Category: Poverty in America

The future of humanity is generally threatened by the increase and spread of poverty. About 40 million Americans live in poverty and 18.5 million Americans live in extreme poverty, Poverty is a multifaceted social phenomenon: poverty is not only a lack of income, or even a scarcity of jobs, but also a marginalization of a class of society, a denial of poor participation in decision-making, and exclusion from access to social services. Economic inequality is one of the most important causes of poverty. The rate of poverty is different in U.S.A if you someone is colored than if someone is white because of the unfair economic.

The purpose of this article is to show how the average of poverty is high in the United States, also the average of poverty is different in white people and colored people. according to Heather, “In 2017, 25.4% of Native Americans and Alaska Natives, 21.2% of African Americans, 18.3% of Latinxs, and 10% of Asians were poor compared with 8.7% non-Hispanic Whites” that’s show the people who have different color are more likely to live in poverty than non-Hispanic Whites in U.S.A. there are around 5.7 million people of the U.S. population are extremely poverty, their monthly income less than 10 thousands dollar of three family members. The author also points out steps they should follow to reduce poverty. She wants to research for poverty in America because economic equality is causing big problems right now

Heather E. Bullock is an American social psychologist She is Professor of Psychology and Director of the Blum Center on Poverty, Social Enterprise, and Participatory Governance at the University of California, Santa Cruz. Heather arrive at their finds by using sources to support her article. Bullock said, “Excluding health care and Social Security benefits, only 9% of the 2017 U.S. federal budget was spent on safety net programs (e.g., Supplemental Security Income for senior citizens and people with disabilities, low-income housing assistance, food assistance) that assist individuals and families facing economic hardship (Center on Budget and Policy Priorities, 2019).” That is not the only article she used. She used many articles to prove her point about how the inequality economic increase the rate of poverty, such as scientific researches, article journals and books.

The author make base at the end is how it is easy to feel overwhelmed and powerless against the high average of poverty and inequality economics in America. Psychology has a lot to offer in this fight, However, we cannot change poverty and economic inequality if we do not use our knowledge either.

Over all of this article I rate this article 6 of 10 because Heather didn’t give good solution to decrease the average of poverty, also she didn’t show the cause of the average of poverty in colored people are higher than white people, but overall she provides a good argument supporting her mainpoint by using sources, and give strong argument on poverty in U.S.A. and how the unfair economic increase the rate of poverty.

The information in the article related to this course it shows how poverty in united states, is different from colored people and white people that is show how the inequality economic support the white people more than the colored people, also showed how there is still racism and discrimnation between colored people and white people. Furthermore, it’s mostly showed the definition of racism which is Cognitive belief that one ethnic group is superior and dominant in a subordinate group, assumed by genetic makeup, intelligence, skin color, personality, or related rationale. And in this article, it showed how the economic support the white skinned people more than the colored people.

As an engineering, the information are listed in the article could help to create project make the rich people who spent a lot of money on unnecessary stuff, allocating part of his salary goes only to the poor and help them to buy their own needs and also we ask the psychologists to help me to use some more ideas.

It helps me engage with our communities to ask them how they feel about the rate of poverty is different, also you i can assess the economic what they do and published the information on public for hope that they change.

Reference

1. Bullock, H. E. (2019). Psychology’s contributions to understanding and alleviating poverty and economic inequality: Introduction to the special section. American Psychologist, 74(6), 635–640. https://doi-org.ezproxy.uakron.edu:2443/10.1037/amp0000532

In 2018, 11.1% of Unites States households faced food insecurity accounting for 14.3 million of the approximately 129 million households in the United States. Ohio has food insecurity above the United States average and ranks 43rd for overall health. Ohio has a 14.5% food insecurity rate with a 13.3% food insecurity rate in my residence, Lorain County. Patients who struggle with food insecurity and financial limitations often purchase lower-cost foods lacking nutritional value, are unable to follow medical diets such as for diabetes, and forgo preventative medical care. This can lead to a variety of health conditions and exacerbation of chronic diseases such as diabetes, end stage renal disease, pregnancy complications, and obesity. This can lead to poor health outcomes, reduced quality of life, increased health care utilization and cost, and even death. This increased health care utilization can lead to an increase in physician office visits, emergency room visits, and hospitalizations. A study in 2014 determined that the average direct and indirect healthcare cost due to food insecurity was $160.07 billion. Food insecurity, as well as many other aspects of poverty, ultimately lead to poor patient health and financial strain on the United States healthcare system.

Background on Poverty and Food Insecurity

The Merriam-Webster defines poverty as “the state of one who lacks a usual or socially acceptable amount of money or material possessions”. Although people may have been lived in poverty conditions since the beginning of time, national concern about Poverty did not develop until 1964 when President Lyndon Johnson declared the war on poverty. This lead to many actions taken to fight poverty such as the creation of Medicare and Medicaid in 1965, expanding Social Security benefits, the Food Stamp Act of 1964, and the Economic Opportunity Act of 1964. This lead to an overall decline in poverty rates.8 Many of these programs are still in place today with amendments and changes made. Poverty is something that many Americans will face during their lifetime with an article stating that almost two-thirds of American will fall below the 20th percentile at some point in their lifetime.

In 2016 there were an estimated 40.6 million Americans living in poverty. This accounted for approximately 12.7 percent of the United States population and nearly 18 percent of all children in the United States. In 2018 the National poverty rate fell to 11.8% which was the lowest it had been since the recession. In Ohio specifically, in 2019 the poverty rate was 14% according to the Ohio Developmental Services agency.

