While the worlds wealth continues to grow exponentially, many families continue to live on the edge of poverty, struggling to accommodate their basic needs. The extent to which poor financial status influences the wellbeing of the young children and adolescents is alarming and needs immediate response from the community. In terms of education, poverty has adverse effects on students reading, writing, and Math skills, requiring an individual approach from general educators.
When evaluating the broad concept of poverty, it is essential to consider that food, clothing, and access to drinking water is no longer sufficient to maintain a high-quality life. Though US Censor states that 1/4 of American families live on the threshold of poverty, I think that the actual number is much higher ( U.S. Census Bureau QuickFacts: United States ). Many components, including emotional intelligence, financial stability, social interconnectedness with peers, physical health, contribute to the students success. Unfortunately, children brought up in impoverished families lack one or more of the aforementioned aspects.
It was surprising to find out the statistics describing the adverse consequences of poverty on students decision-making and academic performance. Poverty is cyclical with the attitudes of children and adolescents strengthened toward material items, contributing to their distorted vision of success. To overcome the barriers associated with hidden rules of poverty, teachers should help students from impoverished families to enrich their resources and develop a more in-depth understanding of abstract concepts. Time, family, education, money, and other important aspects of everyday life need to gain a distinct meaning, overcoming the traditional approach of poor families. Improvement of the academic performance is only possible if the needed changes happen within, transforming the core attitudes of individuals from disadvantaged social classes.
Work Cited
U.S. Census Bureau QuickFacts: United States. US Census Bureau. Web.
Poverty Inc. (2014) explores an important topic for the modern global community the issue of aid to the developing countries and whether this strategy actually helps them. The traditional model of aid, which is sending food and clothes to an impoverished state, has proven to be a failure. As one of the women interviewed for Poverty Inc. (2014) states, she is although she is glad people want to help, this strategy does not work. This film, the research on the impact of aid on the states receiving it, and the economic outcomes of such actions suggest that aid is a part of the problem and not a solution to it.
The community of people who consistently donate money to aid funds or engage in the distribution of such help have years of evidence that point out to one conclusion aid does not help. It does address the immediate needs of the people, such as food, when they do not have access to it or clean water in an area where it is difficult to find. However, Milovich (2018) argues that such help does not contribute to poverty alleviation because it does nothing to address the underlying causes of. Moreover, in a way, these endeavors contribute to poverty development because the encouragements for working, producing goods and services that exist in traditional economies are not present in states that receive aid. An important factor is the difference between aid as providing resources and viewing aid as a financial investment. In the latter case, it should generate a return and result in some developments, such as having businesses or manufacturing facilities established in the state at which the aid is directed.
Notably, the donations impact the local economies and mitigate the odevelopment opportunities It is unlikely that people in impoverished states will buy something, things that may be manufactured locally and sold by the members of their community if they receive it for free from international organizations. One example is the cotton farms that suffer from the imports of second-hand clothes, affecting the local demand. According to Nicholls (2017), the cotton industry established in Kenya by the British Empire has almost completely disappeared, with factories clothing down. The reason is the increasing imports of second-hand clothes and cheap textiles from Taiwan and Singapore that make it unprofitable to manufacture cotton clothes. This industry, however, was one of the most important for Kenya, leaving significant damage to the states economy.
Therefore, Poverty Inc. (2014) points out the need to stop providing aid to the developing states because it does not help them improve their economies, educate their children, and develop. Instead, it gives more incentives to avoid having to work or buy things that would beneficially affect the entire country. As a result, it is important to focus on viewing the aid as an investment something that should generate a return. Encouraging people to work, supporting the local businesses, and their efforts to create jobs within the community and locally manufactured goods is actually more effective than sending aid in the form of clothes and food. Investors that consider their investment option based on the positive impact that it will have on the environment, the community and ,the society of the state can bring a lot more benefits to the developing states. To conclude, impact investing, which prioritizes the development, both social and economic, of the society is much more effective when compared to traditional aid distributed to impoverished countries.
References
Poverty Inc. Directed by Michael Matheson Miller. 2014. Amsterdam: IDFA, 2014.
Poverty is a universal problem that is also a part of the sustainable development agenda. Although this issue is addressed at multiple levels internationally, there is no fast way to go with eliminating poverty from the face of the Earth. While it is more common to think of this problem from the perspective of physical impact, the psychological facet tends to be excluded from the discussion. Nevertheless, the environment of constant limitations shapes the minds of children, their dreams and the paths they pursue in life, and, most importantly, what they make of themselves.
With the colossal proportion of kids living in poverty globally, this problem surprisingly does not get enough coverage. The documentary under analysis starts symbolically there is a kid, introduced later on, who is walking on the railroad tracks, trying to repeat some gymnastic moves, but falling over and over again (Neumann & Mucciolo, 2017). She is persistent, so giving up is not an option.
Five years later, Kalie is portrayed doing the same moves, yet more confidently (Neumann & Mucciolo, 2017). That is a metaphorical picture of kids who grew up in poverty. Apart from physical hurdles, like dealing with hunger, they faced bullying, lack of institutional support, inability to do better, even though they wanted to, and all the dark sides of adulthood (Neumann & Mucciolo, 2017). As it would be expected, the cheap areas are those neglected and empty, almost the same way the houses of these kids are.
There might be different classifications, but it seems that it is crucial if these children were born in this unstable financial situation, or if they had a better life. Those who remember life being different seem to be overwhelmed by the drastic changes and shocked by the scope of the loss. They cannot take their minds off the past, and it keeps them stuck in nostalgia. That is why getting an education and a well-paying job, leading a balanced life, are beyond the wildest dreams for so many of them (Neumann & Mucciolo, 2017).
However, even making all the effort does not seem to be enough, for instance, doing sports implies the necessity to buy specific items, while the low-income families can barely afford food (Neumann & Mucciolo, 2017). Therefore, some just start losing hope there is a way out for them.
Most of these children have to mature early, and not in a good way. At the time when some teens play games and ask for new toys, others have to fight for their survival. The uncertainty and readiness for the situation to get worse become part of their existence canning, mowing, or helping their parents do their jobs anything not to be left on the streets (Neumann & Mucciolo, 2017). Their childhood is filled with constant disappointment, with the necessity to compromise, adapt to the psychologically traumatic moments. The overall situation for the parents is grave enough, so no one has the time to deal with childrens emotions (Neumann & Mucciolo, 2017).
Therefore, while coping with the immense stress and pressure of public opinion, these kids feel obligated to ease the hurdles for their parents, who also consider themselves failures unable to provide for their families (Neumann & Mucciolo, 2017). This aspect usually gets put aside, but the relationships between children and parents, to a great extent, affect the psychological side of a poor childhood.
The trauma of kids who lived in poverty cannot be underestimated. The picture of the world they have is dark and filled with the projections of their families experiences. Some of them cannot go to school; thus, they start losing the chance to do better in life, and some have to start working to support the family. The US has one of the highest rates of child poverty among the developed countries, and the existing institutional support does not suffice (Neumann & Mucciolo, 2017). All these kids do not want to repeat the mistakes of their parents, but it is often inevitable, as the circle of debt and fight for survival goes on.
Poverty in America manifests in a way that is related to hidden un-employment in most developing and least developing nations. Majority of the people living in America both in the urban and rural areas find it hard to accumulate savings because their disposable incomes are far much below the cost of living index.
The solution(s) to this Economic problem can best solved through various Economic tools of analysis which must incorporate various Economic assumptions concerning the poor people and the Economy in general holding other factors constant. Assuming that majority of the poor in America are unskilled and incompetent in the present day market demands, the only available solution would be to offer hands on apprenticeship education which must be tailored to meet the current market demands on the ground. Bearing in mind that the use of Information, Communications and Technology is becoming inevitable in Americans Economy, its inclusion in such a programme would ensure production of a relevant labor force.
An intervention in the labor markets minimum wage would offer lasting solutions to the biting problem of inequalities in income distributions. Since income disparities in America are rising between the poor and the rich, a minimum wage would ensure that the poor are able to have a stronger purchasing power which is relevant in the current market. In essence, income distribution should be fair and commensurate with skill, experience and expertise. This would go along way in narrowing income disparities and ensuring equal opportunities to all.
