Category: Poverty

Introduction

The Lesson is a short story composed in 1972 by Bambara. This piece conforms to the fiction genre; furthermore, the author employs different styles in writing such as linguistic, non-genre plot, imagery and humanistic subject that attracts diverse readers. The conjured narration is set in the interior cities within New York amongst the poor, lower class and uneducated city children.

The main theme of narration is Poverty and Wealth. Poverty typifies deprivation; thus, lacking necessities like foodstuff, accommodation, clothing and water. Concurrently, wealth is the profusion of valuable income or possession of extra material for leisure.

The connotation of the theme is to lessen the gap amongst the wealthy and deprived. This theme contributes to the meaning of The Lesson because the narrator illustrates the differences that exist amid the prosperous and poor kids in the fictitious story. This theme is relevant in the short story since it helps the reader to comprehend the divergence amidst the pitiable and rich. Therefore, it is a valuable premise since it may culminate in societal development and the decrease of the gap among the pitiable and rich.

The narrator expresses the theme, poverty and wealth, by denoting that children in the story come from pitiable families. The narrator says, We all poor and live in the slums (Bambara para 3). This means that, the children originate from slums since one can find apartments characterized with drunkards and smell of urine in its hallway in such residences. This situation noticeably lacks in wealthy apartments.

Analysis of the contrary dimension, which is the expression of wealth, is evident when Sylvia says And Fat Butt already wasting his peanut-butter-and-jelly sandwich like the pig he is (Bambara, Par 2). Here, the narrator was trying to show the variances amongst the affluent and pitiable.

Indeed, Fat Butt was already satisfied with his food consequently wasting it; however, Sylvia and Sugar were desperately leaning on the mailbox watching other kids eating. Miss Moore expresses this theme by asking Sylvia and Sugar whether they acknowledge the authenticity and originality of money. This assertion postulates that the story housed persons with real money and fake money. Therefore, Miss Moore was defining to Sylvia and Sugar the gap that existed between them and her. This is upon correlation to their money status.

As the kids strolled on the street, Miss Moore told them money aint divided up right in this country this shows that the city housed persons with noticeable proportions of money. As the kids, reach the fifth avenue, they spot people dressed in different attractive styles and Miss Moore tells them this is the place, implying the differences that existed between that place and their normal homes (Bambara, Par 4).

Indeed, it had unique feature that the kids were unfamiliar with, a place, which belonged to higher-class people due to expensive equipment unlike their poor homes.

The narrator illuminates the poverty and wealth theme during the kids trip, Junebug asks them. Dont you have a calendar and a pencil case and a blotter and a letter-opener on your desk at home where you do your homework? (Bambara par 13). From the ensuing conversation, one can tell that despite of Mercedes having all the stated things at home, other kids like Sugar, Sylvia and Flyboy lacked a desk, homework and homes.

In the narration, The Lesson, by Toni Cade Bambara, the theme of scarcity and wealth become manifest in different incidences among the kids. It shows how poor people live differently from rich. Therefore, I will advocate for equality when it comes to income distribution, which will enhance development.

Works Cited

Bambara, Toni. The Lesson. 1972. Web.

Introduction

The high number of children born to poor families presents significant problems for a country. A Modest Proposal is a satirical essay by Jonathan Swift that proposes a solution to the challenge facing the kingdom. Swift was born and raised in Ireland; which allowed him to learn about the gap between the rich and poor, the papists, and Christians. It enabled him to figure out how the number of fatherless, poor children could be reduced to benefit everyone in the country. His proposal suggests that poor children should be well-fed and then sold to be eaten at the age of one year. This essay shows that Swift, being in the line of Anglo-Irish rulers who exercised power in Ireland, uses satire to convince the audience and demonstrate his logic towards eliminating poverty, though ironic.

The credibility of the Author

Swift is presented as a credible author who has a wide knowledge of the problem and is in a good position to propose a solution. First, he was born in Dubin, Ireland, one of the countrys largest cities (Swift 207). His birth is significant because being a citizen of the country, he has the heart for change and wishes to improve the living conditions in his country. It would be expected that only a child born in the land would be interested in altering the conditions in their homeland to develop solutions beneficial to all.

Second, the author is well-informed and therefore in a position to provide the proposal. According to Swift (208), he has turned my thoughts for many years, upon this important subject, implying that he is not giving a hasty or generalized solution. He also appears to have carefully calculated the cost and implications of his proposal. He argues that before a child is one year old, they may only need milk from their mothers, which may not cost above two shillings (Swift 208). He, therefore, believes that only after one year is a child expected to become a burden to their parents and the country. He proposes to turn those children into profitable use before they worsen the countrys economic situation and continue the cycle of poverty in their generations.

Third, Swifts proposal is guided by advice given by experienced professionals. For instance, he has been informed by a very knowing American of my acquaintance in London that a childs meat is wholesome and delicious (Swift 209). From the information given by his expert friend, Swift believes that the meat from a one-year-old will be sufficient and acceptable to serve the landlords (Swift 209). Again, he has gathered information from merchants who confirm that a child cannot yield enough money when sold before the age of twelve (Swift 209). His proposal is a consolidation of all the points noted from his observations and calculations, and advice from experts, proving his credibility as an author of the proposal.

Appeal to Audience

Every author aims to communicate their ideas to an audience and prompt them to agree or constructively critique the arguments raised. In A modest proposal Swift uses several techniques to appeal to his audience. One, he uses satire extensively in his article, from the beginning to the end. He starts by appealing to the readers emotions by reminding them of the great city that was before the streets were filled with beggars of the female sex (Swift 207). He wants to show the readers how his proposal would solve their problems by showing them how abortions could be reduced while benefiting the whole society. His appeal is based on creating a picture of the bad situation presently and the beautiful society that would be created by his proposal.

Second, he uses satire when describing the benefits of a childs meat. Although no parent would wish to offer their children food, Swift shows them how they would solve the biggest challenge in society by feeding themselves and the community. He claims that his proposal would reduce the pain and shame of women sacrificing their innocent babies (Swift 208). However, the solution he is suggesting is not in any way different from the child sacrifices already done by mothers. In his words, childrens meat will be somewhat dear, implying that the parents are bound to enjoy feeding their children (Swift 208). This is satirical and an effective strategy for attracting the audiences attention.

Validity of Logic

In literature, an authors logic can be declared valid or invalid depending on its connection to the result. A valid logic is characterized by a sound claim that leads to a sound conclusion. In essence, for valid logic, a true premise guarantees a true conclusion. In Swifts article, the logic is valid as it supports and enforces a true conclusion. His logic is that children above one year can be profitably used as meat. Aside from the social and moral implications of the act, his logic is valid since a childs meat according to him, could be used to serve the population, alleviating one of the biggest challenges.

The validity of his logic is founded on the research done on the prevalence of bastard children, theft, abortions, and the need for meat and financial support. First, he shows that the streets have been filled with beggars who, in his words, are a continuation of the poverty cycle plaguing the nation (Swift 207). Second, he uses mathematical proof to show that the amount of money used to raise a bastard child for up to one year is minimal compared to the benefits derived from selling them for meat (Swift 208). Lastly, he concludes that since after one year the child would be good meat, yet unprofitable for sale before twelve years, converting them to meat would be in the best interest of society.

Quality of Evidence

Every author depends on several sources for proof of their arguments. While some may solely depend on personal experiences, others reinforce their ideas with data and concrete evidence from outside sources. In this case, swifts evidence is based on his personal experiences, advice from the merchant, and a friend dealing in the meat business (Swift 210). As a child born and raised in Ireland, Swift knows the countrys population and the challenges faced by the poor and the rich. Therefore, using his experiences as evidence for the need to eliminate the problem of bastard children, street families and papists is a good source of evidence.

Swift mentions that eating the poor children would be financially beneficial because he has received information from the merchants. According to him, selling the children for slavery is not viable till they react twelve years (Swift 209). The information given by merchants is based on their experiences in human trafficking and therefore it provides a good source of information. Lastly, he shows that children meet will provide a continuous source of income all year round from the information given by his friend in London. Further, the month of March would be most profitable as that is the period in which most papists births are witnessed (Swift 209). Since the information is based on research from experts in the meat business, his evidence is of high quality and suitable for making valid conclusions.

Conclusion

In conclusion, Swift is one of the most talented authors who apply literary devices and stylistic appeals to woe the audience. His work is based on a rather obscene subject; eating children. Swifts article uses satire, irony, and appeals to emotions to show the readers that there is an imminent challenge in their society that needs an urgent solution. The title of the work, A Modest Proposal is ironic since the suggestions given are far from modest.