Researchers have found that people living in poverty overall have poorer health, shorter life expectancy, higher prevalence of diseases, and increased sadness and hopelessness. Positive social determinants of health are also often lacking in neighborhoods with people living in poverty. Some examples including limited access to health food stores or unsafe environments for children to play and get exercise.5Poverty also had a large impact on healthcare access, cost, and provision of care. Patients experiencing poverty often have various clinical factors limiting access to care. These barriers include less people in poverty having employer sponsored insurance with statistics showing that less than one third of employers having access to employer sponsored insurance compared to almost two thirds of people not in poverty. In 2018 after the affordable care act was passed there were still over twenty-sever million Americans without health insurance. Patients without health insurance often are not able to afford health care leading to lower provision of care. Research shows that low-income Americans often participate in unhealthy behaviors such as tobacco smoking, but unfortunately access to health care for services such as smoking cessation is limited.

The Merriam-Webster dictionary defined food insecurity as “Unable to consistently access or afford adequate food”. Like poverty, food insecurity has also been informally an issue in the United States, but it was not until the War on Poverty when hunger began a national United States issue. This lead to the passing of the Food Stamp Act of 1964. This was the first permeant food program in the United states and have been changed to the SNAP program we currently have today. This SNAP regulatory program has helped millions of Americans when they have faced food insecurity. Similar to the American poverty rates, the rate of food insecurity is also declining and reached 11.1% in 2018.One financial aspects of feed security is that people in poverty have a significantly higher rate of food insecurity than the general population.Social impacts of food insecurity are widespread including reduced quality of life due to disease exacerbations and complications. This can lead patients to become isolated and experience various mental health conditions such as depression and suicide.

For a patient to qualify for the supplemental nutrition program (SNAP) program they must meet federal poverty income levels as well as work or train for 20 hours a week. Although there are some exceptions to this working requirement such as having children under 18, being pregnant, or taking care of someone with a disability, this leaves many Americans unable to qualify for food stamps. Currently, Ohio has 42 counties exempt from the 20-hour work requirement rule, but the Trump Administration introduced a new rule on December 8th which will tighten this to only wave counties with an unemployment rate of greater than 6%. This could lead to up to 700,000 Americans losing food stamps including 45,000 Ohio residents. This could lead to increased demands for local food banks as well as an overall increase in food insecurity.

Assessing Implications from Food Insecurity

As far as the health and economic implications of food insecurity there are many studies that show that poverty, and in particular food insecurity lead to poor health outcomes and an overall increase in healthcare utilization and cost. For example, one study examined health care utilization of emergency room visits, hospitalizations, and days hospitalized in food insecure patients. They found food insecure patients had significantly more ED room visits hospitalizations, and days hospitalized. Another study specifically looked at patients with diabetes facing food insecurity. They found that patients with food insecurity had a higher blood sugar than those without food insecurity. This means that the patients with food insecurity had less control on their diabetes with could lead to future health complications.

Another study examined the health care costs associated with food insecurity between 2011-2013. This study used data from the National Health Interview Survey and the Medical Expenditure Panel Survey to examine health care costs and from the Map the Meal Gap on food insecurity. They found that food insecure adults had a statically significant greater health care cost of $1,834 more than food secure adults. In children, there was also an average of $80 higher each year, but were not statically significant. Researchers were able to use this data to conclude that an average of $52.9 billion was spent each year due to excess health care costs due to food insecurity.This would account for approximately 3-6% in total yearly health care costs in America.

Recommendation

The current effect of the to reduce poverty and food insecurity are slowing reducing poverty and insecurity. This can be seen from the national trend of a decrease in both poverty and food insecurity since the 1960’s. The most notable of these include actions taken after the war on poverty and especially the SNAP program. With this I would recommend that the Government takes three actions in order to continue to reduce food insecurity and poverty.

First, I would recommend that the Government continue to fully support and fund the SNAP program and reconsider the recent tightening of work requirements of the SNAP program. Participation in the SNAP program allows people to have the ability to “purchase” food to reduce hunger and food insecurity. Unfortunately, if exceptions from the 20 hour working requirements are reduced, up to 700,000 Americans and 45,000 Ohio residents could lose SNAP benefits. This could lead to increased food insecurity and increased health care costs as research currently shows that low-income adults participating in the SNAP program had an approximate $1,400 reduction in healthcare costs per year.

Second, I would recommend a 30% subsidy on fruits and vegetables for patients on Medicare and Medicaid. One study looked at the effects of a 30% subsidy on fruits and vegetables on the Medicare or Medicaid population. They found that is a 30% subsidy was placed on fruits and vegetables 1.93 million cardiovascular diseases could be prevented saving 39.7 billion dollars in national health care costs. Their showed that although initial cost may increase, that after five years this program would become cost effective and save the government money. Having health food subsidies would also lead to improved quality of life.

Poverty is a worldwide epidemic that is changing trends in the country’s economy and affecting the economic prosperity of the community. This social problem is within my two articles and is focused on Americans of all ages. The U.S poverty rate slightly declined last year but despite that, the Census Bureau studied that still, about 38 million people were poor in 2018. Although this poverty rate in the United States has gone down, there are still millions of people that are suffering from low-income and unemployment. This is detrimental to society as it can threaten our nation with crime and affect our economy by not using the opportunities for employment and income growth. Stronger labor markets and higher income levels can help families living in poverty, but the economy cannot grow if there is not employment. The two articles showing our country in poverty are similar in ways that they provide the statistics of those living in poverty, as well as American income levels. While showing that 38.1 million Americans were in poverty last year, children are also experiencing poverty. With more than 12.8 million children in America in poverty, and about one in five live and face these harsh realities every single day.

Both of the articles speak on poverty in a large frame but one thing that makes them different is that one focuses on the entire population while one speaks much more deeply about the children affected by the poverty levels. This places a much more subjective view on the point of poverty. After it is all said and done, no one in their right mind truly wants someone to be placed in a position of poverty, but no one especially wants children to be in this situation. Providing the article speaks primarily on poverty’s effect on children, it hopes to cause a greater impact on the reader seeing as these children have no decision on the situation they are brought into. “No child should have to worry where her next meal will come from or whether she will have a place to sleep each night in the wealthiest nation on Earth,” the article states.