It is worth noting that it would be of no value to regulate the labor market and leave prices of goods and services unattended. The price theory states that holding other factors constant, the prices of goods and services should follow a self adjusting mechanism based on demand and supply so as to attain equilibrium. The American Economy however does not give room for the self adjusting mechanism, the net effect is that the prices of goods and services are skyrocketing-a situation comparable to creeping inflation. The consumers, majority who happens to be poor are thus unable to afford essential commodities and facilities for survival like food and housing. Containing such a crisis would involve a price regulatory mechanism demanding the fixation of a price ceiling below the equilibrium market price to make sure that essential commodities are affordable to all including the poor.
A major concern to those in America concerns the socio-economic welfare of majority who happens to be poor and living below the cost of living index. They are not able to afford, leave alone accessing, socio-economic amenities like recreational facilities, Specialized health and other social amenities essential for life. Welfare reform thus would offer lasting solutions to avert poverty in America. Social amenities should be made affordable to all by subsiding their costs and decentralizing them to even the remotest areas in the country.
The welfare of the working laborers should also be improved. This is only achievable by allowing workers to join labor organizations that would bargain and haggle their pays according to the prevailing Economic demands. Employers on the other hand, both private and public, should be encouraged to cater for the social welfare of their employees through giving welfare allowances and encouraging them to form welfare organizations where they can be pool their contributions together for their common good.
Presently, as Economists are pointing out the Economy of America is going through recession, the government should institute fiscal and monetary policies to curb the possible inflation that may plague the country. Fiscal policies would involve increasing government expenditure in community projects and involving the local people in the work. This would ensure the ploughing back of incomes back in the Economy and in totality increasing the disposable income of the poor. Coupled with reduction of taxes, the consumers would have enough to consume and to save. This would strengthen the financial base of the majority while checking the spiraling of commodity prices. Monetary policies, on the other hand, would require the government to encourage the public to invest in the capital markets enabling the government to acquire funds to provide the basic amenities to the populace affordably to all.
In conclusion, the problem of Poverty in America can be best solve via intervention strategies both from the government, employers not forgetting the role of the Economic tools of analysis.
Work Cited
John Iceland. Poverty in America: A Handbook, California: University of California Press, 2006.
Social stratification, inequality, injustice, and poverty are considered to be fundamental obstacles to a countrys economic and social growth. Both developing and developed nations still suffer from these issues to a great extent; therefore, forming appropriate policy-based solutions is essential. However, the well-considered response is only possible after a thorough analysis of modern financial and social conditions. Thus, comprehending the causes of poverty and inequalities, understanding the role of globalization, and learning various theoretical arguments can lead to the establishment of appropriate policy recommendations.
Causes of Poverty and Inequality
Inequality in the United States appears to be the result of political decisions that have empowered particular segments of the population since the 1970s. Intellectual property rights in particular stand out, as they allow a wide range of companies to create powerful monopolies and limit competition. This has led to a steady increase in prices for consumers (Reich, 2015). The softening of antitrust laws has only augmented the consolidation of certain companies in different fields. These outcomes solidify particular providers of broadband internet and pharmaceuticals, among others, into de facto regional monopolies. As a result, new competition is limited, lessening the chances of novel companies to emerge while simultaneously allowing for higher prices. The reduction in the actual quality of some services, such as broadband internet, is another side effect of the lack of regulations and restrictions (Reich, 2015). These issues are of a political origin because of the prevalence of lobbying in the United States system, where the financial resources of large companies can be concentrated. This leads to a widening of inequality, as the top earners use their financial advantages to push for legislation that benefits them.
Poverty, while often linked to inequality, is not always the result of widening gaps between economic classes, instead, it can increase due to disadvantage laws and regulations. It is vital to understand the relativism of poverty, as economic inequality means significantly different living standards around the world. In the United States, poverty can at times be seen as the result of job insecurity and the steady weakening of unions (Reich, 2015). Without collective bargaining, employers do not need to increase salaries and can often terminate employment at will. Furthermore, there has been a shift away from working-class issues among decision-makers, with new focuses on environmentalism and civil liberties. As a result, the resources and attention of lobbying groups and politicians have not been on the most vulnerable segment of society (Hacker & Pierson, 2010). Consequently, when the country undergoes economic shocks, elements of the working class are put at risk of poverty. Therefore, without adequate attention from decision-makers nor alternative methods of self-protection such as unions, poverty remains a reality for much lower class Americans.
Role of Globalization
First, to thoroughly understand the impact globalization might have on the state of poverty and inequality, one might fully comprehend the meaning behind the term. Although the concept can be interpreted in various ways, literature considers globalism to be a state of the world involving networks of interdependence at multicontinental distances (Keohane & Nye, 2000, p. 105). The connections between the countries transpire due to the development of trade and the overall impacts of shared knowledge, concepts, specialists, resources, commodities, and scientific information. Therefore, globalization occurs as a result of the expanding nature of globalism. For example, the financial crisis that happened in Thailand, in 1997, considerably impacted other Asian nations and subsequently the rest of the world (Keohane & Nye, 2000). Notably, regardless of the integrating nature of the concept, globalization and globalism do not lead to universal equality or comparable life-standards around the globe.
Distinctly, hundreds of millions in South Asia or Africa do not have access to the Internet or telephone, in comparison to individuals from North American states. Therefore, the process of globalization is followed by substantial gaps between wealthy nations and poor countries. Studies claim that describing globalization as a tool for development and poverty reduction might be faulty, as It implies neither homogenization nor equity (Keohane & Nye, 2000, p. 106). Thus, globalism is in no way a uniform term, as its manifestations can vary significantly from region to region. Additionally, internally, US citizens at the bottom of the income ladder are less likely to find employment, as corporations are looking for employees in developing countries, due to lower labor costs (Hunt & Colander, 2016). Overall, globalization does not impliedly address the issue with global poverty and inequality levels, and in some cases, only increases the separation.
Theoretical Arguments
Globalization allows firms to access labor around the world, leading to set up production in areas where the cost of workers is low. The creation of new jobs for predominantly low-skilled or unskilled workers has led to a steady reduction in poverty in places, including China and India (Hunt & Colander, 2016). This slowly helps narrow the income gap worldwide as more people in developing countries gain steady jobs. This is particularly visible in China, where wage growth has led to some companies shifting their production out of it and into new, developing nations. However, the outsourcing of manufacturing from the developing world to poorer countries has created inequality within those same states. The lower costs to corporations have led to an expansion in research and development, creating a process of creative destruction where low-skilled positions are automated (Hunt & Colander, 2016). As a result, both poverty and inequality within specific countries have expanded, as the lowest-skilled workers are replaced and can no longer find other jobs.
However, global trade creates opportunities for developing countries to export local goods at competitive prices, reflecting their lower manufacturing costs. Access to the global market allows for the creation of new jobs and better wages in developing states, with both reduced local poverty and international inequality (Hunt & Colander, 2016). However, the low prices of goods from developing nations put manufacturers from the developed world at a disadvantage, potentially leading to bankruptcy and loss of employment. In these cases, international trade can lead to a small increase in poverty when low-skilled workers lose their positions and are unable to find new jobs. Overall, the relationship between globalization, poverty, and inequality is mixed, as growth in one area leads to a reduction in another. However, overall, the more extreme poverty in the developing world is declining partly due to the explanation of new labor as a result of globalization.
Policy Remedies for Poverty and Inequality
Poverty and inequality resolution requires various innovative policies and strategies. The study suggests that one of the central steps to implement is the possible isolation of market dominance of particular actors (Chua, 2014). For example, the overall improvement of the educational system and training would enable disadvantaged people from various developing countries to enjoy the benefits of globalization similarly to the elites. Additionally, quota-based policies can be useful for some nations, as government-led incorporation of minorities into economic processes can initiate the path pointing to equality in the society (Chua, 2014). Thus, more people will be able to participate in various aspects of a globalized world, heading to consequent poverty reduction.
Two of the recommended policy solutions are not related to the traditional neoliberal understanding of economic processes. Instead, the empowerment of local communities through education and government-based support is the fundamental idea behind the propositions. The most appropriate way for countries to resolve the issues of inequalities is to address particular needs that minority groups might have. Therefore, fixing the problems, such as a lack of qualification, financial stability, basic needs, or education, will eventually enable them to flourish in a globalized world.
