016). In addition, in relation to girls and women, the access to female hygiene products becomes restricted for poverty-stricken citizens. The phenomenon of period poverty as an umbrella term for the scenarios in which women and girls are incapable of purchasing female hygiene products has become ubiquitous in poor communities (Chant, 2016). As a result, young women and girls face restriction in access to public places, including schools (Day, 2018). The resulting drop in quality of education for girl and young women creates the basis for further aggravation of the problem.
In addition, poverty affects people with special needs massively, which includes people with mental and physical health impairments. For instance, the education for people with special needs undergoes significant changes since the increase in poverty implies fewer resources and a lower range of options for studying effectively. The family lives of vulnerable groups suffering from poverty is also affected to a large degree. With the rise in the number of impediments to the effective management of primary needs, family members tend to experience pent-up anger, which may eventually result in family violence (van Hek, Kraaykamp, & Pelzer, 2018). Women and children should be seen as particularly prone to begin the victims of domestic abuse in poverty-stricken areas (Kalokhe et al., 2017). Therefore, safeguarding the specified demographic should be established as one of the main goals in addressing the effects of poverty on special populations.
Solutions
Needless to say, a range of programs have been devised in order to address the problem of poverty. However, since the nature of the issue at hand is cyclic and rooted in economic inequalities, as well as the inconsistencies in wealth distribution, controlling the phenomenon of poverty is quite difficult. Since its external factors are closely intertwined with the power structure that is currently at play.
In conjunction to the issue of poverty and its effects on ethnic and racial minorities, the fact that the specified issue represents a major impediment to education and job opportunities should be handled on the statewide level. Namely, fewer opportunities for people with low income to be employed should be offered. In turn, the creation of job opportunities will be possible once private entrepreneurship starts developing in the specified settings. Another important solution to the problem of poverty in vulnerable groups, the enhancement in the quality of the dialogue between the vulnerable members and the rest of the society needs to be considered. By making the communication between vulnerable people with special needs and the rest of the target society more pronounced, one will be able to ensure that approaches toward meeting these needs are created. Moreover, the current approach toward allocating the needed resources will be shaped to address the concerns associated with the restrictions faced by people with special needs. As a result, vulnerable populations will be affected by the negative effects of poverty to a lesser degree.
The management of educational opportunities is another solution that can be utilized to advance the current framework for managing vulnerable populations needs. By including innovative technology into the process of knowledge sharing and building education , one will be able to handle the issue of the lack of proper education in people with special needs. The special population will receive extra opportunities for addressing the challenges that poverty poses to their education and the extent of their knowledgeability about the area of their selected expertise. Therefore, with the increase in educational opportunities for people form poor backgrounds is expected once the proposed strategies are launched. As a result, the problem of poor education and the subsequent loss of employment opportunities will finally be addressed.
Conclusion
Since special populations, which are represented by a vast range of minorities in the case in point, have a mostly restricted access to essential resources, poverty has especially drastic effects on the quality of their lives and their overall well-being. Poverty has a crippling effect on the lives of people with special needs, people representing racial and ethnic minorities, women and children, aging citizens, and many more categories of vulnerable groups. Therefore, it is crucial to counteract the effects of poverty on the specified denizens. For this purpose, organizations striving to support people that have been affected by poverty will have to be restructured with the greater focus on offering additional access to crucial resources. These include health management tools and materials, education, employment opportunities, options for gaining new skills and competencies, and other types of support based on the specific vulnerability of a particular community. Thus, the effects of poverty on vulnerable groups and populations with special needs will be reduced.
References
Ahmed, K. J., Haq, S. M. A., & Bartiaux, F. (2019). The nexus between extreme weather events, sexual violence, and early marriage: A study of vulnerable populations in Bangladesh. Population and Environment, 40(3), 303-324.
Zazzetta, M. S., Gomes, G. A., Orlandi, F. S., Gratao, A. C., Vasilceac, F. A., Gramani-Say, K.,& & Nascimento, C. M. (2017). Identifying frailty levels and associated factors in a population living in the context of poverty and social vulnerability. The Journal of Frailty and Aging, 6(1), 29-32. Web.
The stability of the country can be achieved when it is developed in various spheres of life. In this respect, it is necessary to admit that the level of poverty is evaluated in different countries in terms of how the state power provides reforms in social, educational, economic, or political domains of peoples lives. This is why a lack of a strong and rational approach toward all sides of the issue is appropriate in the developed countries. The United States with its strong position in the world arena is not an exclusion and seems to be weak in making its citizens supplied and supported with everything necessary for life. The paper is intended to work out the problem of poverty existing in the US so that to analyze the factors which contribute to the issue of such negative characteristics in social life. The analysis deals with such sides as economic, governmental, and religious features. Furthermore, the flow of the thought development touches upon possible suggestions in order to diminish the rates of poverty in the so-called wealthy and influential countries of the world.