One issue that I believe is not brought up in the articles is other options that can be put into place to tackle the issue of poverty. Just like many other instances, the reporters are simply placing all the pressure on the government to adjust funding or for the government to do something about the issue rather than presenting ways in which every day people can help with the issues at hand. Perhaps providing information like this would allow for the readers to find ways to reach out and help in ways that they can rather than to place the reader against the government. After all, there are many “normal” people in this country than there are government officials. While the government officials do carry large amounts of power in their hands, so do the citizens of this country. Providing options for everyday citizens to combat the issue could see to be very beneficial.

The first article about overall poverty in America seems to be value-neutral, with no real outright biased statements being made. However, the article on US children and poverty is highly biased. The overall poverty article speaks mainly about facts and stating numbers rather than tugging at the heartstrings of the readers like they do in the second article. “The question is not whether we have the knowledge or resources to end child poverty, but whether we have the moral decency and political will.” This quote from the article places bias on the reader as to whether or not we are “morally decent.”

Both articles present evidence that is very logically based and supported by the numbers. The first article simply speaks on the changes in the numbers in poverty, it is truly backed up by the numbers they present. In the following quote, “Despite the decline in poverty, the Census Bureau found that 38.1 million people in 2018 were poor. This was 1.4 million fewer poor people than in 2017, but about one in eight Americans still lived below the poverty line — $25,465 for a family with two adults and two children.” the article not only provides the difference between the number of those in poverty showing the decrease in them, it also still brings attention to how it is still an issue. The second article also does the same thing, presenting a case on poverty in children while also presenting numbers and graphs on the issue at hand. “More than 12.8 million children in America – about one in five – live in poverty and face these harsh realities every day.” This is supporting the reporter’s claim of the issue of poverty in children of the United States.

Both headlines of the articles speak exactly what they are trying to reflect in the body. “U.S. Census Bureau Reports Poverty Rate Down, But Millions Still Poor” and “About 13m US children are living below the poverty line, rights group reveals” these both are exactly what is talked about throughout the article, neither vary from what is being said or slant the headline in any way. The issue that could arise when comparing both headlines would be the fact that the first headline references the U.s Census Bureau reporting the information while the other revealed by a rights group. This could sway the reader away from the rights group as they are not nearly as well known or credible as the U.S Census Bureau is.

Both articles will affect the reader in their outlook on poverty as they both provide areas in which poverty is becoming less and less as the years go on, but is still a major problem in today’s society. They appeal to many types of people as well, as if you are more of a realist looking for information from credible sources and interested in nothing but the facts then the article given by the U.S Census Bureau provides just that. On the other hand, if issues like this appeal to your emotions then the effect it has on children can be very impactful. Both articles present information that would influence the reader’s perception of this social problem in their respective way.

What can be changed about poverty in America? Everything. One will never truly know poverty unless they have lived in poverty themselves. Poverty is caused by society’s trends changing. Poverty is associated with homelessness, the lack of education, a culture of poverty, epidemic diseases such as AIDS, and illiteracy overpopulation. Congress and I will help break these cycles of poverty by; enhancing economic growth with targeted action, mandate over time in the workplace, mandating higher education/training, increasing the Earned Income Tax Credit for individual workers without children, establishing work schedules that financially benefit individuals, and offer equal healthcare benefits. This will all be possible because the government will set aside funds from higher taxpayers and create better opportunities for everyone.

According to National Alliance to End Homelessness, there is an estimated 553,742 people in America experiencing homelessness every night and according to the most recent national point-in-time estimate (January 2017). This represents a rate of approximately 17 people experiencing homelessness per every 10,000 people in the general population according to the National Alliance to End Homelessness. The rich are getting richer while the poor are getting poorer. The middle class is disappearing in a whole. I believe we as a country need to help each other more.

I propose a plan that if your household makes over 100,000 a year and you pay taxes, the government has to put aside 15 percent for housing, 15 percent for overtime pay and 15 percent for equal health benefits for the poor. Unlike the Five-Borough-Ten-Year Plan Mayor Bill de Blasio introduced to the people of NYC in May 2014, to create and preserve 200,000 high-quality, affordable homes over ten years. (NYC Housing Plan, City of New York. 2019). That plan helped create jobs but it did not correct the basic problem at hand. Most individuals are still struggling to find housing because some income restrictions start at $70,000-$100,000 annually. The plan I’m implementing would be an actual plan that will solve one of the biggest problems America is facing. So struggling individuals who have an annual income of $50,000 or less, those living on the streets, and inside shelters will have first priority to clean, suitable, and adequate apartments or homes.

Millions of Americans graduated high school and went off to college because they could afford to. Meaning they didn’t have to work as much to provide for themselves and their families. Some who could not afford it had to work all their lives to keep food on the table for their children, a roof over their sick family members’ head, the lights on for there mother, father, sisters and brothers. More and more individuals are not reaping the benefits of college because they are still paying off debt and are not bringing enough money home. People are living from paycheck to paycheck with an ever-lasting thought of what about next week? And some can’t even see past the next day. There will be a plan implemented that will change that, because instead of 40 hour weeks being the normal workweek. With the 15% set aside from taxpayers, employers will be able to issue 50 hour work weeks plus overtime to 50 percent of their employees who are suffering financially. A normal week would be an extra two hours a day for a 5 day work week. A trial period will go into effect before this will be implemented. Then it will be surveyed to make sure the ones who deserve this increased pay gets it.