Lastly, inequality and poverty reduction have been the goals of many nations and generations; though, it is a time-consuming process. However, I believe that the implementation of policies related to the empowerment of local minority groups through education, training, and quotas might be a crucial initial measure. Certain government-officials tend to focus on the establishment of artificial jobs for low-skilled workers, which might be less effective than investing in training programs. The latter would subsequently lead to the establishment of more prominent high-skilled labor, economic growth, poverty elimination, and the eradication of some aspects of inequalities. Although it might not be realistic to anticipate the drastic transformation in the nearest future, governments should treat change as a long-term commitment.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the relationships between poverty, inequality, and globalization is mixed, while trending towards negative. While interconnectedness has created new jobs and steadily increasing living standards in some places, the replacement of low-skilled workers in the developed world has expanded poverty and inequality. Addressing the political causes of inequality, particularly the expansion of corporate resources in decision-making is vital to limit the widening gap between the rich and the poor.
Poverty is a sad but unfortunately integral part of the world, and only a few countries can boast of its absence or a low level. At the same time, the countrys policy is implemented depending on the culture of society, and the general level of welfare reflects its effectiveness. Some people blame the state, poor social policies, bureaucracy, discrimination, and education system for all the troubles, while others claim that poor people themselves are responsible for their poverty. According to Royce (2015), American society is no exception, but a second understanding of the problem prevails in the public mind. Consequently, this paper will apply the concepts of an individualistic and structural view on poverty presented in the book Poverty and power by Royce to explain the discussions about the child tax credit policy.
In the New York Times article, The tax break for children, except the ones who need it most, the author discusses tax credit increases. The Trump administration doubled the tax credit for families with children in 2017, and now parents can receive $ 2,000 per child (Deparle, 2019). However, the central thesis of the article is the fact that despite the increase in credit, which should save families with children more money, most parents do not earn enough to satisfy the requirements to get it. For this reason, 25% of families receive only part of the tax credit, and 10% do not receive it at all (Deparle, 2019). Consequently, despite formal improvements and efforts to combat poverty, reform is not useful for poor people who really need help.
In addition, the article shows different views and attitudes towards such a policy. For example, a mother of two children who receive only part of the credit says that the wealthier people who get the full amount do not need this money, since they already have enough (Deparle, 2019). At the same time, a divorced mother with three children, who can get a credit, says that they are necessary as her family pays more taxes in general (Deparle, 2019).
The article also reflects the ideas of politicians from different parties and famous personalities about social benefits, which shows that they are mostly opposite. The author also cites evidence that social allowance to children bring positive results as it helps them to eat and learn better. At the same time, Deparle (2019) shows examples of how poverty can harm the development of children. Thus, this article highlights the broad issue of combating poverty, although its central theme is concrete measures, and it also shows the attitude of the population towards poor US citizens.
The concepts presented in the book Poverty and power help to better understand the content of the article and the reasons for such a different attitude of people to the same problem. First, Royce explains the concept of individualism, which shapes peoples view of poverty. Americans routine exposure to ideologies of poverty and inequality is consistently skewed toward a language accentuating the efficacy of individual striving rather than the constraint of limited opportunities.
Finally, the ideology of individualism is influential not only because it proposes easily understandable and culturally sanctioned explanations for poverty, but also because it suggests straightforward and uncontroversial solutions to the problem: education, hard work, and family values (Royce, 2015, p. 144). In other words, the individualistic approach argues that poverty is the result of laziness and the reluctance of poor people to change their lives. Supporters of this idea believe that a person can live better and become richer if he or she works hard, and the help of the government only allows them to do nothing.
The individualistic concept explains the situation in the United States associated with tax cuts for families with children. Most families do not receive full tax credits because they do not earn enough, and they need additional benefits, but the government does not want to revise this policy (Deparle, 2019). Most people believe that higher income requirements help poor people work harder to get full credit, and the government will allow them to be lazy by reducing this level.
Deparle (2019) notes that although many countries offer benefits to combat child poverty, opponents of this idea say that such measures impede responsibility and development. This idea is further supported by the words of a particular politician: Robert Rector of the conservative Heritage Foundation warns that a universal child allowance would promote dependency and discourage work (Deparle, 2019, Fighting Child Poverty section, para. 16). Thus, the concept of individualism prevailing in American society is reflected in US policy, as can be seen in the article.
Moreover, this attitude to poverty creates a vicious circle, since the words of famous personalities and politicians are authoritative for the media that shape public opinion. Popular ideas among the population, in turn, force politicians to form their views and programs and make decisions that will satisfy the general public. Royce (2015), in his book, also discusses the impact of media on society and emphasizes that almost all channels and newspapers form their agenda in a way that encourages an individualistic view on poverty. Consequently, although the New York Times article does not promote an individualistic approach, it demonstrates its manifestation in the life of Americans.
The concept of structuralism also explains the second side presented in the article. Royce (2015) claims by speaking about proponents of a structural view on poverty: The other camp attributes poverty primarily to structural or external factors, such as discrimination, low quality schools, or lack of jobs (p.148). This concept explains the views of people, who tend to believe that poverty is caused by of influence of external factors that people cannot overcome without help. Supporters of this approach believe that inequality of opportunity prevents many people from achieving financial wealth despite their efforts. Obstacles may include a lack of access to quality education and well-paid jobs and others. For this reason, the state should assist the population in eliminating these factors or reducing their impact.
Many examples illustrating this concept are covered in the article from the first lines. The very fact that many families do not receive full credits because of their low earnings indicates the injustice of the existing system, or systemic factors that prevent them from getting out of poverty. The first example of Ciera Dismuke demonstrates that despite her hard work, she still couldnt earn enough money (Deparle, 2019). Ivanka Trumps tweet we are fighting each and every day for hard-working American families does not sound convincing by comparing to the previous example (Deparle, 2019, Fighting Child Poverty section, para. 14).
The author further notes that social assistance benefits children, which is another manifestation of the structural concept of poverty. For instance, Deparle (2019) notes that this money goes both to pay bills and to additional classes for schoolchildren, which increases their level of education and helps to get qualified for a well-paid job. Therefore, a structural view of poverty is necessary to combat unfortunate circumstances.
Furthermore, the concept helps to understand the initiatives of some politicians to combat poverty, as well as their failures. For example, knowing the prevalence of individualistic views on poverty in American society, it becomes clear why attempts to establish an allowance for all low-income families with children did not find support. In addition, explanations of the adverse effects of external factors on childrens well-being also underline the existence of a structural approach to the problem.
Deparle (2019) shows the cause of child poverty by the example of the teenager as he is forced to pay less attention to school to get to work and buy food for himself. Thus, this article demonstrates that a structural view of poverty has support in society, but the prevailing individualistic approach shapes the countrys politics.
Therefore, reading the chapter Cultural system and poverty in the book Poverty and power: The problem of structural inequality by Royce provided a deeper understanding of the causes and effects of poverty in the US. The concept of individualism, as well as its vast influence on social policy, was reflected in the very topic of the article, which was the central issue of discussion. An understanding of this concept helped me see the reasons for the formation of the current policy but not emotionally perceive its consequences presented in the article.
In addition, examples of the positive impact of social benefits on the fight against child poverty and the harmful effects of their absence helped me realize the importance of the structural approach in political discourse. I hope that other readers have been able to see this aspect also, and this helps to reduce the influence of an individualistic view. I was also pleased that the author focused on the structural approach to reveal the problem, since it is the media and authoritative sources that primarily affect the consciousness of society in the fight against poverty.
Royce, E. (2015). Cultural system and poverty. In Poverty and power: the problem of structural inequality (2nd ed., pp. 143-170). Rowman & Littlefield.
Among the significant concerns of the global healthcare is battling poverty. A tremendous amount of wealth has been generated in the last several centuries, but the issue of poverty has gotten even worse. In this context, children are the most vulnerable group of population because they experience deprivation differently. Also, the impact poverty has on children is much more substantial than the influence it has on adults. Poverty adversely impacts the physical and psychological well-being of children, depreciates their intellectual abilities and limits their social activity. There are many reasons why childhood poverty is prevalent and widespread both globally and in Newcastle.
Unequal income distribution, adult poverty, government policies that exclude children and premature pregnancy are some of the items from the long list of childhood poverty causes. Even developed nations struggle with this socio-economic challenge and there is no simple solution to this problem because the issue encompasses many aspects of human life. It is possible to reduce childhood poverty only by taking a holistic approach. Discrimination should be reduced, education should be affordable for all children and employment opportunities should not be based on the racial or economic background.