However, Swift uses evidence from his observations and expert advice from friends in the trafficking and meat business to prove the validity of his argument. Although the work is satirical and probably impractical in real life, Swifts proposal is appealing, valid, and based on high-quality evidence. He claims to reduce the sacrificial murder of children through abortion while leading them to death by being slaughtered for meat. It highlights how problems can be solved through means that may not be moral or sound in the societys standards but can prove profitable to society.

Work Cited

Swift, Jonathan. A modest proposal. Edited by Patrick Madden, Quotidiana, 2007, pp. 207-215.

Introduction

The climate of fear report was a report prepared by the southern poverty law center following a pattern of hate crimes against Latino Immigrants in Suffolk County. This report revealed the continuous hatred and prejudice against the undocumented Latino immigrants culminating in the murder of Marcelo Lucero.

The report also revealed how this pattern of bias and prejudice instilled fear among these immigrants, leading to the brutal murder and other perpetrated hate crimes. This paper will critically analyze the climate of fear report, seeking to explain how bias, fear and input of leaders fueled discrimination of Latino immigrants and the ultimate murder of Marcelo Lucero.

Background information

For several years, thousands of Latinos immigrants have continuously settled in the village of Long Island in Suffolk County. Their settlement in the village sparked tension hatred among the residents and the surrounding communities. The Suffolks county politicians and the police accelerated this hatred against these immigrants and to some extent, they even attacked them (Long Island Press, 2010).

By 2008, the native residents of the Suffolk County had already started organizing and forming groups that were against the Latino immigrants. On November 2008, a group of armed youths carried out the execution of Marcelo Lucero, who was an Ecuadorian immigrant, in Patchogue, New York.

After investigations, the police disclosed that the gang of youths who killed him called themselves the Caucasian Crew and their major agenda was to raid and kill the Latino immigrants. Hatred grew stronger towards the immigrants, who did not have documents to identify themselves (Potok, 2009).

The murder of Marcelo Lucero was just one of the targets of the racists youth gang, which targeted more people and the attacks became a pattern nation wide (Cook & Silva, 2008).

Following the murder of Marcelo Lucero in the Suffolk County, the federal government initiated an investigation to establish the foundations of the practice and pattern of hate crimes against the undocumented immigrants. In September 2009, the climate of fear report by the Southern Poverty Law Centre confirmed that the pattern and practice of hate crimes started in the past decades (Mala, 2009).

The murder of Lucero focused national attention on issues concerning the local fears and hate crimes. The report included the murder of Marcelo in its extended timeline documentation of patterns of hate crimes against undocumented immigrants all over the country.

This clearly implies that the murder of Lucero was not a mere accident or just another mob raid; it was due to an ongoing planned attack on all the undocumented immigrants in Suffolk County. The perpetrators of these hate crimes directed their hatred to the immigrants of Latino origin (Long Island Press, 2010).

Possible causes of the murder of Marcelo Lucero at the community level

It is evident that the murder of Marcelo was part of the constant hatred against the undocumented immigrants of Latino origin, which started at least a decade ago. The roots of this hatred in Suffolk County commenced with development of Sachem Quality of Life (SQL).

This militant anti-immigrant group spread false information asserting that Latino immigrants were to blame for sexual harassments, robbery and other serious offenses. This anti-immigrant group constantly spread the message that the Latino immigrants were fierce terrorists.

In addition, this group rose up against individuals or institutions advocating for the rights of these immigrants labeling them as collaborators (wilderside.com, 2009).

There were increased harassments against the Latino immigrants in Suffolk County. The perpetrators regularly pelted some of the immigrants with very sharp objects and launched some from cars. The climate of fear report also revealed that most Latino immigrants were victims of physical abuse perpetrated by organized anti-immigrant groups (Potok, 2009).

It was so severe that some perpetrators shot Latino immigrants with BB guns or sprayed some with pepper. These acts instilled much fear to these immigrants such that they would not even walk at night and some parents did not allow their children to play outside frequently (Mala, 2009).

This is a clear indication that there was a climate of hatred directed towards the undocumented immigrants of the Latino origin. Due to this, the anti-immigrant groups in Suffolk County carried out several planned attacks on these immigrants. This implies that these planned attacks on the immigrants happening at the community level fueled the murder of Lucero in Patchogue.

Another possible reason for the murder of Lucero was the possible assistance by the police at the community level. The climate of fear report revealed that the police in Suffolk County did nothing at all respond to the reported attacks. Most Latino immigrants indicated that the police blamed the victims instead of assisting them (Potok, 2009).

Other Latinos claimed that prior to the murder of Lucero, police would arbitrarily stop immigrants to enquire their identification, even when they were not doing anything illegal (Long Island Press, 2010).

Due to this indifference by the police, most immigrants chose not to report any attack to the police as it would be in vain. They also feared that if they report any attack to the police, they would require their identification, which these immigrants did not have (Mala, 2009).

Input of local and national leaders towards Latino-immigrants discrimination

A part from the native anti-immigrant groups, the local people and police fueling the hatred, the officials in Suffolk County also triggered these attacks.

For instance, after the Lucero murder, the county executive asserted that the killing would have been just a mere tragedy devoid of the earlier publicity of anti-immigrants activisms. The hard reality that came out was that hate violence against the Latino immigrants occurred even before this brutal killing, and the County officials fueled this violence (Potok, 2009).

For instance, one county legislator asserted that if he would see an influx of Latino day laborers in his town, he would organize the natives to attack them. Still another legislator claimed that he would immediately load his gun, if he saw Latino immigrants gathering in one place (wilderside.com, 2009).

These instances indicate how the local leadership fueled prejudice and hatred against the Latino immigrants. Instead of protecting the rights of such immigrants, these leaders supported the anti-immigrants groups at the local level to carry out attacks on the immigrants.

Bias and hatred for the Immigrants did not only occur at the County leadership, it was evident that even at the national level, there was much bias and prejudice against undocumented immigrants. This hatred sparkled after Republican politicians chose to use immigration as a wedge matter. They advocated and passed complex and harsh regulations to criminalize the undocumented immigrants.

There were concerted efforts by the congress to renovate the entire immigration policy for acknowledgement of the undocumented immigrants. However, these efforts did not prosper as the opponents only wanted to make the Latino immigrants suffer (Standing-firm.com, 2008).

The federal agents also repeatedly carried out several raids and banishments, with assistance from state and local groups. Because of these raids and deportations, the police stopped almost one in every ten Latinos including legal immigrants, and enquired their identification. This generated much fear in the Latino immigrants and they felt threatened by the whole system (Standing-firm.com, 2008).

These patterns of hate and discrimination fueled by local as well as national leaders clearly reveal a constant nationwide bias and prejudice against the Latino Immigrants. It is also evident that the murder of Lucero was because of these patterns of hate against the immigrants, which occurred both at the local level and at the national level.

Fear and prejudice as possible causes of anti-Latino immigrants

The climate of fear report revealed that fear could have accelerated the circumstances that led to the murder of Marcelo Lucero. The undocumented Latino immigrants said that they feared reporting the groups of young men who hurled stones and spit slurs at them prior to the murder. These immigrants believed that the police would arrest and deport them once they appear to report the attacks.

It is clear that if these immigrants were confident to report the attacks, then possibly the murder of Marcelo would not have occurred (Long Island Press, 2010). During the hearing, the young men who attacked Marcelo told the judge that they were sure the Latinos would not report them since they were illegal immigrants, hence feared interrogation concerning their immigration status (Eltman, 2011).

A part from fear, it emerged that there was much bias and prejudice against the Latino immigrants, which even sparkled in schools. In most public schools, there is much discrimination against these immigrants, which instills fear in them.

Most Latino students claim that their lack of identification as legal immigrants is a source of discrimination and prejudice. This further instilled much fear in them such that they could not report any hate violence perpetrated by the natives (Abendroth, 2010).

Conclusion

The pattern of hatred and prejudice against the undocumented Latino immigrant instilled much fear in these immigrants, especially in Suffolk County. This pattern of hatred caused several hate crimes against them culminating in the murder of Marcelo Lucero.

The immigrants feared to report any attacks to the police due to the repeated raids and deportation of any illegal immigrant. In addition, the police as well as local and national leadership fueled these hate crimes, instilling more fear to the Latino immigrants.

References

Abendroth, M. (2010). Young Latin American immigrants and their schooling on Long Island. Web.

Cook, F & Silva, M. (2008). Vigil for Marcelo Lucero. Web.

Eltman, F. (2011). PBS Not in Our Town Documentary: Hate Crime Debate Still Simmers. Web.

Long Island Press. (2010). Lucero Murder Hits Latin American Community: Immigrants say tension fading following attack. Web.

Mala, M. L. (2009). Climate of Fear Extends from Suffolk County into Comprehensive Immigration Reform Rhetoric. Web.

Potok, M. (2009). Southern Poverty Law Center Report: Climate of Fear. Web.