The Earned Income Tax Credit will work in your favor if you work and don’t have children. This credit will allow you to keep more money in your pocket when tax time comes around. You will have to use a portion of it to achieve a degree or enter a training program of your choice. Qualifying for the earn income tax credit it will automatically mandate you to attend a post-secondary education or training program. This will guarantee a boost in the economy because more people will be qualified for better jobs. By fixing one problem, we are creating a system that will continue to recycle positive growth into the community.

Having a higher-paying job can entitle you to equal healthcare as your counter partners. Society will begin generating more money, that way these programs can fluster. Generating better healthcare means the risk of death-associated diseases are minimized. People will be better educated of the risk associated with poor hygiene and other health issues. Better health care means when you go to the hospital you can be taken care of to the best of the doctor’s ability unlike when you have Medicaid or no health insurance. Many hospitals tend to do the bear minimum for you when you have low income health insurance. The working class will actually be able to start saving money because their health insurance will cover all or a potion of their medical expenses for the top health care.

Therefore with all these great things happening, less people will be forced out of their homes due to the increase of rent costs. Individuals will have better access to health care and have affordable health care offered to them. People will be educated properly. The poor will stop becoming poorer. Our constituents will have education opportunities offered to them that gives hope to America and this country can begin looking at poverty differently. We all will help break the cycle of poverty one step at a time.

Work cited

1. The State of Homelessness in America National Alliance to End Homelessness, 2019, online, article.
2. Grace, Audrey. Humanities, politics, and you. 10 Ways to End Poverty, June 28, 2014, online article.

Abstract

Peter Edelman’s work Not a Crime to be Poor: The Criminalization of Poverty in America discusses a wide array of social dilemmas individuals within poverty are faced with. The book looks at the criminal justice system as related to poverty: probation, parole, jail, prisons, tickets, fines and fees all related to criminal charges. A host of other topics including tenancy, school resource officers and school discipline, healthcare and mental healthcare are also discussed. My writings will reflect many of the topics in the book and how poverty affects an individual’s everyday functions.

A Critique

What does it mean to be poor? What qualifies an individual as being in poverty? For a family of four this amount is $25,750 within the forty-eight continental states according to the Office of the Assistant Secretary For Planning and Evaluation (Planning and Evaluation, 2019). This is the federal poverty threshold, with each state having their own. As a household of three, my husband, my son and myself this number is $21,330. At first glance, these numbers seem astonishingly low. My family makes nearly double this amount and yet we still qualify for some government assistance programs. In the state in which I grew up nearly 14% of its population are considered poor and in Alabama, the numbers are staggering 21% in 2016. But these numbers are just numbers, they are not the faces or stories of the individuals contained within.

Poverty can, and unfortunately is often a cycle that is difficult to break. Individuals can become impoverished for a number of reasons: from birth, loss of job, disability, declining health, family issues and criminal behavior are just a few. Limited resources, programs, healthcare and support can all create obstacles difficult to overcome. Such individuals face daily struggles unbeknownst to the rest of society. Peter Edelman, in his work Not a Crime to be Poor: the Criminalization of Poverty in America, discusses many of the social quandaries that are forced upon those impoverished and the idea that because one is poor is a criminal act.

Poverty has been around since nearly the beginning of time, in the times of renaissance and medieval hierarchies, revolutions, restorations and more than a few wars. Today one would be hard-pressed to find a location in which money is not the exchange for all work and consumer products. As time has progressed money has become one of the major contributors of standards of living, employment, location and even health. The United States of America was founded on the free-market concept, that anyone can become rich with much work and effort. This has done the U.S. well in many respects, but what about those individuals left behind?

Mr. Edelman’s work discusses a wide variety of social problems and how these affect society, with those impoverished specifically. These topics include racism, bail, mental illness, child support, public benefits, schools, housing and the criminal justice system. Each of these topics, when taken separately can be their own topic of debate and intense feelings. All have been debated in legislation, in public forums, and in meetings all over the states. Legislation has been created and changed over time to better the individuals in poverty. These legislations include Social Security, Temporary Aid, Medicaid, Food Stamps and a host of other state and federal programs. These programs have made a tremendous impact on the population, bringing many out of poverty; however, many individuals are still held back.

As mentioned in the book, there are a host of factors that hold individuals back from exiting out of poverty. Those factors include the influx of low wage jobs due to many companies leaving for other less regulated and costly countries for production, increasing costs of living, deterioration of the public school system, discrimination, mass incarceration, and the weakening of unions. All of these factors continue to force and perpetuate many people to remain in the cycle of poverty. I have discussed a few of the key points in detail below.

Bail and Jail

The largest and most overt form of criminalization of poverty is that of the bail and jail systems. One receives a ticket, cannot pay the fine and thus fees are compounded. In the Supreme Court case of Bearden vs. In Georgia in 1983, the equal protection clause is breached when someone is “punished for his poverty” (Edelman, 2017, pg. 5). This means that one should not be jailed for inability to pay a fine unless one willfully refused to pay even though they have the power. Oftentimes failure to pay fines is considered criminal contempt which can also incur additional fines. This criminal content is a jailable offense in most jurisdictions. In addition forty-three states charge for the use of a public defender, further adding additional fees to fines one may owe. As shown, fees can incur fees which incur fines and possible jail.

When one is arrested for a criminal offense oftentimes money bail can be granted. Money bail is the sum of money that must be posted as a guarantee the individual will show up to court on the charges. Bail is often called the “pay or stay” method of imprisonment. This means that if one cannot post the amount of money stated by the judge, or a portion to a bail bondsman, they must stay in the jail system until their case has been resolved. This system directly impacts those in poverty, those with little or no means to pay. Staying in jail for any amount of time can result in lost jobs, family time, loss of homes, vehicles or other possessions, credit and a host of other factors. Money bail does not consider the guilt of the individual, only their ability to pay. Of the 11.7 million people in the county and city jail systems in the United States three-fifths of them have not been convicted and more than three-quarters are there for minimal or traffic offenses (Edelman, 2017). The money bail system ultimately means the wealthy can be released pending trial, the poor cannot. With the slow wheel of the justice system, those awaiting trial and unable to post bond may stay for months or years awaiting the resolution of their case. In many cases defendants, needing and wanting release from jails or prisons may be pressured to plead guilty, ultimately granting them a criminal record. This criminal record can then affect future employment, requests for public benefits, housing and a host of other areas.