First of all, it is vital to have some glimpses at the current policy-making of the American government. External relations became more vital for the dynamics of the relationship of the country. This is why the internal development props up against only projects for making solutions for the society in terms of poverty. In this case, such initiatives should also go through a difficult bureaucratic procedure of adaptation and then no one knows whether it will improve the situation. There appears a supposition that the US is too busy to make concerns about the problem. Most of the officials would say that there were typical and proper reforms adopted earlier and the Welfare Reform Bill of 1996 with its mere fewer consequences for the society. In accordance with a state structure and its bilateral character of state power, there is a fair question of why people in America are still struggling from poverty. It is a paradox for the observers, in fact.
On the other hand, it is important to realize what layers of the society are placed at the level of poverty or even lower. In this respect, it is obvious that the United States, as a so-called melting pot, is full of people from Latin America and other countries searching for living in the country. There are many obstacles that make the process of employment too difficult. It concerns the issue of following the correct procedure and rejections of employers to pay attention to somebody with a tarnished reputation. Iceland (2006) shows a particular comparison statistics as of poverty rates in the US and European countries noting: Even when using the US absolute poverty threshold, the American poverty rate still surpasses those in many European countries, despite the fact that the United States gross domestic product (GDP) per capita is significantly higher (136). Looking at such outrageous data there is a fair question: What is wrong with the country and its government? The thing is that, perhaps, the life of Americans is lacking government transfers into spheres of social guarantees, education, and employment. Moreover, it may be concerned also with an uncertain picture of the states market incomes.
The welfare dilemma of the United States points out the fact, which according to Segalman and Basu (1981) state that despite the fact that in a market of potential employment opportunities the unskilled wage-earners in a large family can probably not earn as much as they are entitled to on a welfare grant (81). In this respect, the government still is not able to make some changes in the social approach toward a problem of grants for large and poor families living mostly in slums. The political outlook on this problem is outlined as a process of not only one year. Such pretexts leave no place for peoples beliefs.
There is now growing ideological convergence on what it takes to end poverty. Liberals and conservatives agree that ending poverty is about both personal behaviors and rewards to work; about both values and economics. Ending poverty requires opportunities for wealth creation as well as income support, empowerment as well as transfer payments (Spriggs, 2007).
There is a hot discussion about the prospects of poverty, but no direct actions toward the way of its solutions. Furthermore, in the economic component of national growth, there is a problem with healthcare services. Since the adoption of Clintons Healthcare Program, the publicity has had huge problems in the domain of medical insurance. Poor people are not allowed to financial fulfill the problem. Contemporary Obamas administration attempts to improve the situation, but still, there are no weighty movements toward improvements. It is an obvious fact when poor women do not have the possibility to provide their children with appropriate treatment in hospitals. It is due to no medical insurance. Furthermore, it is a direct violation of doctors oath to serve human ideals. In reality, it reminds a demonstration of moneys power over humanity. Thus, the government should provide reforms in terms of making some special donations or programs to support the weakest layer of society.
A fragmented character of state power being centralized in a form of a federal outline of the country and its division into states makes more points for people to distrust different attitudes of the government toward their problems with poverty in a definite state. That is why people are apt to feel more support from other individuals and charity organizations, than from the government. The religious aspect plays a great role in this part of the discussion. The protestant churches, in particular, ground their social work and activity on making more ways to improve poor peoples lives giving them lodging for the night and food. Moreover, believers give people also their attention and care so needful for human beings.
Stating social objectives it is necessary to admit that it is possible for the government to accept special bills for making economic costs in favor of poor people improved. In fact, the index of employment in the USA will directly be reflected in the stability of the national currency. Iceland (2006) in this respect writes: Markets often enhance risk, while government transfers programs, particularly social insurance ones, are meant to reduce risks (138). This outline of all parties being influential in terms of poverty decrease still seems to have no positive movement.
To sum up, the situation with poverty in the United States is rather a striking objective to disgrace previous and current state power in an inability to make the life of Americans with more priorities in terms of social guarantees and improvements. From all, economic, political, social, points of view, the situation still reminds a paradoxical stop in internal relationships for the US.
References
Iceland, J. (2006). Poverty in America: a handbook (2nd ed.). Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Segalman, R. and Basu, A. (1981). Poverty in America: The Welfare Dilemma. New York: Greenwood Press.
Spriggs, W. E. (2007). The Changing Face of Poverty in America: Why Are So Many Women, Children, Racial and Cultural Minorities Still Poor?. The American Prospect, Vol. 18.