Standing-firm.com. (2008). A Death in Patchogue. Web.

Wilderside.com. (2009). Southern Poverty Law Center: Anti-Immigrant Climate Fuelling Violence against Latinos in Suffolk County. Web.

Introduction

The climate of fear report was a report prepared by the southern poverty law center following a pattern of hate crimes against Latino Immigrants in Suffolk County. This report revealed the continuous hatred and prejudice against the undocumented Latino immigrants culminating in the murder of Marcelo Lucero.

The report also revealed how this pattern of bias and prejudice instilled fear among these immigrants, leading to the brutal murder and other perpetrated hate crimes. This paper will critically analyze the climate of fear report, seeking to explain how bias, fear and input of leaders fueled discrimination of Latino immigrants and the ultimate murder of Marcelo Lucero.

Background information

For several years, thousands of Latinos immigrants have continuously settled in the village of Long Island in Suffolk County. Their settlement in the village sparked tension hatred among the residents and the surrounding communities. The Suffolks county politicians and the police accelerated this hatred against these immigrants and to some extent, they even attacked them (Long Island Press, 2010).

By 2008, the native residents of the Suffolk County had already started organizing and forming groups that were against the Latino immigrants. On November 2008, a group of armed youths carried out the execution of Marcelo Lucero, who was an Ecuadorian immigrant, in Patchogue, New York.

After investigations, the police disclosed that the gang of youths who killed him called themselves the Caucasian Crew and their major agenda was to raid and kill the Latino immigrants. Hatred grew stronger towards the immigrants, who did not have documents to identify themselves (Potok, 2009).

The murder of Marcelo Lucero was just one of the targets of the racists youth gang, which targeted more people and the attacks became a pattern nation wide (Cook & Silva, 2008).

Following the murder of Marcelo Lucero in the Suffolk County, the federal government initiated an investigation to establish the foundations of the practice and pattern of hate crimes against the undocumented immigrants. In September 2009, the climate of fear report by the Southern Poverty Law Centre confirmed that the pattern and practice of hate crimes started in the past decades (Mala, 2009).

The murder of Lucero focused national attention on issues concerning the local fears and hate crimes. The report included the murder of Marcelo in its extended timeline documentation of patterns of hate crimes against undocumented immigrants all over the country.

This clearly implies that the murder of Lucero was not a mere accident or just another mob raid; it was due to an ongoing planned attack on all the undocumented immigrants in Suffolk County. The perpetrators of these hate crimes directed their hatred to the immigrants of Latino origin (Long Island Press, 2010).

Possible causes of the murder of Marcelo Lucero at the community level

It is evident that the murder of Marcelo was part of the constant hatred against the undocumented immigrants of Latino origin, which started at least a decade ago. The roots of this hatred in Suffolk County commenced with development of Sachem Quality of Life (SQL).

This militant anti-immigrant group spread false information asserting that Latino immigrants were to blame for sexual harassments, robbery and other serious offenses. This anti-immigrant group constantly spread the message that the Latino immigrants were fierce terrorists.

In addition, this group rose up against individuals or institutions advocating for the rights of these immigrants labeling them as collaborators (wilderside.com, 2009).

There were increased harassments against the Latino immigrants in Suffolk County. The perpetrators regularly pelted some of the immigrants with very sharp objects and launched some from cars. The climate of fear report also revealed that most Latino immigrants were victims of physical abuse perpetrated by organized anti-immigrant groups (Potok, 2009).

It was so severe that some perpetrators shot Latino immigrants with BB guns or sprayed some with pepper. These acts instilled much fear to these immigrants such that they would not even walk at night and some parents did not allow their children to play outside frequently (Mala, 2009).

This is a clear indication that there was a climate of hatred directed towards the undocumented immigrants of the Latino origin. Due to this, the anti-immigrant groups in Suffolk County carried out several planned attacks on these immigrants. This implies that these planned attacks on the immigrants happening at the community level fueled the murder of Lucero in Patchogue.

Another possible reason for the murder of Lucero was the possible assistance by the police at the community level. The climate of fear report revealed that the police in Suffolk County did nothing at all respond to the reported attacks. Most Latino immigrants indicated that the police blamed the victims instead of assisting them (Potok, 2009).

Other Latinos claimed that prior to the murder of Lucero, police would arbitrarily stop immigrants to enquire their identification, even when they were not doing anything illegal (Long Island Press, 2010).

Due to this indifference by the police, most immigrants chose not to report any attack to the police as it would be in vain. They also feared that if they report any attack to the police, they would require their identification, which these immigrants did not have (Mala, 2009).

Input of local and national leaders towards Latino-immigrants discrimination

A part from the native anti-immigrant groups, the local people and police fueling the hatred, the officials in Suffolk County also triggered these attacks.

For instance, after the Lucero murder, the county executive asserted that the killing would have been just a mere tragedy devoid of the earlier publicity of anti-immigrants activisms. The hard reality that came out was that hate violence against the Latino immigrants occurred even before this brutal killing, and the County officials fueled this violence (Potok, 2009).

For instance, one county legislator asserted that if he would see an influx of Latino day laborers in his town, he would organize the natives to attack them. Still another legislator claimed that he would immediately load his gun, if he saw Latino immigrants gathering in one place (wilderside.com, 2009).

These instances indicate how the local leadership fueled prejudice and hatred against the Latino immigrants. Instead of protecting the rights of such immigrants, these leaders supported the anti-immigrants groups at the local level to carry out attacks on the immigrants.

Bias and hatred for the Immigrants did not only occur at the County leadership, it was evident that even at the national level, there was much bias and prejudice against undocumented immigrants. This hatred sparkled after Republican politicians chose to use immigration as a wedge matter. They advocated and passed complex and harsh regulations to criminalize the undocumented immigrants.

There were concerted efforts by the congress to renovate the entire immigration policy for acknowledgement of the undocumented immigrants. However, these efforts did not prosper as the opponents only wanted to make the Latino immigrants suffer (Standing-firm.com, 2008).

The federal agents also repeatedly carried out several raids and banishments, with assistance from state and local groups. Because of these raids and deportations, the police stopped almost one in every ten Latinos including legal immigrants, and enquired their identification. This generated much fear in the Latino immigrants and they felt threatened by the whole system (Standing-firm.com, 2008).

These patterns of hate and discrimination fueled by local as well as national leaders clearly reveal a constant nationwide bias and prejudice against the Latino Immigrants. It is also evident that the murder of Lucero was because of these patterns of hate against the immigrants, which occurred both at the local level and at the national level.

Fear and prejudice as possible causes of anti-Latino immigrants

The climate of fear report revealed that fear could have accelerated the circumstances that led to the murder of Marcelo Lucero. The undocumented Latino immigrants said that they feared reporting the groups of young men who hurled stones and spit slurs at them prior to the murder. These immigrants believed that the police would arrest and deport them once they appear to report the attacks.

It is clear that if these immigrants were confident to report the attacks, then possibly the murder of Marcelo would not have occurred (Long Island Press, 2010). During the hearing, the young men who attacked Marcelo told the judge that they were sure the Latinos would not report them since they were illegal immigrants, hence feared interrogation concerning their immigration status (Eltman, 2011).

A part from fear, it emerged that there was much bias and prejudice against the Latino immigrants, which even sparkled in schools. In most public schools, there is much discrimination against these immigrants, which instills fear in them.

Most Latino students claim that their lack of identification as legal immigrants is a source of discrimination and prejudice. This further instilled much fear in them such that they could not report any hate violence perpetrated by the natives (Abendroth, 2010).

Conclusion

The pattern of hatred and prejudice against the undocumented Latino immigrant instilled much fear in these immigrants, especially in Suffolk County. This pattern of hatred caused several hate crimes against them culminating in the murder of Marcelo Lucero.

The immigrants feared to report any attacks to the police due to the repeated raids and deportation of any illegal immigrant. In addition, the police as well as local and national leadership fueled these hate crimes, instilling more fear to the Latino immigrants.

References

Abendroth, M. (2010). Young Latin American immigrants and their schooling on Long Island. Web.

Cook, F & Silva, M. (2008). Vigil for Marcelo Lucero. Web.

Eltman, F. (2011). PBS Not in Our Town Documentary: Hate Crime Debate Still Simmers. Web.

Long Island Press. (2010). Lucero Murder Hits Latin American Community: Immigrants say tension fading following attack. Web.

Mala, M. L. (2009). Climate of Fear Extends from Suffolk County into Comprehensive Immigration Reform Rhetoric. Web.

Potok, M. (2009). Southern Poverty Law Center Report: Climate of Fear. Web.

Standing-firm.com. (2008). A Death in Patchogue. Web.

Wilderside.com. (2009). Southern Poverty Law Center: Anti-Immigrant Climate Fuelling Violence against Latinos in Suffolk County. Web.