The idea of money bail and the socioeconomic imprisonment of individuals may stem from the Philadelphia prison management system of the 1800’s. In this system the Philadelphia prison management would classify and separate prisoners based on their socioeconomic status. This was viewed as the link to the crime the individual is said to have committed. It was said that “crimes originate from the misery, the distress…of the poor” (O’Brassil-Kulfan, 2019, pg. 268). From shortly after the United States was founded, we can see that socioeconomic status played an important role in the status of offenders incarceration.

Mental Health

We’ve all heard that jails and prisons are the largest mental health facility in America, where much of the inmate population suffers from some sort of mental illness. Whether this be related to the crime or not, mental illness plays a large part in how resources and staff are allotted and dispersed amongst the prison system. Mr. Peter Edelman said it best when he said “Mental illness and addiction are pathways to poverty, and poverty is a pathway to mental illness and addiction” (Edelman, 2017, pg 64). Many individuals suffering mental illness may resort to illicit drugs and other forms of self-medication, resulting in criminal behavior related to crimes to facilitate the use or possession itself. As noted in the Society for Community Research and Action 2017, since the deinstitutionalization of the mental health system individuals with mental illness still live in impoverished situations, regardless of the community mental health trend of recent decades. For those with mental-health-related disabilities, the poverty rate hovers around 30% when compared to those without disabilities at 10% (Sylvestre, et al. 2018). This poverty rate also limits the care many can receive for mental health improvement. Oftentimes one who has insurance may be forced to pay copays, deductibles or even a percentage of the treatment, it can be out of reach for many individuals. Thus mental health not only affects one’s chances of poverty but also improvement as well.

Housing

A social crisis that affects everyone, with the poor most harshly affected, is that of the rising costs of the housing market. The housing market has recovered nearly fully from the 2008 housing market crash resulting in rents and mortgage costs to increase. With these increasing cost it is no wonder many individuals, as interviewed in the documentary Poverty in the USA are the working homeless. An April 2017 study in the American Journal of Public Health established that the availability of housing, even established though housing assistance programs has a substantial impact on the psychological and physical wellbeing of individuals in poverty (Fenelon, et al., 2017). The same study also noted that those receiving housing benefits were less likely to experience psychological distress compared to those not receiving in similar situations.

There are roughly 6,300 evictions each day across the United States (Gilles, 2019). Depending on the state rent even five days late can result in the process of eviction beginning. I, personally, have always rented, and with the exception of one year my rent has increased at each yearly term. Even slight increases, for families with little spare, can drastically affect their standard and normalcy of life. For those with past evictions it can be extremely difficult to find further housing.

For those experiencing homelessness, many crime ordinances have strongly affected their ability to live. In the chapter regarding homelessness in Not a Crime to be Poor: The Criminalization of Poverty in America those that are homeless are eleven times more likely to be incarcerated than that of the general population as a whole (Edelman, 2017). With this, more than half of the homeless have previously been imprisoned (Edelman, 2017). Some states, counties and cities have ordinances that do not allow sleeping in public, sitting on benches for too long, makeshift housing, or moveable housing. These “broken window” law enforcement policies (idea that arrests for minor crimes promote order), “quality of life” rules and zero tolerance policies almost always directly affect the homeless solely. Homeless often thus perpetuates criminalization.

Effects of Incarceration and Resulting Poverty

So it has been established that poverty perpetuates criminal behavior and criminal behavior perpetuates poverty. For those impoverished mental health problems are increased, health deteriorates, housing can become crisis, resources are limited and quality of life suffers. When an individual is incarcerated, without the ability to bail out, the time spent incarcerated and the resulting criminal record will follow them with re-entry into the workforce. In one year following incarceration of 122 individuals it was found that in any given month at least half of those released were still unemployed and incarceration alone reduced employment and wages drastically (Western and Sirois, 2019). The average earnings of these individuals also fell below the poverty line.

Reform

The second half of the book discusses multiple different programs, both city and state, that have worked to reform many of the social problems that have an effect on the poor. These programs work to end poverty and support individuals in all aspects of life. What all these programs have in common is the pursuit of “collective impact”, working on all aspects of the individual and not the overall poverty. These programs also involve partnerships among different and often numerous agencies in support of the individual and family unit, specifically related to that person’s situation. Although each example of program mentioned impacted different areas of concern, they each had success in their chosen area by decriminalizing poverty and working to improve the neighborhood, employment market, housing crises, available resources and mentorship in the community.

UPPPCritique

I would highly recommend this book to anyone in the Social Work, Criminal Justice and Nonprofit sector. Many of the examples mentioned of successful initiatives can be taken and altered to impact the area and field of reform. It is a true eye-opener to the impact poverty has on the individual, and society as a whole. With the ever increasing income gap and the influx of low wage jobs, poverty is likely to continue; with that, criminalization. For those in the criminal justice system, poverty is preserved due to fines, fees, bail, probation costs, court costs and attorney costs. Fines can increase and jail becomes a possible consequence.

Previously to this reading I was aware that impoverished people tended to be more likely to be involved in the criminal justice system, but unaware of the true reasons behind this. From the endless cycles of fines and fees to the costs for “free” public defenders and. It has made me motivated to see reform within the area of criminal justice and to look for organizations within this arena.

I must say that I agree with nearly all the points mentioned in the book. Poverty is not an individual problem but a societal problem, to be shared by everyone. Not much will change without the strength, willpower and efforts of advocates to change the system, to continue to challenge the “status quo.” I do not agree that money bail is the correct method of determining the credibility and reliability of an individual, as neither does the money an individual brings home.