Childhood Poverty Indicators and Measurement
Before discussing the causes and effects of childhood poverty, it is reasonable to formally define what childhood poverty is. There have been many approaches to measuring childhood poverty and most of the methods rely on the metrics from a single dimension (Abdu and Delamonica, 2018).
For instance, the most common way scientists and politicians make estimates is by drawing a poverty line. A monetary threshold is used as a basis those households that earn below the threshold are considered to live below the poverty line (Hannum, Liu and Alvarado-Urbina, 2017). However, many scientists believe that relying on a unidimensional approach is not sufficient (Abdu and Delamonica, 2018). Surveys that collect data about poverty should be based on multiple aspects of life.
A monetary threshold is primarily used for measuring adult poverty. However, childrens experiences are different from those of adults; thus, childhood poverty measurement needs a separate methodology. One of the reasons why it is important is that government policies that are aimed at reducing poverty may neglect the needs of children (Abdu and Delamonica, 2018). Children are not concerned with the amount of financial income their household has but are affected by accessibility to food, health services, shelter and education (Abdu and Delamonica, 2018).
As Abdu and Dellamonica suggest (2018, p. 16), these dimensions is a right to which children are entitled, as established in the Convention of the Rights of the Child. Therefore, when constructing an index for the measurement of child poverty, all dimensions should be given equal weight.
Another point worth considering is the quality of surveys that are used to collect data. Some researchers believe that current questionnaires contain items that poor and uneducated children may not be able to answer correctly (Hannum, Liu and Alvarado-Urbina, 2017). For instance, questions about the socioeconomic status of the family should not be given to children because illiterate young people are unlikely to provide accurate responses. Instead, surveys should ask about aspects that are directly related to children, such as access to food and educational resources (Hannum, Liu and Alvarado-Urbina, 2017). Otherwise, it will not be possible to obtain a clear picture of childhood poverty prevalence.
Geography of Childhood Poverty
Despite tremendous economic developments and technological achievements, many children are deprived of basic necessities. According to statistics, 663 million children worldwide live in poverty (Child poverty, 2020, para. 6). Of those, 385 million children are forced to survive for less than 1.90 dollars a day, a threshold set by the World Bank (Child poverty, 2020, para. 6). The more frightening fact is that 19,000 children worldwide die because of poverty-related causes every day (Hayes et al., 2017).
Experiences vary across nations because childhood poverty is different in developing countries compared to developed states. However, it should be noted that childhood poverty is a global challenge and affects both low-income countries and nations with high GDP per capita. For instance, child poverty is a considerable challenge even in the United States and Europe. In the United Kingdom, the highest deprivation rates are observed in inner London and the North East (Child poverty in the North East, 2020). Newcastle is the constituency with the highest childhood poverty rates in the North East.
The notion of poverty is primarily associated with the countries of Africa, where access to clean water and education is negligent. While partly true, this perception of poverty is not full. Large cities like New York and London also have areas where child poverty is prevalent. In fact, as suggested by Allard and Allard (2017, p. 4), places in need can be found everywhere. In developed countries, child poverty is widespread in metropolitan areas (Allard and Allard, 2017).
In the UK, 4.2 million children are either poor or in need of basic necessities (Facts and figures, 2020). Since 2010, an increase of 600 thousand children living in poverty has been observed, which is a clear indicator of the inefficacy of national policies that are set to reduce the childhood poverty rates (Facts and figures, 2020). In Newcastle upon Tyne, more than 26 thousand children are living below the poverty line (Facts and figures, 2020). The number may seem low, but it is almost 40% of all children that live in the area. The poverty rates in large cities and their suburbs have been increasing despite economic and healthcare advancements.
Causes
Adult Poverty and Unemployment
Childhood poverty is strongly associated with adult poverty because it is often parents responsibility to provide for their children. One of the primary reasons why adults cannot offer their families the necessary finances is unemployment. For instance, it has been discovered that unemployment and area poverty rates are significant determinants of homelessness (Hanratty, 2017, p. 653). In turn, children are significantly affected they are deprived of shelter, food and other necessities. Unemployment is a critical issue because its consequences include loss of income, which can be considered a basic necessity for existing in a market economy (Renahy et al., 2018, p. 269).
Insufficiency of funds, in turn, is associated with adverse health outcomes poverty is a principal social determinant of health (Renahy et al., 2018, p. 270). Moreover, every fourth child experiences emotional abuse and physical neglect because of adult economic struggles (Bunting et al., 2018, p. 121). Therefore, it is almost impossible to reduce child poverty rates without decreasing unemployment and providing families with a means to support themselves.
Government interventions should be explicitly addressed to households living in poverty. Otherwise, development expenditure may increase inequality despite lowering unemployment rates (Anwar, Amir and Amin, 2018, p. 42). Providing individuals with unemployment insurance was also found as an effective measure. However, it should be noted that providing people in need with unemployment insurance does not resolve the issue of the psychosocial need for employment (Renahy et al., 2018, p. 273). It is critical to remember that child poverty is concerned not only with the adult economic situation, but the childrens access to education, social environment and emotional support.
Ineffective Government Policies
Many countries across the globe spent enormous amounts of money in an effort to reduce poverty. For instance, the United States federal government has spent 26 trillion dollars since 1965 to reduce the poverty rates with no apparent success (Tanner, 2019, p. 1). It is reasonable to conclude that government policies are ineffective and even cause poverty. However, there are those who claim that adult poverty is a mistake of adults themselves. Some believe that making bad choices is the ultimate reason why people become poor (Tanner, 2019, p. 2). While partly true, it is critical to examine what factors lead to making bad choices.
A widespread belief is that the chance of becoming poor becomes slim when one goes to school, receives a quality education and gets a job; however, individual experiences in various regions are different. It is not possible to acquire knowledge, even when one goes to school and this educational institution does not meet the standards. Therefore, the government needs to take a more holistic approach to battle poverty. For instance, the educational system should be revised to become more inclusive to all children. Housing should become more affordable not by increasing subsidies but by decreasing costs (Tanner, 2019, p. 5). The list of issues that affect the child poverty rates and poverty, in general, is long and each of them requires government attention.
Lack of Education
Education is necessary for the 21st century for a variety of reasons. Even if an unemployed person receives monthly financial assistance, essential literacy skills are needed to be able to manage that money properly (Curtis, 2018). Therefore, the lack of education in adults is a significant factor that contributes to child poverty. When a person lacks knowledge, it is inevitable that he or she is deficient in dimensions other than finances (Curtis, 2018).
Furthermore, lacking essential language and numeracy skills is a determinant of what a person will achieve in terms of work. Without knowing how to read, one will be deprived of opportunities for acquiring a new skill set and getting a high-paid job. The political rights of such people will also be violated because they will have no education and skills to protect them, or even recognize that they are being violated.
Lack of education can have a significant impact not only on the present well-being and situation of children but also their future. For instance, illiterate people are often not aware of education opportunities and about the benefits, knowledge can bring. Therefore, illiterate parents often do not encourage their kids to go to school. They may not even have any means for sending their children to school because of financial hardships.
The association between education and poverty can be demonstrated by seeing how developing literacy skills among the poor affects their lives. According to Eryong and Xiuping (2018, p. 1101), public policies aimed at providing deprived groups with education opportunities positively affected the poverty rates in China. Therefore, education should be considered both when designing poverty indexes and when developing intervention policies.
Disabilities and Lack of Social Services
A person does not choose how he or she wants to be born. However, the characteristics people are born with significantly affect the quality of life they will have. Individuals with disabilities are more likely to live in poverty in the future than people with no physical and intellectual deficiencies. When one of the parents is intellectually or physically disabled, a responsibility to care and provide for the family lies on the other parent.
The likelihood of children experiencing poverty and neglect is higher in such families. A scientific study conducted in South Korea examined the effects of one of the family members being disabled on income patterns. The results are not positive 66.7% of households did not showcase any changes in income distribution and more than 80% stayed in the low-income group (Park, Nam and Park, 2017, p. 108). In summary, the presence of disability significantly impacts the financial capabilities of a family.
Governments of many countries set sustainability goals so that all population groups benefit from the achievements in science, technology and economics. However, individuals with disabilities are at risk of being left behind because the majority of current efforts are not inclusive. For instance, the United Nations Sustainability Development Goals (SDG) are set to end poverty in the world by 2030. As shown by Banks et al. (2020, p. 1), disabled people will unlikely benefit from the UN initiatives because the majority of SDG domains do not account for the disabled. Therefore, changes are needed to SDG so that people with physical and intellectual impairments do not struggle in poverty.