The report seeks to describe the relationship between juvenile violent crime and children below poverty. In general, violent crime and poverty exhibit a positive correlation. Children born into low-income families encounter adverse life hardships that are likely to push them into violent crime. The environment around which children are brought up affects their actions. In general, behavior is influenced by a complex web of many factors, including environmental factors. In the United States (US), crime is prevalent and highly concentrated in places characterized by low-income families and high poverty levels. Also, criminal actions can be transmissible in areas with high crime since the social environment supports such behavior or people are not arrested generally.

In the US, juvenile courts have usually been looked at as courts of the underprivileged and impoverished. The juvenile courts found in suburban, middle-class, or wealthier jurisdictions have mainly been regarded as exceptions. The juvenile courts do not usually keep track of the income earnings of a childs relatives. However, a few jurisdictions that have observed the incomes state that a large majority of the children either rely on public finances or their earnings are so low that they cannot sustain them well. Therefore, courts intentionally and positively choose to direct children from low-income areas into the juvenile justice system. The actions are intended to assist the young kids and ease their access to services, responsibility, and correction required to grow to be fruitful grown persons in society. Moreover, children born into poverty surroundings grapple with harmful moments in their lifetime. A case study depicting the America court as harsh and cruel to the juvenile delinquents was the 2006 on Cynthia Brown, 16-year-old girl, convicted and sentenced to life imprisonment by the court of Tennessee (Cohen and Casey, 2014). Although the girl had testified to have killed a man who had tried to rape in the self-defense, such facts did not matter to the court judge and she was tried and convicted as an adult.

As the population growth continues to rise, especially among poor neighborhoods, the number of kids born into or living in poverty will likely keep growing. The effect of this trend is that the number of children below poverty will continue to be subjected to the juvenile and criminal justice systems. Judges in juvenile courts base their argument for sending the young children to courts on the existing economic conditions. The judges consider the kids poor economic background as a sufficient not supportive to their wellbeing, therefore the court system would be the most effective approach for deprived teenagers and their folks to have access to basic amenities. However, this cycle largely disadvantages those it intends to help. The families will let the children engage in crime to be caught and subjected to the juvenile court system to sustain their livelihood. If structural and institutional changes are not affected to help contain this trend, it is expected that the current trend will continue. The following sections of the paper present the data and analysis to show whether this claim is true or false. Sample data indicated in Table 1 below was obtained for analysis from the overall population data that was provided.

The variable in column two is the number of children below poverty. The variable in column three is Juvenile violent crime index that includes murder or no-negligent murder, forceful rape, theft, and aggravated mugging.

Correlation is a statistical technique used to describe the linear relationship between two variables (Bowen, 2015). A calculation is performed on the variables to produce a correlation coefficient. The applicable formula is:

Where; SP =

,

, and

Table 2: Results for the formula.

Using excel correl function, the correlation is -0.11. The result shows that the variables have a negative correlation. There is no sufficient evidence to state that juvenile violent crime and children below poverty are related. Therefore, it can be concluded that children below poverty results are not likely to engage in juvenile violent crime. The data provided does not supports the theoretical narrative.

The data used to perform the calculation contains outliers that could affect the result. According to Bowen (2015), outliers are data points that vary greatly from other data points. The data in table 1 above shows that the main outliers are Oklahoma (23.3 percent) for children below poverty and Utah (11.4 percent). For juvenile violent crime, the outlier is West Virginia (42) and Florida (477).

References

Bowen, C. (2015). Straightforward Statistics. SAGE Publications.

Cohen, A. O. and Casey, B. J. (2014). Rewiring juvenile justice: The intersection of developmental neuroscience and legal policy. Trends in cognitive sciences, 18(2), 63-65.

Poverty is regarded to be one of the lowest statuses of life of people living in the world. Most individuals are not privileged enough to be of equal status as compared to those of higher status in life; thus, usually they are treated with contempt and they end up living miserable lives. In some cases, they have ended up serving as slaves because of they are considered not to be human beings.

Usually, the poor are forced to depend on those of higher status quo in life for them to earn a living and this makes them to be unfortunate individuals living in the world.

This practice was more prevalent in the past though it is still a norm in some places around the world. During the late nineteenth century in Russia, peasants were deprived of the light of knowledge, and they suffered an oppressive poverty (Tian-Shanskaia, 169). In the book, Village Life on Late Tsarisat Russia, the authors, Olga Semyonova Tian-Shanskaia and David L. Ransel, depict the poverty situation in Russia before the revolution.

In writing the book, the authors had a desire to represent the life story of peasant life in Russia. The life background of Tian-Shanskaia reveals that he had this interest beforehand.

She was born in 1863 into one of the very famous and scientific families of that time. Her father, Pytor Pertovich Semyonova, was a prominent geographer, explorer and statistician; thus, he instilled these skills to his children from an early age, Tian-Shanskaia included. Worth mentioning, through the investigations he championed, he was recognized by the nations authorities and given many titles.

Most importantly, Pytor Pertovich Semyonova role was instrumental in the life of the peasants living before the revolution since he championed the passing of rules that were intended to guarantee the Russian peasants of their freedom. Thus, one of his children, Olga Semyonova Tian-Shanskaia, had the desire to continue doing this by illustrating the deplorable condition of peasantry life during the late Tsarist Russia.

The social history of peasants in Russia during the pre-revolutionary period is detailed in the book. Tian-Shanskaia, an ethnographer and a painter, vibrantly illustrates the harsh living conditions of the Russian peasant families. She spent close to four years during the 1890s studying the way of life of the people in a central Russian province before coming up with one of the best ethnographic portraits of this situation.

The author describes the common practice at the turn of the twentieth century in which women and children were not treated with respect (Tian-Shanskaia, 142). She also tackles some other issues such as marriage engagement, sexual habits, child mortality, giving of birth, raising of children, employment issues, dietary customs, and investments among the people.

In direct opposition to the habit of depicting peasant families as living a good life by most high-class observers, the book, which is a firsthand portrait of peasant family life, illustrates the deplorable living conditions of the peasants. In addition, the book also indicates that there is usually brutality in the peasant families (Tian-Shanskaia, 148).

One element of the peasant life that is worth mentioning is the type of houses they dwelt in. The pre-revolutionary peasants lived a life that was full of insufficiency and there was evident lack of sophistication in their lives (Tian-Shanskaia, 1). More so, their conditions of living were generally unhygienic.

Their places of residences were most of the time polluted, lacked good ventilation, and did not receive enough light. Most of their houses were made such that there was a main structure for spending the night and dining. Other structures outside the main building, such as barn and cellar, were also constructed.

Since the peasants relied so much on keeping of livestock, they often build a lawn for this sake, and all their houses were constructed from either wood or clay, as they were the most readily available materials. Worth mentioning, the roof of every building in the complex was made of thatches, and the sharing of the houses between animals and people led to unhygienic living conditions.

The author makes this clear, like the houses, threshing barns are covered with thatched roofs; the roof framing, however, is supported by studs rather than by rafters as in a house (Tian-Shanskaia, 123).

The peasant houses were made to be one large room and the common characteristic of these houses was that they had a stove that was employed in cooking and increasing the temperature of the houses, especially during cold conditions (Tian-Shanskaia, 119). In a situation in which the stoves lacked a chimney, the houses would be filled with smoke from the burning fuel and this worsened the hygienic conditions of the dwellings; however, the places of residence that had chimneys were cleaner, less stuffy, and well aerated.

The dwellings of the Russian peasants had a red or attractive corner in which they placed copies of Orthodox Byzantine icons for performing religious duties (Tian-Shanskaia, 12). Concerning their sleeping arrangements, the stoves were constructed with sleeping places for at least two members of the household while the other members spent the night in a loft or on benches inside the house.

They used straws for sleeping before using them as fuel in the morning; thus, it was a major source of the unhygienic living conditions that the pleasant houses were known of (Tian-Shanskaia, 119). More so, the peasants brought in their animals inside the houses during cold temperatures and this worsened the condition further.

Comparing the deplorable living conditions of the Russian peasants to that of the modern Russia seems to be full of irony. The author says, Russia in the late nineteenth century was a society in crisis (Tian-Shanskaia, xi). However, during the twentieth century after the successful revolution, Russia rose to become one of the most respected countries globally.

Currently, it is still being considered as one of the nations with the best living conditions. The country takes pride in having averagely high earnings per employed person and the minimum amount of wage for its workforce is among the highest in the world. Before the turn of the century, the living condition of the Russian peasants is described as follows:

A small hut about twelve feet (3.6m) square  with a door through which a medium-sized man can only go by stooping  the floor made of earth, the ceiling so low that a tall man cannot stand upright, tiny windows letting in little light . the whole building made of thin wood . the entire family lives in this room, sleeping on benches and on the floor all together, men, women, children and cattle(Modern History, para. 3).