I do not think advocating for housing for the poor, public benefits expansion or health insurance change is all that it will take. Poverty has persisted since nearly the beginning of civilization and has over time become increasingly difficult to manage and change. It is possible though, with community unity and involvement and focus on the individual.

It was an incredible read, keeping me interested all the time. As an outsider it could be difficult to follow, if unfamiliar with many of the social constructs in the United States but an informative and motivational read.

References

1. Fenelon, A., Mayne, P., Simon, A., Rossen, L., Helms, V., Lloyd, P., . . . Steffen, B. (2017). Housing Assistance Programs and Adult Health in the United States. American Journal of Public Health, 107(4), 571-578.
2. O’Brassill-Kulfan, K. (2019). “Severe punishment for their misfortunes and poverty”: Philadelphia’s Arch Street Prison, 1804–37. Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography, 143(3), 247-269.
3. Facts Maps. (2016). Facts Maps. Retrieved from https://factsmaps.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/xxbelow-poverty_28336945.png
4. Poverty in the Usa. (2019). Retrieved from https://www.dw.com/en/poverty-in-the-usa/av-51415755
5. Sylvestre, J., Notten, G., Kerman, N., Polillo, A., & Czechowki, K. (2018). Poverty and Serious Mental Illness: Toward Action on a Seemingly Intractable Problem. American Journal of Community Psychology, 61(1-2), 153-165.
6. U.S. Federal Poverty Guidelines Used to Determine Financial Eligibility for Certain Federal Programs. (2019). Retrieved November 30, 2019, from https://aspe.hhs.gov/2019-poverty-guidelines.
7. Western, B., & Sirois, C. (2019). Racialized Re-entry: Labor Market Inequality After Incarceration. Social Forces, 97(4), 1517-1542.

The curse of poverty has plagued America since before the phrase “The American Dream” was coined. Due to poverty in America, some Americans can not even chase that dream that is so passionately sought after. The full range of the amount of people suffering from poverty in America was not even fully realized until the 1960s. The negative effects it can have on an individual are devastating and can make the long-desired American Dream even further out of reach. Poverty still plagues the country today and is still a great issue, even greater than it was in the past. People can fall into poverty in various ways, some of which include being born into it, or even because of unfortunate circumstances. This problem is not an easily solved one, due to the many factors that accompany it. The growing amount of impoverished people is not something that can be overlooked because it is harming people; this is an issue that needs to be put to an end, no matter the cost.

Poverty is a problem that is as old as time, it has been around since well before the 1900s, and a problem that has not been properly dealt with until today. Poverty in America is “more about a lack of basic necessities and a lack of security” (“Causes” 1). Even though poverty does not have an exact start date here in America, the method for calculating the poverty levels in America was not even developed until the 1960s. This is the closest thing there is to an exact start date of poverty in America. Even though poverty has been a common issue for some time now, it seems as though no one has made it a top priority, and that needs to change. Poverty is most abundant in the rural south and southwest region, due to a lack of education and innovation (Fay 1,2). This seems to be a driving cause for poverty in most places, but especially here in the most impoverished areas. With a total of almost 39.7 million people in poverty in America, this problem needs to be addressed immediately (“Range” 1).

The problem of poverty has been overlooked for far too long. Even though the south is one of the most impoverished areas, there are still many more cases of poverty around the United States. One of the leading causes for poverty around the country is due to the unequal and unjust society that Americans have created (“Society” 2). The wage difference and earnings between different genders and ethnicities is quite obvious and extremely unfair. Men are earning more than women, minorities are getting underpaid compared to white people, and this is forcing many people into a life of poverty. There is also a greater tax burden on low-income families, which essentially makes it extremely hard for them to support themselves and their loved ones (“Range” 1,3). While families that have a higher income do not have to worry about this corrupt tax burden, they have even less reason to worry about ever falling into a life of poverty. Lower-income families are always on the edge of their seats with higher taxes and less money to pay them off. The corrupt, unequal, and unfair society that Americans live in is one of the most significant influences on families that have less money, and often is the deciding factor on whether they are impoverished or not. In America, there has been an increase in unemployment due to weak economies (“Causes” 2).

America needs to strengthen their economies so that people living in poverty have a chance to start earning money by getting a job. A more diverse work environment with more jobs and equal pay to all is a way to help diminish the poverty levels in America. While an unjust society is one of the huge factors contributing to the spread of poverty around the country, the individual themself could also be the one to blame (“Society” 2). Sometimes there is a lack of effort from the individual to go and find a job, or to try and get out of their current situation. Laziness can be a huge factor of poverty, and lack of effort is the second major cause for poverty in the United States. A lack of education is also to blame for poverty, yet this can tie into the individual being the one to blame. Many people in the middle and low classes simply do not have the monetary resources to attend and earn a degree from a college (“Causes” 5). Even though not having enough money has nothing to do with the individual being lazy, what can be considered as being lazy is not trying to go to a junior college or a lower-ranked school to work up from there. Sometimes impoverished people do not have the motivation to get a job and earn enough cash to get into a small cheap junior college, they would just rather accept the fact that they are living in poverty and not do anything about it. This can lead to homelessness and other terrible things, which is why this lack of education and not being motivated to at least try to get into a junior college is a major reason for poverty, as not having a degree means even less job opportunities for impoverished people. Most people who bring poverty and ruin upon themselves are not able to afford the minimal standards of life essentials, which is called absolute poverty (Fay 2). These people often live in absolute poverty because they brought it upon themselves and do not want to try and get out of poverty due to laziness.