Non Governmental Organizations (NGOs) have had their share of criticism the world over. Some have called them as capitalist tools, others as agents of American extra-regional hegemony and Christian proselytizers in disguise while the more extreme have outrageously called NGOs as CIA agents. Robyn Eversole through her book Here to Help: NGOs Combating Poverty in Latin America argues that the activities of NGOs in Latin America are for much nobler purposes; to combat poverty but are challenged by a host of circumstances, some being a creation of the NGOs themselves and other more political and sociological complexities that govern the condition of mankind in the developing world.
Main body
Poverty elevation is the duty of governments, which unfortunately has been a weak area in Latin American countries. In the absence of robust governmental institutions, it is the NGOs who are left to fill in the space to act as a bridge between the government and the people. To substantiate this argument, Eversole first refers to the work carried out by two NGOs; Plan International and CARE in Ecuador in the field of helping indigenous small holder agriculturalists 1. Despite land reforms in the 1960s and the 1970s, the Ecuadorian governments agricultural policies and subsidies had been haphazard favoring urban settlements more than the rural countryside where the problems actually existed2. Realizing the difficulties and incapability of government agencies to actually resolve poverty alleviation, the government actively courted NGOs to fill in the space. CARE and Plan International thought that they could adopt a holistic strategy to deliver help to the countryside. They realized that any help to the unorganized agricultural sector where land holdings of individual farmers were small would have to take ecology into account and would require the wholehearted participation of the farmers where local knowledge would be complemented with modern agricultural techniques and not displace them. The Plan project worked with the indigenous community of Sunicoral, San Juan over a period of 14 years and was initially successful in reducing poverty in that community comprising of about 75 families3. The project focused on infrastructure development in the initial years with potable water system, sanitary systems and electrification plan to lay the groundwork for further development. Resistance from local politicians was also faced which did hamper the progress of the project for about two years4 but nonetheless, it succeeded with the community pooling in resources and resorting to community based farming that helped reduce general levels of poverty. A later day review however found that while most infrastructure put into place was still functional, sanitary systems had fallen into disrepair as the people had reverted to their age-old customs of defecating in open fields5. Community based agricultural development had broken down after the NGO had exited because of ownership issues and the mixed economy venture of raising pigs and poultry had deteriorated. Final end result of the Plan project was that it had failed on almost all accounts as the customs and rules which enforced an orderly behavioral pattern were alien to the target population who abandoned the project on the departure of the NGO. The CARE project too suffered a similar fate with the targeted families abandoning the conservation cum mixed farming approach and migrating out to the U.S. for jobs6. The reasons why the projects failed ranged from paternalistic behavior of the NGOs, local populace getting used to receiving high technology systems for free and not wishing to maintain them, inability to generate real participation from the targeted community, creation of dependency on the NGOs and a mismatch in cultural contextualization7.
Elsewhere in Latin America, Eversole recounts that even religious affiliated NGOs faced the same problem of trying to align their philosophies with those of the indigenous cultures and then seeking to reconcile the economic concerns that all NGOs place as priority number one. The work of religious NGOs in Argentina reflected similar conclusions that as long as the emphasis was on maintenance of indigenous culture and then on other concerns, the project is likely to succeed8.
Development of cottage industry and tourism oriented industry for subsistence by marginalized communities too face a number of pitfalls. The local power dynamics and cultural issues made real integration almost impossible. NGOs trying to make women self sufficient by making ceramic pottery in Santa Rita, Ecuador failed as local customs and culture were not taken into consideration9. NGOs wanting to implement microenterprise development in targeted areas could not hope for success without the backing of the host government. In such cases, NGOs provided the requisite interface to enable the locals involved in microenterprise have access to larger government policies. The success of NGO ACRE in Bolivia was limited to enabling the locals in harnessing resources that would have otherwise remained out of reach 10.
Eversole observes that the socio-political landscape of a country makes developmental work difficult. The experience of NGOs working in the Chiapas community of Mexico shows that at times, the government deliberately withheld developmental work because of political reasons. The Chiapas demanded greater autonomy for their region which the central government was loath to agree to. In such cases, NGOs had to carry out a delicate balancing act between developmental work to reduce poverty and not be seen as hostile entities working against the Mexican government. Eversoles analysis that NGOs in Mexico had played a more political role in addition to developmental work is borne out by Randall who states that in Mexico, NGOs were first connected to the Catholic Church dealing with social and economic issues but later became more involved in political issues in helping the poor discover their path to liberation11. Eversole also remarks on the perception of the indigenous community that the NGOs were using their cause to generate funds, which did not actually reach the community but went to fund external agencies and outsiders12. Having analyzed the operative issues, Eversole offers a macro view that alleviating poverty through NGO vision and NGO cultural prism will almost never work and that for success of poverty alleviation programs, the NGOs require being cultural translators, helping a donor to see the problem and collaborate on a solution 13.