However, these conditions of living are incomparable with the modern housing that Russians take pride in. Currently, an average Russian stays in a house that is adequately equipped with all the necessities of life. The children, both boys and girls, are usually given their own rooms.

The parents usually have spacious rooms. In addition, the kitchen and the dining room are also well equipped with modern housing facilities. And, if the family has animals, they never share the same roof as they are usually have their own shades away from the residential area. This situation is generally diametrically opposite to how the peasants of the late nineteenth century lived their lives.

In conclusion, the book, Village Life on Late Tsarisat Russia, gives an interesting and captivating depiction of the living condition the peasants in Russia before the turn of the twentieth century.

More so, it is important to note that the book is an important basis for measuring the progress that country of Russia underwent during the better part of the twentieth century. Currently, the thought of visiting Russia is a dream that many would like to achieve.

The background of the writer together with her desire to illustrate this condition makes the account to be credible since he observed the happenings personally. In general, the book plays a pivotal role in historical evaluation of the ancient Russia and the Russia today. In the former, poverty was outstanding.

The peasants were living in abject poverty beyond what would be regarded to be reasonable in Russia today (Tian-Shanskaia, 139). Thus, poverty is the outstanding theme in the book as all other misgivings tend to revolve around this theme. Poverty is the only justifiable ground to portray the deplorable standards of living illustrated by the writer.

Works Cited

Modern History. Sdehs. Sidney Distance Education High School, 2003. Web.

Tian-Shanskaia, Olga Semyonova. Village life in late tsarist Russia. Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press, 1993. Print.

Jacksonian America is not the work of one man. Jacksonian America is not all about Andrew Jackson even if he was arguably the most influential person in this period of American history.

But without the contribution of others it would be impossible to understand the transformation of America from 1815 to 1848 (Howe, p.5). It was a major transition period from independence and Civil War. It must be made clear that Jacksonian America is complicated with many forces trying to form the nation into a democracy that was supposed to be a showcase for the whole world to see.

It is a time full of contradictions of progress and poverty. It is interesting to point out that in the midst of freedom and technological breakthroughs the forces that work on 19^th century America created inequalities within society. The following is an attempt to merely scratch the surface and explain the reason why poverty and social problems were the norm rather than the exception.

Jacksonian America

The fitting backdrop for Jacksonian America is none other than the American Revolution that shattered British hegemony in the New World. Without the controlling power of the British Crown the new rulers of the American continent were fittingly called American citizens. But shortly thereafter they realised that freedom and self-determination is very much different from progress and social order.

The new leaders must form a new government. This does not assure them of sustained reform that could help realise the dreams of everyone. But they have no choice but to experiment with democracy especially after their experience with being a colony under Great Britain. One of the reactions of the leaders and most especially the presidents under this period was to impose a policy of non-intervention by the federal government.

It was an experiment in governance that has its share of breakthroughs and challenges, one that is expected of fledgling nation that is also a union of different states. Needless to say the American people had to go through the valley of death and persevere against the storms that come their way in order to succeed in their task of nation building.

It was not an easy road to take. At the end of the Jacksonian era the conflict and the problems were too much to take. In addition the grand design which was known as the Union was tested severely as independent states felt that power was concentrated in the North.

The Civil War that followed drastically altered the social landscape and looking back it was the defining moment for the United States of America. However, the great nation that emerged from the ashes of war could not be fully appreciated if the events and the various forces that shaped it in the Jacksonian era is left unexamined.

For the sake of simplicity this study will focus on three major forces that shaped Jacksonian America and these are political, social, and economic. These three are related, each one affecting the other. The policies created by the administration of Andrew Jackson affected the lives of many people. Historians are in agreement that, The Jacksonian era began well before the election of Andrew Jackson in 1828 and reflects more than simply the issues and policies advocated by Jackson and his Democratic supporters (Doutrich, p.xv).

At the same time the prevailing social forces that existed long before Jackson was sworn into office also affected the politics of the era. And there is no need to elaborate that the economy and how goods and services were created was a determining factor in the actions and decisions made in Jacksonian America.

These three forces can be easily understood by substituting terms that are more familiar. These are the Industrial Revolution, Negro Slaves, and Jacksonian Democracy. All these three combined to create a nation that has to balance between the need to build factories in the North and plantations in the South.

The factories attracted many rural folks to move to the cities. The economic engine created by landowners in the South required the use of Negro slaves. They perpetuated this mode of economic growth even if the use of humans as beasts of burden contradicted the ideals of their so-called democratic government.

The Industrial Revolution

The extreme inequality that created a living hell for many American families during this particular era could not be fully understood without discussing the Industrial Revolution in the context of the United States.

The sudden proliferation of factories coupled with social and economic factors such as the decline of farm income. According to experts there are three major reasons why families left their rural abode to risk everything in the city and these are: population growth; rising property taxes; and declining farm profitability (Lehman, p.8).

Other experts clarified this statement by saying that The onset of the industrial revolution brought about a great shift in population, drawing people from farms into burgeoning cities (Gillham, p.25). This trend continued until there are more people in the cities as compared to those living in farms. This is the beginning of a great shift in the social structure of America (Freeman & Soete, p.30).

The industrial revolution is the by-product of technological and social changes that swept America (Brezina, p.54).Technology played a crucial role and according to one commentary, Technology is largely concerned with the process of transformation  the transformation of raw materials into useful or aesthetically pleasing articles (Derry & Williams, p.259).

In the case of the industrial revolution, technology was not only utilized to transform raw materials, the same was also used to transport them. The development of railways paved the way for the sudden upsurge of the U.S. industrial economy (Deane, p.10).

It was a technology that originated from abroad. An Englishman, named George Stephenson and his sons developed the first successful steam locomotive that was later called the Rocket in 1829 (Sakolsky, p.6). It was indeed a technological breakthrough and soon, railroads based on steam locomotives grew explosively across England. In just fifteen years, 2441 miles of track had been laid to carry not only cargo but people as well (Sakolsky, p.6). It did not take long before the United States began using steam locomotives.

At first the transportation of goods was the most important thing but only a few realised that the technology would be used to create an unexpected result, the mass movement of people from small towns to cities. But a city must be established first to attract workers from the provinces.

It is important to point out that in 1830 the United States saw its first railway and an observer made the following comment After 1848, Chicago became the main hub for transportation with many different rail lines and a canal system terminating there (Sakolsky, p.7). This was the beginning of the creation of mega-cities that would transform the social and economic landscape of America.

At first the most conspicuous development was the migration of farm workers to the city hoping to get better jobs as opportunities in rural areas began to dry up.

Afterwards it became more obvious that it was only the American farmers and their families that left their hometowns to risk everything in the city; immigrants were also increasing in numbers (Stout, p.29).

Many of the immigrants have the same stories to tell of impoverished homesteads and the frustration of not being able to provide for their children (Gordon, p.55). As a result it was easy to find urban centres bursting at the seams. Overcrowding, pollution and terrible sanitary conditions was the expected outcome of mass migration to cities.

This irresistible pull of urban centres continued into the latter part of the 19^th century. The number of immigrants swelled and many more people were directed towards the cities. This led into another phenomenon which is the presence of hired workers that were so numerous that businessmen found a way to exploit the sudden increase in the workforce coupled with low demand for work. This gave rise to a new class of people. At the same time a new pattern of economic growth was made manifest in the mass production of goods.

An observer began to lament the negative impact of the industrial revolution and he wrote, As more and more people moved to Americas cities to take advantage of all these opportunities, the character of the United States changed. America was no longer a land dominated by farmers, but one dominated by city dwellers living off of wages (Sakolsky, p.7). But there is more bad news for those who brought their families with them.

Technological advancements in the transportation sector as well as radical changes in the manufacturing industry was all the spark that was needed to create an industrial economy that was rivalled only in Europe. However, the general public and its leaders were caught unaware of the serious repercussions. The first thing that people notices was the harsh and inhumane conditions tolerated by the workers in factories.

The consequences of the economic force that swept America in the early 19^th century created a mass of people destitute, lacking the confidence that they once enjoyed when they were still farming. The same thing was felt by the immigrants that did not expect the impact of being a second-class citizen in another country.

But now they are in the city as wage earners, receiving money not enough to properly clothe their bodies and to satisfy their intense hunger. They needed more than money to reclaim the dignity that made them human. The social inequality that they suffered has to be addressed but during this time the situation was so bleak that it was hard to believe that things could change for the better.

The head of the family was pressured to provide for the family that joined him in his quest for a better life. But in most cases the income of the husband is not enough. Thus, the wife had to work. However, there are cases wherein the children were forced to help and subjected to the same harsh treatment reserved for adults. Women workers were common that there existed boarding houses to cater to them. But the conditions were as bad as in the tenements.