Discrimination
Equality is essential to ensure all children receive a quality education and acquire well-paid jobs. Unfortunately, discrimination is present even in contemporary society that is considered civilized and developed. Children that face prejudice and segregation at school are more likely to develop psychological issues that will affect their lives in the future (McManus, 2017). For instance, one of the reasons why crime rates are higher in African American communities is because, as children, they are faced with violence and discrimination (McManus, 2017).
They are deprived of equal opportunities to receive education and develop bad habits that negatively impact their lives when they grow up (McManus, 2017). Also, some employers may not favor colored workers and deny them a job. Scientific evidence suggests that discrimination leads to economic disparities. In turn, inequalities in terms of economic opportunities lead to increasing poverty rates in marginalized communities.
One of the long-lasting debates has been the topic of equal pay between women and men. However, even today, men receive more salaries than women in the same jobs (Milli et al., 2017, p. 1). Some claim that men are capable of accomplishing more tasks and thus, should be paid more (Milli et al., 2017, p. 2). However, such suggestions are not empirical and have no sound base. When there is only a mother that is providing for her family, her children will be deprived of many opportunities because their mother receives less financial compensation only because she is a woman (Milli et al., 2017, p. 5). Such disparities should be eliminated if society wants to battle child poverty holistically.
Deindustrialisation and Globalisation
Deindustrialization is the process of removing the industrial capacity of a region or a country. In other words, when the number of factories and other manufacturing facilities decreases, it is said that the deindustrialization process is going on. As a result, the number of well-paid jobs for low-skilled workers declines, negatively impacting the financial well-being of communities and households (Bernard, Smeets and Warzynski, 2017).
When a father loses his job because a local factory shuts down, he has to move elsewhere where his skills are demanded. Otherwise, his family may face poverty because of his inability to find a job. Therefore, the deindustrialization of a region results in a portion of the population becoming financially unsustainable (Bernard, Smeets and Warzynski, 2017). Children living in deindustrialized areas are vulnerable because, with the shutdown of manufacturing capacities, other forms of capital also wander away.
Globalization, despite many economic benefits for corporations and nations as a whole, has a deteriorating effect on households. When the salary for a low-skilled workforce is much cheaper in other countries, investments will go there in order to save money (Bourguignon, 2017). However, the local population will struggle because their skills will no longer be demanded (Bourguignon, 2017). For instance, many electronics manufacturers place their factories in China and other Asian countries because of cheap labor. While it is beneficial for companies, the poverty rates may rise in communities deprived of an opportunity to work in companies factories.
Labour Market Segmentation
Labor market segmentation has a significant impact on wealth distribution. The primary principle of such division is that a low-skilled workforce earns much less income than those who are considered white-collar and blue-collar employees (Jenkins, 2018).
In this scenario, poor people will have much fewer opportunities to achieve financial success than established individuals. Children, in this context, are the most vulnerable, because being born into a low-income family immediately deprives them of opportunities. Some scientists suggest that such inequalities also increase the social distance between the middle class and the poor (Jenkins, 2018). Socially neglected children are more likely to engage in criminal activities and end up in jails. Therefore, when considering policies for wealth redistribution, children should be a primary concern.
Individuals should be able to compete for well-paid jobs equally. However, labor market segmentation limits this capability in order to save costs and keep wages at a low level. A person will not demand higher pay if he or she does not have other options and ways for development. Therefore, when addressing the issue of poverty, labor law should also be assessed to identify any deficiencies that pose as a hindrance to people willing to get better jobs. Labor market segmentation is also one of the reasons why poverty is experienced differently in various nations. Because markets are segmented differently across countries, compensation and work-life balance levels vary between states and economies.
Teen Pregnancy and Decline of Nuclear Families
Common sense suggests that it is easier for two parents to feed one baby. However, with the decline of nuclear families, in other words, families consisting of both parents, children are becoming more vulnerable to facing poverty and social neglect (Stanhope and Lancaster, 2017).
One of the leading reasons why the number of nuclear families is diminishing is teen pregnancy. Despite the progress in reducing the number of unplanned pregnancies in youth, the number stays high and impacts the poverty rates (Stanhope and Lancaster, 2017). Scientific evidence shows that unplanned children are more likely to be emotionally neglected, be deprived of education and other necessities (Stanhope and Lancaster, 2017). The association works the other way around as well the primary determinant of teen pregnancy is poverty. The reason is that poor teens are not aware of the consequences of premature pregnancy or cannot afford means for preservation.
Scientists suggest that preventing teen pregnancy can help reduce poverty rates. To address the issue, however, there should be a more thorough understanding of the causes of premature pregnancy (Garwood et al., 2015, p. 160). Some of the determinants are race and whether or not the teen was maltreated during childhood (Garwood et al., 2015, p. 162). These items reinforce the claim that discrimination has a significant impact on the well-being of children. Because poverty also leads to emotional neglect, children living in poor households are often maltreated and in turn, get pregnant early.
Effects
Toxic Stress
Child poverty is accompanied by emotional struggles and these challenges may result in changes in stress hormones. Several empirical studies have been conducted and the results suggest that child poverty often leads to toxic stress (Francis et al., 2018). This type of stress is primarily caused by continuous adverse experiences (Pascoe et al., 2016). The human bodys reaction to short external influences is different (Pascoe et al., 2016). However, experiences that last throughout childhood significantly deteriorate the condition of stress hormones in the human body.
Delayed Growth and Development
Poverty predetermines how well a child will develop and its impact is seen from early infancy. For instance, children living in low-income families demonstrate delayed language development, significantly deteriorating the school-readiness (Wise, 2016). This outcome may be the result of the absence of books parents could have read aloud if they had them. Also, children in poverty are more likely to be of short stature (Wise, 2016). Therefore, it can be concluded that there are also physiological effects of poverty.
Infant Mortality
High child mortality rates have been a national concern in developing countries for more than a century. Children in impoverished communities are more likely to die because of malnutrition and the absence of adequate physical conditions before they reach the age of one (Chaudry and Wimer, 2016). Because of limited access to healthcare, children from low-income families have a higher chance of death caused by a non-severe disease. The absence of sanitation also contributes to adverse health outcomes of children at a young age.
Premature Pregnancy
Deprived of education and information, girls that grow up in poverty are more likely to face premature pregnancy. Teen pregnancy significantly increases the chances of living below the poverty line in the future (Wickham et al., 2016). The reason is that a young mother will have to work to feed her baby instead of getting a university degree and obtaining a well-paid job. Also, teens that lived in poverty are more likely to give birth to children with low birth weight (Wickham et al., 2016). In turn, low birth weight increases the possibility of premature death.
Poor Academic Progress
Children living in impoverishment often fail at school, both primary and secondary. This outcome is mainly caused by parental involvement in school and at home. When a child is neglected, there is a higher chance that the child will lack motivation and will perform much worse than classmates. Also, brain development in children in poverty is different as stated before, children from low-income families develop language skills later (Johnson, Riis and Noble, 2016). This factor also adversely affects how a child does in school.
Problems with Mental Health
Constant emotional neglect, absence of appropriate shelter and food and maltreatment are associated with depression and other psychological disorders. Children in poverty are more likely to have behavioral problems and issues with the law when they grow up (Chamberlain et al., 2016). Scientific evidence shows that there are more criminals that come from low-income families (Chamberlain et al., 2016). Poor children are more likely to develop attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and other mental impairments (Jensen, Berens and Nelson 3rd, 2017). Parental depression is widespread in low-income families and it adversely impacts children.
Chronic Illnesses and Habits
Child poverty also contributes to the development of bad habits and chronic conditions. For instance, poor children are more likely to start smoking tobacco products at a young age. This condition increases the likelihood of being diagnosed with cardiovascular disease in the future (Chamberlain et al., 2016). Asthma and unfavorable overall health conditions are often a result of child poverty (Chamberlain et al., 2016). More nurses and health professionals should receive appropriate training to be able to help children living in poverty.