Eversoles analysis that NGOs often make the mistake of projecting their world view on indigenous communities is quite accurate. It has been found that western constructs and western ideas of social interaction do not necessarily compliment those obtained in an indigenous setting. Thus efforts of NGOs that fail to recognize this dichotomy almost certainly result in failure. Western concepts of individualism and positivism do not necessarily reflect as a reality amongst traditional societies. Thus what may seem to be quite logical and advantageous for an indigenous society may not be viewed as such by that society for not everyone has the same yardstick and importance for economic prosperity as the western society has.
Eversoles analysis is decidedly pitched towards a liberalist view of the world where the NGOs have only the welfare of humankind as their core interests. This interpretation overlooks the possibility that there are a vast number of NGOs who operate from a Realist prism of human affairs and their motives and intentions may not be as benign and as idealistic as Eversole would want her readers to believe. In fact the majority of European NGOs reject the view that political democracy and economic redistribution can and should be conceptually differentiated 14. There are a vast number of NGOs who do represent special interest groups who exploit weaknesses in the developing world for their own gains. Another view which has not been explored by Eversole is that there has been a proliferation of NGOs in Latin America that has actually dented their legitimacy15. In fact there were 550 NGOs working in Latin America in the 1990s inspired by the success of some NGOs in resisting Argentine dictatorship16. There are also numerous NGOs who operate at the behest of national governments for the national interests of those nations and not out of any real empathy or sympathy for the downtrodden. Some even accuse NGOs of undermining democracy by taking social programs out of the hands of the local people and their elected officials to create dependence on non-elected, overseas officials and their locally anointed officials 17. These NGOs do propagate the government line of their parent countries and thus become suspect in the eyes of many people. Petras observes that in Bolivia the NGOs did absorb many of Bolivias former leftist intellectuals and turned them into apologists for the neoliberal system 18.
Conclusion
In conclusion it can be reiterated that this book provides sufficient background information for understanding the dynamics of NGO operations in Latin America. Eversoles analysis provides an easy reference of Dos and Donts that NGOs need to take heed of. The book impressed the author of this book review for its frank assessment of the failures of NGO projects in Latin America but at the same time, failed to create a holistic impression as Eversole had not comprehensively addressed all aspects of NGO involvement in Latin America. This failure is especially evident in the absence of comprehensive criticism of NGOs pursuing a Realist agenda on behalf of their parent governments and special interest groups. In the final analysis this book could be a useful primer for all students of sociology, anthropology and humanitarian studies.
Bibliography
Bebbington, Anthony, and Graham Thiele. Non-governmental Organizations and the State in Latin America: Rethinking Roles in Sustainable Agricultural Development. NY: Routledge, 1993.
Eversole, Robyn. Here to Help: NGOs Combating Poverty in Latin America. NY: M.E. Sharpe, 2003.
Grugel, Jean. Democracy Without Borders: Transnationalization and Conditionality in New Democracies. NY: Routledge, 1999.
Korey, William. NGOs and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights: A Curious Grapevine. NY: Palgrave Macmillan, 2001.
Petras, James. Imperialism and NGOs in Latin America. Monthly Review Vol 49 No. 7. 1997. Web.
Randall, Laura. Changing Structure of Mexico: Political, Social, and Economic Prospects. NY: M.E. Sharpe, 2006.
Footnotes
Robyn Eversole, Here to Help: NGOs Combating Poverty in Latin America,(NY; M.E. Sharpe, 2003),3.
ibid, 4.
ibid, 9.
ibid, 11.
ibid, 14.
ibid, 20.
ibid, 21.
ibid, 82.
ibid, 103-105.
ibid, 116.
Laura Randall, Changing Structure of Mexico: Political, Social, and Economic Prospects, (NY: M.E. Sharpe, 2006), 491.
Eversole, 191.
ibid, 198.
Jean Grugel, Democracy Without Borders: Transnationalization and Conditionality in New Democracies, (NY: Routledge, 1999), 127.
Anthony Bebbington & Graham Thiele, Non-governmental Organizations and the State in Latin America: Rethinking Roles in Sustainable Agricultural Development, (NY: Routledge, 1993), 56.
William Korey, NGOs and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights: A Curious Grapevine, (NY: Palgrave Macmillan, 2001), 283.
James Petras, Imperialism and NGOs in Latin America , Monthly Review Vol 49 No. 7, 1997. Web.