According to one factory worker, six girls often slept in one room, in three double beds (Pessen, p.119). If this was not enough these women were expected to work 13 to 14 hours a day (Pessen, p.119). They were considered as contract labourers working in an unhealthy confined space for many hours every single day (Pessen, p.119). They were afraid to break the strict laws that governed the factory because it would be difficult to find work elsewhere.

Since many of the were unskilled workers the wages were not enough to break free from the cycle of poverty because the usual wage only amounts to $2 to $2.75 per week. The humiliation does not end there because the wages were paid at infrequent intervals (Pessen, p.119). Women had to endure this kind of working conditions the whole year through.

There is also another type of factory system that involved women and children. It is called the Fall river type wherein the whole family works for an employer. In Massachusetts women and children made up more than half the labour force under the family system (Pessen, p.119).

In Pennsylvania on the other hand, it was estimated that one fifth of the factory workers were children under 12 years of age (Pessen, p.119). In this state, the women had nothing to look forward to because the wages can go as low as fifty cents per week in the year 1832 (Pessen, p.119). Children were paid significantly less.

The hidden side of Jacksonian America

An overview of American history between 1815 and 1848 should not be limited to the impact of the Industrial revolution and how poor families were forced to leave their farms and move to overcrowded cities in search of greener pastures. It is also important to look into the problem of slavery in the Jacksonian period.

Nevertheless, it is understandable why many would focus on the plight of factory workers and its connection with the politics of the day. This is because the workers in factories are American citizens who believed in the promise of a new beginning. When they suffered the indignity of working in a job that only gave them low wages the cry of freedom and revolution became a bitter memory that could have easily made many to be cynical.

However, a recounting of Jacksonian America is incomplete if the spotlight is not trained on Negro slaves. If this study is all about poverty and poor women working to help provide for their families, it is inconsistent if the discussion does not provide space to talk about women working in plantations located in the South. This is an important facet of Jacksonian America because there is evidence to show that what goes on in the plantations had a direct effect on the industrial economy of the nation.

Historians pointed out that American cotton mills, stimulated by increase iin southern cotton production grew rapidly & in 1813 a group of Massachusetts merchants, the Boston Associates, pooled their capital and developed a system of large-scale textile mills (Doutrich, p.xvii). But in direct contrast the increase in the number of factories in the north had no effect whatsoever to the institution of slavery in the southern states.

This is an important issue to discuss because the plight of women working long hours inside a factory is something that can provoke the strongest feelings especially from people in the 21^st century who cannot fathom why working women allow their employers to treat them that way (Rodgers, p.3)

If people find it disgusting as to the way employers exploited women and children, how much more is the reaction if they realise that in the Southern part of the United States women are subjected to more horrifying treatment. Slaves were not even given the dignity to earn wages or even the right to be a citizen of America. They were slaves and they were the property of their masters.

This is the hidden side of Jacksonian America. Politicians kept silent about the plight of the Negro slaves in the South. Businessmen behaved the same way. There were many justifications made to ease the burden of thinking about the absurdity of the idea that men can own other men. As a result the issue of slavery did not take centre stage and main reason for the lack of debate is that no one from the other side can come in and make known what exactly was happening in the plantations.

All of that changed when Negro slaves were able to escape a life of servitude and moved north. When some of them learned to read and write they became eyewitnesses that suddenly have found the voice and the medium to proclaim their message for all those who are willing to hear. One such example was Frederic Douglas. He was a former slave who turned his life around to become an abolitionist  fighting for the freedom of fellow slaves that suffered under the hands of their owners.

The eyewitness account of what transpired in the plantations revealed the fact that the women in factories may have had a terrible time dealing with the shock of working in squalid conditions but they have nothing when it comes to the black women working as slaves. In the words of a fugitive slave, It is not he who has stood and looked on, that can tell you what slavery is  tis he who has endured (Yetman, p.1).

There is no need to elaborate the fact that slaves are the most unenvied and poorest group in American life (Pessen, p.83). In factories located in the northern part of America, workers are forced to endure poor working conditions but they still have the freedom to leave if they feel that they could no longer endure what was happening in the factories. But the slaves do not have the same luxury.

Consider how they were treated, there were considered as nothing more than mere property by wealthy landowners. According to the law in the Southern states, slaveholders have ordained, and by law established, that the children of slave women shall in all cases follow the condition of their mothers; and this is done too obviously to administer to their own lusts, and make a gratification of their wicked desires profitable as well as pleasurable& (Douglas, p.15).

It is not only the lack of freedom and the absence of wages but also on how women were treated by their masters. It has been said that excessive punishment is one of the ways that a slave holder can dominate the slaves. As a consequence the whip is the favourite weapon to terrorize the women and men. The naked backside of Negro slaves provided the target. Farm animals may have fared better compared to the slaves.

According to eyewitness reports, women slaves did not only suffer physically but emotionally as well. In the factories the hard work, low pay, and the hazards involved in dealing with machines is also an emotionally draining routine but it is nothing compared to the emotional torture suffered by women slaves in the South. There is a practice perpetuated by many slave owners and it is the deliberate separation of women and their children.

There is a practical reason why slave owners had to separate a weaned child from his or her mother. But this does not mean that they have the right to do so. Without a doubt the practice comes from a depraved mind for who can separate children from their mother? But slave owners cannot see beyond the idea that their slaves are also human.

Thus, an eyewitness account recounted the effect on the mother and he wrote, For what reason this separation was done, I do not know, unless it be to hinder the development of the childs affection toward its mother, and to blunt and destroy the natural affection of the mother for the child (Douglas, p.5). In the factories women were exploited but at least they went through a hiring process.

In the case of women slaves, they were a by-product of a breeding process

From the point of view of a woman, Sarah Frances Shaw Graves, who happened to be a former slave, the plantation owners cannot see the humanity of the Negro slave and by doing so they can easily justify cruelty of their actions. They were considered like breeding animals as seen in the following account My papa never knew where my mama went, an my mama never knew where papa went &

They never wanted mama to know, cause they knowed she would never marry so long she knew where he was & Our master wanted her to marry again and raise more children to be slaves (Douglas, p.6).

In case of overcrowded cities the only reason for existence is to be used as a tool to produce goods and services. The owners did not bother to improve the skills of the women and children working for them. The same thing can be said of the women slaves working in the plantations. They do not have access to resources that could have helped them break free from their current status as a slave.

Thus, education or the lack of it is a means of control. By keeping slaves uninformed deprives them of the capacity to think outside the walls of their prison. This makes the idea of freedom as unpalatable as the thought of being a slave for life. There is no means of livelihood outside the invisible walls of the prison created by the slave masters. The mind is controlled in this most cruel manner.

According to a former slave, The greater part of the plantation owners were very harsh if we were caught trying to learn or write &. Our ignorance was the greatest hold the South had on us. We knew we could run away, but what then? (Douglas, p.12).

The reason for the obsessive means of control and subjugation is based on the desperate need of slave owners to control a workforce that is suited for farming. The wages and low earning capability of the workers found in factories is also a means of control but the same system of wages cannot be sustained in the South and therefore the system of slavery is the ideal way to sustain a way of life in the South.

Although thousands of slaves were bought and sold in America and the perpetuation of the said system was never in decline during this period, it can also be said with certainty that during the Jacksonian era the seeds of Negro emancipation began to sprout. Abolitionists began to speak against the institution of slavery and argued convincingly that this has to end (Doutrich, p.192).

Women in Jacksonian America

So far there are two types of women workers covered in the previous discussion. The female factory worker is someone exploited by a new system that enable them not to work in farms but in cities. In exchange for their time and work in the factories they received wages. The slave woman on the other hand works in the fields in the South. But instead of receiving wages she is made into a slave without rights and existing only to provide work for her master.

But not all the women in Jacksonian America can be categorized into these two major groups. There are those who are free. There are those who are free and yet did not choose to exchange their freedom with a chance to earn money working in a factory. These women joined their respective families and their husbands to move westward.

The need for more land and to acquire it without having to spend a small fortune requires an expansion westward. Although the ideals of freedom and independence were played out in the West, these women could not say that they have a much better life than the women working in factories and the women that work as slaves.

They may be a little better off but there was a steep price to pay for moving westward. In the words of one historian it was a constant battle for survival and this prompted many to say Those who lived there were not just settlers & they were warriors for the cause, men and women alike (Caughfield, p.4).

Poverty in 19^th Century America

In the beginning of the Jacksonian era, many were still convinced that an American must support his family by tilling the ground and working as a farmer. Many are in agreement that Within the United States, the overwhelming majority of the population in 1815 engaged in agriculture (Howe, p.19).