Poverty being faulted on the individual is still a questionable concept, yet there is plenty of evidence to show that it is the second leading cause of poverty and can not be overlooked. When an individual is living in a life of poverty, the negative effects that are a product of their lifestyle are very severe. This also goes for families that are living in poverty, as the negative effects can be even worse for a family than a single person. One of the worst things about living a life of poverty is that poor nutrition and health come along with it (Kolankiewicz 1). When one is living in poverty you do not have the necessities to own health insurance, so when the cold comes around or a more serious sickness, there is nothing that can be done. The sad yet true thing about not being able to afford health insurance is that it is very likely that people living in poverty will never catch up health-wise, possibly leading to a shorter life. As a matter of fact, the life expectancy difference between people that are impoverished and people that are not, is about ten to fifteen years (Esposito 1). This is a huge difference, especially since lives could be ended very early on. Income strongly links to whether or not a person will be living in good health or not.

People living in poverty “tend to suffer more from cancer and heart disease”, among other very dangerous diseases (Fay 6). This is a big deal, and a problem that needs to be resolved. Another very major and negative effect of poverty is a lack of nutritionally adequate foods. Food is always one of the biggest problems when it comes to impoverished people because “when you are poor, food is your first worry” (Kolankiewicz 1). Even though it seems unlikely, it is very common for someone who is living a life of poverty to be obese rather than skinny. In fact, in most impoverished households there is increased hunger yet more obesity (Esposito 2). This is due to the fact that the foods that are usually cheaper to purchase are very unhealthy. This leads to a high junk food intake, and a low vegetable intake (Fay 5). Lack of food is strongly linked to health problems, as not eating enough can result in sickness. On the other hand, overeating, especially junk food which is extremely cheap, can lead to other diseases such as diabetes, which for someone living in poverty, is a disease that there might be no coming back from. In order to tend to this problem, more soup kitchens could be implemented throughout more impoverished communities, leading to easy access to good healthy foods that do not cost a single penny for people living in poverty to enjoy.

Poverty has all sorts of negative effects that come with it, and another very severe one that can also lead to even more problems is ending up living a bad lifestyle. When living a life of poverty and being desperate for money, impoverished people will go through any means necessary to get the money that they need. An example of that is them putting their lives in danger through crimes such as drug dealing. Dabbling with drugs and illegally selling them is extremely dangerous, but it does haul in a lot of money, something people living in poverty will do anything for. The terrible thing about this is that in impoverished families, most of the time children are being exposed to all the horrible things that are going on. When the children see their parents doing these bad things, it is very common for the children to continue this bad lifestyle as they get older (Kolankiewicz 1).

Children most of the time lead the same life of crime that they witnessed their parents lead, and the cycle continues to go on. Children living in these dangerous communities and being exposed to violence are also at higher risk for trauma and mortality (“American” 4). Another common thing to happen in impoverished families is a ton of stress being put upon the mother of the family. This often leads to depression in mothers, and in turn causes them to have different relationships with their children (Esposito 2). These children not having a good relationship with their mother is yet another reason for them to grow up into a life of crime, especially after watching crime happen throughout all of their life and not having someone to guide them down the right path. There have been many attempts to approach the problem of poverty in America and put an end to it, however they have not all been successful. Even with millions of Americans being kept out of poverty through government benefits, there are still millions more living in poverty (Fay 6). Whenever poverty is brought up, one of the most brought up solutions that is being discussed is the implementation of more jobs. “One of the most often attempted solutions to put an end to poverty is the creation of more jobs and more employment opportunity to poorer people, which would bring an estimated four million Americans out of poverty (Vallas 3).

The problem with creating more job opportunities is that it really is a difficult task, and though the unemployment rate has dropped over the past few years, not nearly enough jobs can be created to compensate for everyone living in poverty. This very reason is why implementing more jobs can still put a reasonable dent in the amount of poverty plaguing America, but will never truly be enough to put an end to poverty forever. Another commonly attempted solution is providing free and better health care to impoverished people, as people have “gone a long way to provide health care”, mainly provided through Medicaid (Esposito 3). The problem is yet again the sheer amount of people living in poverty, there just are not enough doctors or hospitals to provide for everyone living in poverty. Even if a good amount of them are treated, by the time that more impoverished people get their turn to be helped, there are even more new people living in poverty, and the cycle just continues. Solutions If I were to try and put an end to all the poverty that is going on throughout America, it would be a very hard task. Even if all poverty was to end for a while, it would be inevitable that it would return one day. What I would do, however, is try to integrate more soup kitchens and community centers in impoverished societies.

In my opinion, this would help put an end to a sizeable amount of poverty in America. Adding more soup kitchens in poorer communities gives a very good and viable source of good, healthy food for impoverished people to eat. This alone can help to put an end to the obesity and unhealthy lifestyle that impoverished people live due to them not being able to afford healthier food and just eating unhealthy and junk food. Adding community centers to communities living in poverty gives them a chance to just kind of destress and forget about what is going on in life. People living in poverty are always stressed, so adding community centers with maybe a pool or a gym, can help these people to destress and just relax. This would also be good for children living in poverty, as it lets them experience something nice and allows them to play with other children while being exposed to a good environment. While these ideas will not necessarily help end poverty, it will help people living in poverty to cope with it and motivate them. Poverty has been a problem plaguing America for more than one hundred years, and will most likely be a problem that plagues America for some time to come. A corrupt society and the laziness and lack of motivation of an individual have been some of the main causes of poverty in America, with the negative effects of bad health and lifestyle along with obesity coming along with it. There are possible solutions to help solve poverty, but they are few and are difficult tasks to accomplish, but without them, Americans may be living in poverty for the a long while to come, making it impossible for them to chase the great American Dream.