Potential Solutions
Increasing Household Income
Although childhood poverty encompasses multiple dimensions, the financial sustainability of a family is one of the most significant factors affecting child well-being. When a family has enough funds, it can provide children with clothing, access to healthcare, school supplies, books, food and shelter. Therefore, increasing the household income should be a primary goal of any government that wants to reduce the poverty rates within its borders. Income can be increased by setting a higher minimum wage, creating more jobs and providing low-skill individuals with retraining opportunities so they can go to the labor market with increased chances of getting a job.
Nuclear Families
It has been discovered that nuclear families are more favorable for children. Therefore, governments should work on reducing the decline in nuclear families and increasing their number. One of the possible interventions is improving parental relationships. The goal can be accomplished by providing counseling for low-income families and enforcing policies that allow male workers to take parental leave when their wives give birth. These measures will enable parents to support healthy relationships and contribute to the positive development of their children. If divorce is inevitable, laws should not limit fathers from caring for their children.
Active Role of Nurses
Because childhood poverty primarily results in health challenges, nurses and other healthcare workers play a significant function in alleviating the impact of deprivation. Nurses should inform families about the importance of nutrition and what products are necessary to keep a child healthy. Nurses should take the role of social workers and raise awareness about the health implications of childhood poverty and teen pregnancy. Also, as social workers, nurses should inform families about government programs and opportunities for lessening the burden of deprivation.
Mitigation of Adverse Health Outcomes
Health implications of childhood poverty are well-known and the goal of global healthcare is to solve challenges caused by deprivation. As the number of children living in poverty grows every year, healthcare systems should be ready for assisting individuals that grew up in unfavorable economic and social conditions. More investments should be made in relief programs that provide individuals with necessary health services, including psychological counseling. Health services should be made free for households that have a low income because children are deprived of opportunities to pass routine medical checks for identifying any discrepancies when their families cannot pay for a hospital visit.
Conclusion
Childhood poverty is a critical topic in the context of child health and well-being. Many children die daily because of malnutrition and the inability of parents to provide for their children. However, poverty, in the context of childhood deprivation, is not tied exclusively to financial income but instead associated with a wide range of factors. The type of family a child grows up in is a significant factor. Access to schooling, shelter and health services are also critical. Poverty does not end when childhood ends there are many long-term impacts that adversely affect children when they become adults.
The list of negative consequences of childhood poverty includes health problems, a short-range of employment and education opportunities, limited intellectual capacity and premature pregnancy among girls. To battle this global issue, nations should come together to develop inclusive policies. Current Sustainable Development Goals may not address the issue of child poverty adequately because some groups seem to be left out. All children should be provided with education so that they are all able to compete for high-paid jobs equally.
Reference List
Abdu, M. and Delamonica, E. (2018) Multidimensional child poverty: from complex weighting to simple representation, Social Indicators Research, 136(3), pp. 881-905.
Allard, S. W. and Allard, S. (2017) Places in need: the changing geography of poverty. New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation.
Anwar, A. M., Amir, M. and Amin, W. (2018) The relationship between poverty, income inequality and unemployment: evidence from ARDL and bound testing approach, European Online Journal of Natural and Social Sciences, 7(1), pp. 42-53.
Banks, L.M., Hameed, S., Kawsar Usman, S. and Kuper, H. (2020) No one left behind? Comparing poverty and deprivation between people with and without disabilities in the Maldives, Sustainability, 12(5), pp. 1-13.
Bernard, A.B., Smeets, V. and Warzynski, F. (2017) Rethinking deindustrialization, Economic Policy, 32(89), pp. 5-38.
Bourguignon, F. (2017) The globalization of inequality. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Bunting, L. et al. (2018) The association between child maltreatment and adult poverty a systematic review of longitudinal research, Child Abuse & Neglect, 77, pp. 121-133.
Chamberlain, L.J. et al. (2016) Childhood poverty and its effect on health and well-being: enhancing training for learners across the medical education continuum, Academic Pediatrics, 16(3), pp. 155-162.
Chaudry, A. and Wimer, C. (2016) Poverty is not just an indicator: the relationship between income, poverty and child well-being, Academic Pediatrics, 16(3), pp. 23-29.
Curtis, B. (2018) Education as poverty reduction, Understanding Global Poverty, 21(1), pp. 201-221.
Eryong, X. and Xiuping, Z. (2018) Education and anti-poverty: policy theory and strategy of poverty alleviation through education in China, Educational Philosophy and Theory, 50(12), pp. 1101-1112.
Facts and figures (2020) Web.
Francis, L. et al. (2018) Child poverty, toxic stress and social determinants of health: screening and care coordination, Online Journal of Issues in Nursing, 23(3), pp. 1-14.
Garwood, S.K. et al. (2015) More than poverty teen pregnancy risk and reports of child abuse reports and neglect, The Journal of Adolescent Health: Official Publication of the Society for Adolescent Medicine, 57(2), pp. 164-168
Hanratty, M. (2017) Do local economic conditions affect homelessness? Impact of area housing market factors, unemployment and poverty on community homeless rates, Housing Policy Debate, 27(4), pp. 640-655.
Hannum, E., Liu, R. and Alvarado-Urbina, A. (2017) Evolving approaches to the study of childhood poverty and education, Comparative Education, 53(1), pp. 81-114.
Hayes, C. et al. (2017) Developing as reflective early years professional: a thematic approach. St Albans: Critical Publishing.
Jenkins, S. (2018) Gender, place and the labor market. Oxon: Routledge.
Jensen, S.K., Berens, A.E. and Nelson 3rd, C.A. (2017) Effects of poverty on interacting biological systems underlying child development, The Lancet Child & Adolescent Health, 1(3), pp. 225-239.
Johnson, S.B., Riis, J.L. and Noble, K.G. (2016) State of the art review: poverty and the developing brain, Pediatrics, 137(4), pp. 1-18.
McManus, A.C. (2017) Addressing poverty through a transformative approach to anti-discrimination law in Latin America, in Fortes P. et al. (eds.) Law and policy in Latin America. London: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 221-237.
Milli, J. et al. (2017) The impact of equal pay on poverty and the economy. Web.
Park, E.Y., Nam, S.J. and Park, S.H. (2017) Income patterns of households including individuals with intellectual disabilities according to poverty dynamics, Journal of Policy and Practice in Intellectual Disabilities, 14(2), pp. 108-117.
Pascoe, J.M. et al. (2016) Mediators and adverse effects of child poverty in the United States, Pediatrics, 137(4), pp. 1-19.
Renahy, E. et al. (2018) Connections between unemployment insurance, poverty and health: a systematic review, The European Journal of Public Health, 28(2), pp. 269-275.
Stanhope, M. and Lancaster, J. (2017) Foundations for Population Health in Community/Public Health Nursing-E-Book. St. Louis, MO: Elsevier Health Sciences.
Tanner, M. (2019) How government causes poverty, Catos Letter, 17(2), pp. 1-8.
Wickham, S. et al. (2016) Poverty and child health in the UK: using evidence for action, Archives of Disease in Childhood, 101(8), pp. 759-766.
Wise, P.H. (2016) Child poverty and the promise of human capacity: childhood as a foundation for healthy aging, Academic Pediatrics, 16(3), pp. 37-45.
Inequality is an issue that permeates all spheres of peoples lives, and it is challenging for people to discover and address the root of the problem. For instance, inequality is often viewed through the lens of economics, with some scholars believing that income adjustment can resolve such staggering concerns as poverty (Visano 192). However, it is vital to consider other aspects of ones existence, paying attention to multiple social determinants and their interconnectedness. In Canada, Indigenous Peoples encounter economic inequality that is further worsened by racism, their remote geographic location, a lack of accessible medical services, and food insecurity.
Poverty
Racialized groups face economic and health-related hardships worldwide, and Canada is not an exception. Although the idea of multiculturalism is embraced in the country on paper, it is apparent that minorities continue to face inequality (Jacobs and Ouedraogo 270). For example, the population living in the most northern territory of Canada, Nunavut, mostly consists of Indigenous Peoples (Inuit, in particular).
This region differs greatly from the rest of the country due to its harsh northern climate as well as the lack of urban development. As a result, the local Indigenous communities do not have the same quality of life as people living in other Canadian cities. In this case, the primary type of poverty is material Indigenous Canadians suffer from great food insecurity as local farming opportunities are limited by the weather (Visano 197). The combination of the remoteness from urban life with fresh produce and clean water puts the health of the community at risk of malnutrition, obesity, and overall poor health.