But change was inevitable. Those who were left behind in the rural areas to continue working as farmers felt the blow of poverty so severely that later on many of them would follow the footsteps of those who left their hometowns for the city. It was discovered by researchers that middle wealth groups held very little wealth in America during that time (Pessen, p.83).

Those who tried to escape the poverty in farmlands were not as fortunate when they reached the cities. Aside from small income that they were able to receive from their hourly labour, when they are home they come face-to-face with a discouraging sight, their families living in a small room.

It was normal to see 55 families in one tenement (Pessen, p.85). Each family had to learn how to squeeze themselves into one room because that is the only space that they can afford in the cities. According to a report these families huddled to the rear & victims of a parsimonious building policy which meant crowding, noise, inadequate sanitation, lack of facilities for rubbish removal (Pessen , p.85). This is merely scratching the surface when it comes to describing the poor Americans during the Jacksonian era.

Welfare Reform

The degree of poverty experienced by many Americans in the Jacksonian era calls for the assistance of private and government funded charitable organizations. Poverty is a cycle that keeps on going until someone does something to alter the course of a persons earning capacity. Consider for instance the challenges faced by families who left everything behind to live and work in the cities only to find out that there is no work waiting for them.

For those who are fortunate enough to find work are not better than the unemployed because they have to work long hours and yet at times unable to collect their pay check. And when they are able to collect their wages are not enough to cover basic needs. The poverty experienced on a wide scale can be traced back to the impact of the war against the British Crown.

There were many who responded to the call for help. In fact, there were a good number of benevolent societies that were established to help those in need. However, the private charities were inadequate to help the wars many refugees and broken families (Streissguth, p.5).

But the Americans made a clamour for a public system of social welfare, In New York, for example, agencies were set up under state management for sheltering the poor and mentally ill (Streissguth, p.5). Another system adopted was the auctioning of the poor and the highest bidder gets the chance to take care of them. But in many cases the poor were turned into indentured servants for an indefinite time (Streissguth, p.5). This has enraged many people and the practice died down.

By the year 1824 the problem on how to deal with poverty has reached a crisis point and this prompted New York secretary of state John Yates to issue the statement Our poor laws are manifestly defective in principle and mischievous in practice & under the imposing and charitable aspect of affording relief exclusively to the poor and infirm, they frequently invite the able-bodied vagrant to partake of the same bounty (Streissguth, p.5). Changes were made but the need still outweighs the outpouring of support from good hearted citizens.

It became clear that state governments were greatly involved in the helping the poor but the federal government was not involve in the alleviation of poverty in the U.S. This was highlighted when the United States congress passed a bill in 1854 that granted public lands to the states in order for them to build homes for the insane and just as quickly, President Franklin Pierce vetoed it.

He made the following comment, I cannot find any authority in the Constitution for making the Federal Government the great almoner of public charity throughout the United States (Streissguth, p.7). As a result the pubic welfare system of America was never nationalized until the turn of the 20^th century (Streissguth, p.7). This means that as poverty levels increased due to the effect of Jacksonian politics and the industrial revolution, there was no nationalized program to soften the impact of poverty in the lives of many people.

It can be argued that Jacksonian democratic principle was the driving force that created all the problems that has been pointed out in the discussion. It is therefore important to find out the core principle of Jacksonian politics to better understand the consequences of policies created to govern the nation.

According to Jacksonian Democrats there is inherent danger to the idea of a powerful government intervening with the American society. They believed that if opportunities were left unfettered, a balance of power and wealth would be achieved and that government intervention only worked to upset the balance, not to create it (Etcheson, p.64). This helps explain why the government seemed powerless to correct some of the obvious problems that plagued the country in that period.

It now makes sense why the government failed to respond effectively to poverty, slavery, and the inequalities created by the industrial revolution. What can be perceived as incompetence is now explained by a political theory on how to deal with the social and economic forces that threatened to pull the nation into different directions.

It is not easy to understand why the federal government turned a blind eye to slavery and allowed the existence of poor working conditions in many factories. This also explains why poor relief was only done at the state and local level and not in a national scale.

The federal government is seen as the arbiter and the mediator. It cannot be perceived as a bully trying to enforce a system that can be beneficial for some and harmful to others. In an ideal scenario the theory may work because opposing forces and a free enterprise is expected to produce the best system.

But there are problems that cannot be allowed to work on its own without the active participation of government. For instance the Negro slaves cannot be free unless someone comes in to break the chains of slavery. The poor families cannot break free from a cycle of poverty unless there is someone willing to give a hand.

The government is too powerful not to do anything. It can be said that this is the fundamental flaw of Jacksonian democracy. There were many times during the Jacksonian period when people were in need of help but nothing was done to either alleviate poverty or to end slavery. Negro slaves were allowed to decay in body and spirit because the government believed that some sort of balance has to be maintained to achieve equal rights and privileges. But just like in the case of exploited workers this policy increased poverty in America.

Conclusion

Jacksonian America was supposed to be a land where there is equal distribution of wealth. This is the premise of the political ideals espoused by Jacksonian Democrats. Thus, the government was not allowed to intervene with society. Instead of creating balance, equal rights and equal privileges, the policy widened the gap between rich and poor.

The impact of poverty and slavery is something difficult to grasp in its entirety. Poverty cannot even begin to describe what Negro slaves experienced in southern plantations. Poverty in the tenements and overcrowded cities is difficult to imagine especially if one will compare it to the improvements that occurred in the 20^th century. It must be made clear however that all of these things were a reaction of what happened in the past.

The American Revolution created tremendous pressure on national leaders that were responsible for managing a huge land mass and a burgeoning population. When the industrial revolution transformed how products and services were made and delivered the government simply tried to do what was best in a nation that was supposed to be a model for democracy.

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Caughfield, Adrienne. True Women and Westward Expansion. TX: Texas University Press, 2005.Deane, Phylis. The First Industrial Revolution. UK: Cambridge University Press, 2000.

Derry, Thomas and Trevor Williams. A Short History of Technology: From the Earliest Times to A.D. 1900. New York: Dover, 1993.Douglas, Frederick. Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglas, An American Slave. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999.

Doutrich, Paul. Shapers of the Great Debate on Jacksonian Democracy. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2004.Etcheson, Nicole. The Emerging Midwest. IN: Indiana University Press, 1996.Freeman, Christoper and Luc Soete. The Economics of Industrial Innovation. UK: Routledge, 1997.

Gillham, Oliver. The Limitless City: A Primer on the Urban Sprawl Debate. Washington, D.C.: Island Press, 2002.

Gordon, Linda. Women, State and Welfare. WI: Wisconsin University Press, 1990.Howe, Daniel Walker. What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815-1848. New York: Oxford University, 2007.Lehman, Tim. Public Values, Private Lands: Farmland Preservation Policy. NC: The University of North Carolina Press, 1995.

Pessen, Edward. Jacksonian America: Society, Personality and Politics. IL: Dorsey Press, 1978.Rodgers, Harrell. American Poverty in a New Era of Reform. New York: M.E. Sharpe, Inc., 2006.Sakolsky, J. (2005). Critical Perspectives on the Industrial Revolution. New York: The Rosen Publishing Group. Stout, Robert. Why Immigrants Come to America. Westport, CT: Praegers

Publishers, 2008.Streissguth, Thomas. Welfare and Welfare Reform. New York: Facts on File, Inc., 2009.Yetman, Norma. An Introduction to the WPA Slave Narratives. Oct. 2007. 16 May 2011 <https://www.loc.gov/collections/slave-narratives-from-the-federal-writers-project-1936-to-1938/about-this-collection/>.

During the sixteenth century, colonial people in America led very poor family life. Some of them died early due to poverty and disease and the rest of them had a very miserable and terrible life. There was great discrimination among the white and black people in which the black people were treated badly by the white people, but later this attitude changed. It was not until the reign of Queen Elizabeth that Englishmen came to realize that overseas exploration and plantations could bring home wealth, power, glory, and fascinating information. (Jordan 3). Through plantation this society started to develop; the hardworking farmers  both the white and black  became rich. All the power came into their hands and the poor black and white slaves were under their control and they worked for the rich and obeyed their orders. English merchant-capitalists financed the settlement of American colonies, hoping that they would gain profits from their investments. (Kullikoff).

When the tobacco economy flourished, the white laborers expected that they can become rich through it, but later they moved on to rebellion as their hope was discouraged. So, many slaves were imported from Africa, and due to the overburden of work and disease they died soon; but the tobacco economy continued for a longer time. Thus, this country developed through this natural production, and a wealthy life was led by Americans and Africans together. Later, they also did fishing and transport for their living.

Evidence

In The White mans burden, the author Winthrop D. Jordan reveals the attitude of American people towards the black people in the early centuries. In his book, the author talks about what exactly blackness is and about whether black peoples intelligence level is higher than that of white people and all. To disclose the racial discrimination among the people of America, he included some actual events in his book. Among the black, there were also some persons like Benjamin Banneker, general Gabriel in Virginia who have been a part of a slave revolt. The author also discusses the cruel mentality of white people towards these personalities. Most importantly the author discusses the why of racism and postulates some theories for the white mans prejudice. (Jordan Back Cover).

The export-driven is the major method that influences the American colonial economy. In the colonial economy, the white persons played the superior role and they acquired almost all benefits from the sales. The colonial American economy didnt make any effect on the slaves because the slaves were all black people (African American) and they didnt get enough money for their work. The reason behind this was the effect of racial discrimination that existed between the white and black in those centuries. They didnt get any benefit from the colonial economy and also whenever the economic system was going down it affected the black people in such a way that they had to suffer due to lack of food and which led to a threat to their life. The author of The White mans burden exposes the racism that occurred in America in the early 17th century and the reason behind racism.

This topic deals with life in the colonial economy of America and the approach of white people towards black people. During the early centuries, the black people were the servants of Americans and they were badly treated by the white people. The white people made the poor African slaves work hard, and quickly they died due to overburden and poverty. But, later the attitude towards the black people changed and by the combined efforts of the Americans and Africans, the country developed. Mainly through natural production, the people became wealthy and they led a typical way of life.

Works Cited

Jordan. Withrop D. The White Mans Burden: Historical Origins of Racism in the United States. New York: Oxford University Press, 1974. Web.

Kullikoff, Allan. US History Companion: Colonial Economy. 2009. Web.

People in low-income countries are disproportionately afflicted by diseases that could be prevented and treated at low cost. Poverty in developing countries is a major threat to global health because it significantly contributes to the spread of infectious diseases such as AIDS and tuberculosis, high children mortality rates, and malnutrition among other problems (Schieber et al. 921). Improved governance of health care systems at both national and global levels could become an effective response to this issue (Frenk and Moon 936). The aim of this paper is to outline the importance of health in global governance and discuss the issue of poverty in less-developed nations as a significant challenge to the global health system.

Economically developed countries are associated with low levels of disability and morbidity (Muennig and Su 217). Less-developed nations, on the other hand, account for 56 percent of the global disease burden (Schieber et al. 921), whereas the global health care spending aimed at improving their plight remains at meager 2 percent. Even though billions of dollars are spent each year on foreign aid, more than half million women in low-income countries die every year during pregnancy and childbirth (Schieber et al. 921). The average life expectancy of people living in countries like Swaziland, Angola, or Zambia does not exceed 38 years (Muennig and Su 217). However, it should be mentioned that even though there is a direct link between longevity and economic growth, the connection between health and wealth disappears after an average per capita GDP of a nation exceeds US$4,000 (Bank of America Merrill Lynch 127).

Therefore, in order to substantially improve the health of poor nations, it is necessary to meet their basic needs. According to Muennig and Su, lack of clean water, sanitation, and vaccines accounts for twenty to forty years of life expectancy (217). It means that meeting fundamental needs is essential to human survival and functioning; therefore, global health governance should be concerned with restoring human capability through the development of sustainable health solutions and infrastructures at large scale. The international community should focus on immunization and basic medicines, provision of food and potable water, sanitation and sewage, tobacco control, pest control, health education and disease prevention and treatment in order to substantially improve health in poor countries and stop the spread of infectious diseases to other regions and nations (Gostin and Mok 12; Hulme 43).

Developing nations should be accommodated with tools necessary for the provision of basic health services. However, building scalable health systems is an endeavor that requires sound infrastructures, monetary and human resources. Taking into consideration the fact that the global health care spending in developing countries amounts to only 2 percent, the international community has a long way to go in its commitment to ensuring the right to health for the entire world (Schieber et al. 921). Considering that the provision of basic survival needs of poor nations by strengthening global health structures has the added benefit of improving world health (Gostin and Mok 12), it could be argued that global health governance system has to direct more efforts towards the elimination of the problem of poverty.

The attainment of basic health and survival needs of less developed nations is the major problem that should be addressed by global governance. Therefore, it is necessary to achieve better performance of the global health system by eliminating poverty and improving health infrastructures in developing countries.

Works Cited

Bank of America Merrill Lynch. Thematic Investing: The Silver Dollar-Longevity Revolution Primer. Transforming World. Web.

Frenk, Julio, and Suerie Moon. Governance Challenges in Global Health. The New England Journal of Medicine, vol. 368, no. 10, 2013, pp. 936-942.

Gostin, Lawrence, and Emily Mok. Grand Challenges in Global Health Governance. British Medical Bulletin, vol. 90, no. 1, 2011, pp. 7-18.

Hulme, David. Global Poverty. Routledge, 2015.

Muennig, Peter, and Celina Su. Introducing Global Health: Practice, Policy, and Solutions. Jossey-Bass, 2013.

Schieber, George, et al. Financing Global Health: Mission Unaccomplished. Health Affairs, vol. 26, no. 4, 2011, pp. 921-934.

Born into Brothels: features that impact the children

Numerous dimensions affect a childs development. The psychological feature, which includes self-awareness, emotions, and cognitions affects the formation of the childs personality, activity, communication pattern, and self-determination (Hutchison, 2012). If children live in difficult psychological conditions like in the movie, they can either start reflecting the outside world or vice versa to distinguish themselves from it and strive for developing their inner world (Briski & Kauffman, 2004).

In such situations, each new social contact will change the self-perception of the child contributing to its versatility. The result of psychological features can occur in conscious behavior because of the childs self-representations (Parrish, 2014). Also, another aspect of personal development is the spiritual feature, which is based on the accumulated thoughts of the young person. The desire to cognize the meaning of life involves the quest for the internal integrity and constancy of the personality.

In the process of development, children are involved in various activities and constantly interact with the environment. The child is born in a concrete culture, and he or she gradually becomes a member of this cultural society (Hutchison, 2012). The culture can influence the child greatly and calls him or her to either reject or accept the cultural norms and postulates.

The fact of belonging to a particular cultural group, in which there are standards and its social and substantive features of lifestyle, acts as a source of personal development, and it influences the developmental potential of the individual and influences the childs choice of different types of activities (Parrish, 2014). Based on the assimilation of socially evolved modes of behavior in a particular culture a child can accept or reject the postulates propounded by it. The formation of the childs intellectual powers takes place as a result of the orientation process.

The physical environment (water, sun, landscapes, architecture, living conditions) plays a crucial role (Hutchison, 2012). The body of the child is constantly exposed to a variety of environmental effects (positive or negative ones). The conditions inevitably affect the physical and mental development of each child. As evidenced by the end of the movie, all the dimensions are interconnected, they overlap and correlate with the childs evolution and define his or her strivings (Briski & Kauffman, 2004).

Philosophical approach to explain poverty in America

Oligarchy is the philosophical approach that reflects the gap and relation between great wealth and inequality in society. However, this worldview reverberates with the question of ideology, in the first place. The oligarchy is built on the foundation of the classical liberal ideology, the basis of which is the acceptability of the accumulation of wealth and inheritance (Krismer, 2012).

Also, throughout history, religion encouraged people to work hard and save money. The American people encourage like many other nations the pursuit of enrichment, and the success in this path is considered not only the financial but also spiritual attainment. The wealth in this sense shall be considered a sign of virtue. Moreover, the Puritan worldview suggests that even courted wealth, a person cannot spend time in an idle rapture of it and should continue to work hard, thus becoming even richer in all the meanings (Krismer, 2012).

In other words, wealth is not perceived as something empty and transitory, but the reverse, if a person lives worse than a neighbor does, it implies that he or she did not work that well. Poverty is a consequence of the oligarchy while a big number of the poor is stagnating when the ultra-rich are making higher profits. It happens because the rich secure their wealth from taxation this way placing the strain on the shoulders of the poorer citizens (Rowse, 2012).

The concept of social justice implies that the state should take the leading part in maintaining the balance (Barusch, 2015). It is to be achieved through the reallocation of wealth through taxes. Nevertheless, the rich do their best to keep their wealth safe; consequently, the existing gap is growing. Ultimately, all disputes are limited to pure ideology while the oligarchy is a natural product of certain economic, legal, and political settings.

References

Barusch, A. S. (2015). Foundations of social policy: Social justice in human perspective (5th ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson Brooks/Cole.

Briski, Z., & Kauffman, R. (2004). Born into brothels.

Hutchison, E. (2012). Essentials of human behavior. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.

Krismer, J. (2012). The new world oligarchy. New York, NY: CCB Publishing.

Parrish, M. (2014). Social work perspectives on human behavior. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Education.

Rowse, T. (2012). Rethinking social justice. Canberra, Australia: Aboriginal Studies Press.