Another problem that much of northern Canadas Indigenous Peoples face is the availability of healthcare services and peoples inability to access medical help. Apart from being unable to acquire the same products as other Canadians, residents of Nunavut lack healthcare facilities that would be as advanced as those in more prosperous territories. Such costs as transportation, housing, and food make health travel extremely challenging and further limit communities healthcare access. Here, the combination of such social determinants as low income and no access to healthcare services play a significant role in Indigenous Peoples wellbeing.
Race Inequity
The issues of poverty and poor health of Indigenous Peoples cannot be analyzed without acknowledging the underlying systemic racism. The location of the communities in the north shows that the majority of Indigenous Canadians live in regions with worse infrastructure, and they cannot access education and job opportunities. In Nunavut, employment is limited to industries that can or have to operate in a harsh environment.
Thus, many Indigenous Peoples may not have another choice but to apply to these positions. The lack of development in these territories is notably contrasting the rest of the country the discrepancy between food insecurity in Ontario and Nunavut is substantial. In comparison, Nunavuts population is primarily Indigenous Peoples, while Ontarios majority is people of European descent (Visano 196). There exists a clear issue of race inequity that is strengthened by the climate and other conditions that discourage improvement.
Conclusion
Indigenous Peoples in Canada are affected by poverty that is comprised of territorial isolation, harsh environment, food insecurity, lacking healthcare services, and limited job opportunities. Poverty leads to worse health, which, in turn, further lowers the quality of life for Indigenous Canadians. The majority of this population group is located in the northern part of the state, and such segregation leads to racial inequity and long-term effects on the communitys economic and social security.
Works Cited
Jacobs, Merle A., and Awalou Ouedraogo. Is there Equity in Multiculturalism? Race In-Equity: Intersectionality, Social Determinants of Health & Human Rights, edited by Awalou Ouedraogo and Merle A. Jacobs, APF Press, 2017, pp. 265-294.
Squire, Jeffrey N. T. Ebola in West Africa Equity and Human Rights Issues in the Global Response: A Synthesis. Race In-Equity: Intersectionality, Social Determinants of Health & Human Rights, edited by Awalou Ouedraogo and Merle A. Jacobs, APF Press, 2017, pp. 108-126.
Visano, Brenda Spotton. Interpretations of Economic Inequality in Canada and Why It Matters for Public Policy. Race In-Equity: Intersectionality, Social Determinants of Health & Human Rights, edited by Awalou Ouedraogo and Merle A. Jacobs, APF Press, 2017, pp. 190-202.
The concept of corporate social responsibility (CSR) implies that multinational companies play an essential role in eliminating poverty and supporting sustainable development. This is also beneficial for businesses themselves, as stronger economies and stable societies create enormous opportunities for growth in new markets. Moreover, according to Kao et al. (2016), CSR pro-poor measures contribute to the improvement of corporate image and marketing efficiency among consumers. In addition, the impoverished segments of the population may provide considerable human resources for business. It should be noted that multinational companies can achieve poverty alleviation both through direct CSR practices and indirect social and structural impacts.
One of the main activities in this regard is to analyze the companys operations and reduce its adverse social consequences. Researchers state that preventing and managing the negative impacts of the core business on the poor are essential indicators of the social responsibility of the company (MedinaMunoz & MedinaMunoz, 2020, p. 8). For example, multinational clothing companies may purchase products for further sale from distributors who use low-cost labor of disadvantaged people in developing economies. Corporations that seek to meet standards of sustainability and responsibility interrupt business relationships with counterparties that maintain low levels of compensation and labor protection.
In addition to preventing negative impacts, companies can also contribute directly to poverty alleviation. MedinaMunoz and MedinaMunoz (2020) state that, in some instances, companies may provide affordable products and services to low-income segments of the market. Thus, business, firstly, performs the social function of facilitating access to certain goods for all segments of the population, and secondly, receives a large number of new customers. For example, companies that specialize in food products often create a new brand that distributes cheaper and more available products.
There are also CSR practices that are not aimed at supporting low-income people, but at contributing to their labor competences development, thus resolving the root of the problem. According to Kao et al. (2016), the significant element of corporate assistance in poverty reduction is to provide personal empowerment with vocational education and skills training (p. 142). Moreover, multinational companies with a highly qualified and well-established internal training system can obtain access to talented employees who could not otherwise represent themselves due to economic reasons. Given that corporate education is application-oriented and focuses on the rapid implementation of skills acquired, the business can, to a certain extent, perform educational functions for a specific part of the poor population. It should also be considered that companies perform an important function in creating job opportunities. The researchers note that CSR trends are particularly focused on meeting specific standards for working environment and compensation (Kao et al., 2016). It should be mentioned that the social benefit packages, which include health insurance, are especially valuable for low-income people.
Another significant element of the CSR is maintaining communication with pro-poor entities. MedinaMunoz and MedinaMunoz (2020) emphasize that public administrations, trade unions, chambers of commerce, NGOs, community leaders are quite knowledgeable about the conditions of the poor and the causes of poverty (p. 8). In this way, companies can take more appropriate and effective measures in this regard and have access to relevant information on the social agenda. Thus, the CSR consists of the analysis of the companys activities, social protection of the employees, and the implementation of active and direct measures to reduce poverty.
References
Kao, T. Y., Chen, J. C., Wu, J. T. B., & Yang, M. H. (2016). Poverty reduction through empowerment for sustainable development: A proactive strategy of corporate social responsibility. Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Management, 23(3), 140-149.
MedinaMunoz, R. D., & MedinaMunoz, D. R. (2020). Corporate social responsibility for poverty alleviation: An integrated research framework. Business Ethics: A European Review, 29(1), 3-19.
Even before the global financial crisis that is currently ravaging the economies of the world, the welfare of the child was already in trouble in Toronto. The rate of poverty of persons below the age of 18 years started to increase at alarming rates in 1990; and since 1995, the trend has been that of constant increase. In 1990, about 24% of the children in Toronto were living in poverty as measured by the Low Income Cut Off (LICO); this translated to about one in every 4 children (Hughes, 2001). These figures changed to one child in three (about 36%) by the year 1995.
The number of children living in poverty had increased from 74,000 in 1990 to 176,300 in 1995; this was a 73% increase. However, despite the current economic downturn, the period from 1995 has been that of steady economic growth in Toronto; unfortunately, this has not seen a corresponding betterment of the welfare of the child in the same period; in fact, the level of child poverty has remained more or less the same and the number of children living in poverty has increased. In 1995, there were approximately 94,300 families living in poverty; three years later, in 1998, this number had increased to 99,940, a 3% shift. During this period, about 25% of all families in Toronto were living below the poverty line; with a higher prevalence of poverty among single-parent families with 49% (about half) of all single-parent families living in poverty (Hughes, 2001; 2008).
Now that the economic crisis has hit, it is scary to think what its effect will be on the levels of child poverty in Toronto if the trends showed a steady increase even during periods of average economic growth in the city. In this light, child poverty is top on the in-tray of social workers in Toronto since it not only makes the children suffer, it also robs them of their future potential of being all they can be; and robs the nations future productive citizens (Rothman, 2007).
Toronto; the Child Poverty Capital of Ontario
In a report titled Greater trouble in Greater Toronto released in 2008 by the Childrens Aid Societies and Social Planning Network, Toronto is named as the child poverty capital of Ontario (Hughes, 2008). This has mainly been attributed to the increase in levels of child poverty in the Greater Toronto Area with the maximum effects being felt in Toronto city. Of all the children living in poverty in the province of Ontario, 50% of them live in the Greater Toronto Area. Contrary to an expected growth of child poverty in the downtown and low-income areas, there has been an alarming increase in child poverty in the suburban zones of Toronto with areas such as Peel and York showing 51% and 44% increases in the numbers of children living below the poverty line since 1997.
Urbanization of child poverty
The trend of increase of child poverty has been that of urban spread. This was noted from the 1970s where the long-term trend of concentration of low-income families in urban areas was described (Hughes, 2001; Myles et al, 2000). Comparatively, poverty levels among children are higher in large urban areas than in more rural areas; as such, one child in twenty-live below the poverty line in small urban centers and townships compared to one child in four living in the same status in Toronto. Additionally, the difficulty associated with low income is more pronounced in a large city than in a small township; with the large number of people in large cities competing for limited services than the city authorities, it is more likely that the more vulnerable children will be left out of either due to their lack of ability to compete or by city officials overlooking this group as requiring aid. Additionally, compared to townships, purchasing power of low income is higher in the former than in the latter. Finally, in small townships, it is easier for poor households to get non-governmental aid than in large cities since in the former, such well-wishers will know these households on a personal basis.
Child poverty in Lone-parent families
Many of the families in Toronto have the mother as the head. This section of the society has a disproportionate representation among the poor families in Toronto (and indeed in all major cities of the world). Toronto does not only have the highest (compared to Peel, York, Durham and Halton) proportion of children who are part of a lone parent family standing at 29%, but it also has the highest level of this section of children living below the poverty line (standing at 51%; that is, more than half of these children) [Hughes, 2008].
There is a connection between the growth of urban areas and the increase of lone-parent families in most parts of the world; consequently, lone-parent families (same as child poverty) tend to be urbanized as their proportion tends to increase as the size of the community enlarges. This is a critical point for approaching the issue of child poverty with the aim of reducing it through the identification and support of single-parent homes both by provincial and city authorities; and non-governmental aid agencies dealing with mitigation of child poverty (Rothman, 2007).
Among the points that have been identified as promoting poverty in children born in single-parent homes is the issue of childcare. If a child was to be enrolled in a quality childcare program, then the parent can engage in other activities that might enable them to get out of the poor status and improve their standard of living such a working or attending school (Rothman, 2007). Additionally, such care centers promote early learning to toddlers and healthy development; therefore giving them the physical and mental capacity to get out of poverty in the future.
However, childcare, with all its benefits for child welfare has been the one thing unavailable to lone parents in Toronto. Compared to the number of children needing this service, the number of licensed care centers in the Greater Toronto Area is far from adequate; additionally, the cost attached to enrolling a child in one of these centers is prohibitive going at an average of $47 per day per child effectively lock many single parents from this service. Government efforts to subsidize some of these centers have been but a drop in the ocean compared to the demand.
The need for child care is critical for reducing child poverty in Toronto; although it is an issue that affects all the families regardless of parent status, in lone-parent families it is a factor that causes, increases and retains them in a state of poverty (Rothman, 2007). Its importance is reiterated by the fact that about 83% of all single parents working or going to school have enrolled their children in a childcare center. Conversely, two-thirds of lone parents on social support cite their inability to access childcare facilities either due to availability or due to cost as being the main impediment for getting employed. The plight of the single parent is made further highlighted by the fact that out of every five people using a food bank, one is a single parent.
Child poverty in Toronto: An issue of race
Immigration is one of the major points of development in Canada, and it brings a wealth of skilled labor from all over the world. Many immigrants use Toronto as the landing site before they proceed to settles in other Canadian cities and provinces; and a good number of them end up settling in the city. Consequently, Toronto has the highest proportion of immigrants in the population in the whole country standing at 48% (Hughes, 2008).
New settlers in Toronto and indeed in Canada face many challenges that range from language barriers and inability to get employment due to failure to recognize credentials. They may also encounter overt discrimination; all these issues make it difficult for this section to adapt well to their new settlements. Consequently, they have been hit hard by the scrooge of child poverty; and disproportionately compared to other sections of the population.
The racial disproportion of child poverty in Toronto affects both newcomers and children born in Canada. The ratios of children in poverty to those who are not clearly showing this disproportion are as follows; 1:10 for European descent children, 1:5 for east Asians, 1:4 for Central And South American, Caribbean, South Asians And Aboriginal, 1:3 for West Asian and Arabs; and 1:2 for children from African descent (Hughes, 2001;2008; Ornstein, 2000).
Immigrant settlement tends to be urbanized; as such, 79% of all immigrants in the province of Ontario have settled in the Greater Toronto Area (Myles et al, 2000). Additionally, immigration regulations ensure that younger immigrants are favored over older ones; consequently, the rate of childbirth is higher among the immigrant community than the general population. These factors thus contribute to the disproportionate representation of minorities in the child poverty bracket (Ornstein, 2000).
Child poverty and housing
The proportion of the Toronto population that is most likely not to afford basic housing includes immigrants, single mothers and those who live alone. Housing is unaffordable if the cost exceeds 30% of a persons after-tax income (Cooper, 2001). The issue of affordable housing affects a person if the income is too low and if there is a shortage of such housing. In the Greater Toronto Area, the waiting list for provision of social housing has 78,000 households; this amounts to a range of 2 to 5 years of waiting; the major cause of unaffordable housing in Toronto is therefore unavailability (Hughes, 2008; Cooper, 2001).
Faced with an increasing section of poor households, this problem is bound to get worse if no action is taken to change this scenario. To put the problem into the perspective of the child, the parents have to make a choice between paying rent or buying food and other amenities; as such families with food banks are a constant source of food spending about 77% of their income on rent.
This situation can go a step further into homelessness if a parent can not raise the rent. Consequently, many children are among the thousands of people who pass through homeless shelters every year. This disrupts their education thus further entrenching their inability to get out of their situation in the future (Beauvais and Jenson, 2003).
Challenges in Child Poverty Social Work
We have explored various aspects of child poverty and highlighted the factors that make some sections of the population more vulnerable to child poverty than others. Among the most remarkable aspects of child poverty in Toronto is the fact that the rate of poverty on average increased even in the face of a steady economic growth between 1990 and 1995. There has to be breakage somewhere between the general economy of the city and indeed the province and the poverty levels of its inhabitants.
In the recent past, some efforts have borne fruits in the attempt to reduce child poverty in Toronto. For example, between 1994 and 2001, the number of children on social assistance reduced from 192,000 cases to 111,000 cases. Two events during the period have been attributed to this decline; one of them is the creation of 116,200 jobs in the period between 1995 and 2000; a large proportion of these was full-time (102,100) [Hughes, 2001].
However, the decline was also caused by a policy change that aimed at reducing child poverty. A good example of this is the reduction in the number of earnings required for one to qualify for (or leave) welfare. Another is the re-categorization of parents in post-secondary academic institutions by changing them from welfare to student loans.
However, there has to be a very clear demarcation between the reduction of welfare caseloads and child poverty. Just because a parent becomes employed and leaves welfare doesnt necessarily mean the family has stopped being poor; on the contrary, such a family may have to move in-work poverty with a good possibility of reverting back to welfare.
Two main challenges thus stand in the way of reduction of child poverty in Toronto; the failure by the relevant authorities to separate poverty and economic growth (thus the assumption that the latter will automatically reduce the former; and the lack of sustainability of measure put in place to reduce child poverty.
Social work alone cannot reduce child poverty in Toronto; a lot of effort has to come from both the provision and the federal government. For example, the logistics involved in investment in low-cost housing required to cater to the current deficit cannot be carried out by private entities. Additionally, some of the measures to increase the purchasing power of low-income earners such as increased social assistance, tax benefits, investment in early learning and childcare services (and subsidization of such service for low-income earners) can only be carried out by a government due to the cost and logistical inputs required. As such, goodwill enough is not alone.
Conclusion
In 1989, the House of Commons made a unanimous resolution to end child poverty by the year 2000. That date has come and gone; and the rate has continued to rise in spite of steady economic growth. With the world still writhing from the effects of a caustic economic downturn, the future of the children in low-income households remains in the balance.
A society that does not invest in the future by ensuring the best possible development of the children faces inevitable extinction; the question is whether the Canadian society will fall into this trap.
References
Beauvais C and Jenson J. (2003): The well-being of children: are there neighborhood effects ? Ottawa: Canadian Policy Research Networks Inc. 2003.
Cooper M (2001): Housing Affordability: A Childrens Issue: Canadian Policy Research Networks Discussion paper. Web.
Hughes Colin (2008): Greater Trouble in Greater Toronto: Child Poverty in the GTA: Childrens Aid Society of Toronto, Web.
Hughes Colin (2001): Report Card on Child Poverty In Toronto; April 2001: Toronto Campaign. Web.
Myles, J., Picott, G. and Pyper, W. (2000): Neighborhood Inequality in Canadian Cities: Paper presented at the Canadian Economics Association Meeting, Vancouver 2000.
Ornstein, M. (May, 2000) Ethno-Racial Inequality in the City of Toronto: An Analysis of the 1996 Census, City of Toronto.
Rothman Laurel (2007): Oh Canada! Too many children in poverty for too long: Pediatric Child Health; 12(8): 661665.