Discrimination and poverty in America has become an issue that we have seen over the years. Many factors play a part in the connection between poverty and discrimination, including but not limited to, social, economic, and political discrimination being both linked to the fabric of the U.S welfare. Resulting in the need of income maintenance and other social programs. Knowing that discrimination leads to poverty, some policymakers have tried to address this never-ending cycle by addressing and attacking discrimination. The definition of discrimination is similar to prejudice, in the way that a negative attitude is taken to an individual of a specific group.

The first of the three concepts of discrimination is the less formal of the three, social discrimination also referred to as normative-cultural. We start off with social discrimination, which is defined as a less formal type of discrimination and is defined as sustained inequality between individuals on the basis of illness, disability, religion, sexual orientation, or any other measures of diversity.we live in a world where even if we may not see that we do discriminate against each other we do. We, as Americans, play a big role in this area. One great example of this would be a teacher of math. Having an Asian student walk in and the teacher thinks that they are going to be fine. Then, out of nowhere, they start to fail the class. One must not just assume that due to their race they are going to be good at something. We must stick to knowing that in order for one to learn they first have to be taught. “Social stigma and discrimination can lead to the transformation of disenfranchised groups into a lower socioeconomic class. Alternatively, as in the case of gays, lesbians, and the aged, social stigma and discrimination can result in social marginalization without triggering statistically observable eco- nomic discrimination.” ( Book pg. 56-57). In earlier time a social “norm” was for men to open doors for women and carrier their larger bags to the down the parking lot and to their vehicles. However, over the years that norm has changed because women became more independent and started proving that they could do things for themselves without the help of a male figure. This then led to the discrimination of the word became to be known as, butch. This individualized the group of women that are mostly independent and lead to their discrimination. This entails that a person of different gender identity than a “norm” has a very high chance of possibly being turned away from a job interview or any other type of financial

We move on with economic discrimination there are currently several various social inequalities that we all face in our society today. range from different social control to social stratification, to racial/gender inequality. One of the most common causes that we see a lot of is females within what is known as a man’s job. In order words, they are also known as to combat the “glass ceiling” Which refers to the invisible barrier that keeps a woman from taking corporate jobs. So, while you may see a woman who is putting in the same amount of work and dedication to her profession as any man she will only ever make 77 cents to his dollar. Keeping her opportunities from moving up very limited, all due to her simply being a woman. Not only is this discrimination seen with genders but it’s also seen with the type of work that is done by an individual. The amount that a person is paid doing house cleaning indoors, differs to a person doing housework, outdoors. Although they are both doing a “cleaning” job, the economic factor differs between the two because of the types of jobs they do.

Finally, we have the following discrimination, more formal discrimination, political discrimination. This is defined as any discrimination towards individuals based on their political views and/or activities. Law differs from state to state, but the overall goal is to protect individuals from any form of discrimination based on their political view of the workplace. Employees are now given the freedom to have different beliefs and not be discriminated against. However, this can still have a negative impact that may eventually lead to poverty. For example, if a person coming from a background and an upbringing of a Democratic party tries to apply for a job in a Republican area, there is a higher chance that they may not be chosen for the job. Why? Interview questions can provide an understanding of a person thoughts and beliefs and they Republican and Democratic view. Although that should not impact legally on a person’s opportunity to obtain the job, it might not be the type of description that the employer is looking for.

Poverty and discrimination are linked together. Poverty is defined as not having basic needs in order to survive. This level of poverty can also be known as absolute and extreme.

Researchers have broken down several theories of poverty. One theory is the Culture of Poverty, which is defined as individuals remaining at the poverty level due to their environment. “ According to this theory, the Culture of Poverty transcends regional, rural/urban, and national differences and everywhere shows striking similarities in family structure, interpersonal relationships, time orientation, value system, and pattern of spending.”(pg 94.). When an individual has progressed out of poverty, it is oftentimes looked at as a culture issue. We as humans seem to follow our surroundings, whether it is from our own family members or our peers.

According to the radical theory elaborated above, a large number of Cameron County residents are categorized as being below the poverty line. Much of those statistics start because of where the individuals reside, being right beside the Mexican border rather than living the suburbs in a high-class city. While it is not easy to obtain a high-paying job in Cameron County, it is even more difficult to obtain a well-paying job further North of the county when they know where the individual originally comes from and the government benefits they may have obtained in their childhood years. Governmental benefits are highly used and very normal to a Cameron County resident because they are highly qualified to receive them, but little do the residents know that it may negatively impact the applicant because of discrimination. Employers may ask on a job application if the applicant has recently been on welfare of another form of public assistance. Usually, these questions on the application sometimes reward employers for hiring from these specific groups, but it would not be unreasonable to say these responses can negatively impact the employer’s decision to hire the applicant.

Introducing the NDOB (Non-Disclosure of Benefits) program to Cameron County can positively impact the job seekers and increase the opportunities of becoming employed. Highly similar to the a well-known law, named HIPPA, this program will prohibit employers from obtaining details of the government benefits once obtained by the applicant. The governmental programs and benefits that the individual once used or continues to use should not define the person that they are, much less should it determine the ability of their work ethic. Due that this issue prevents a person from becoming employed and preventing poverty. The NDOB program will be available to any person the Cameron Country area that is currently or have ever previously benefited from public programs, such as but not limited to: Medical benefits (Medicaid, Medicare, and CHIP), Food Stamps (SNAP Benefits), Housing and Financial Aid.

The applicant of the NDOB Program will be required to fill out an application and include any previous and current benefits used during their lifetime (if the person is not sure we will help find the information). This will help the program clear the information from being leaked or released to the employer. The program does have several requirements for it to be approved, including currently seeking employment. This is because the main purpose of this program is to prevent the person from being denied employment due to their economic status or previous status. It is not uncommon for an employer to hire someone that is most similar to themselves, rather than someone that thinks differently or is from a different and lower financial group. Other than currently seeking employment, the applicant must attend a 1-year course of informative information psychological on testing thinking. The purpose of the course is to change the mentality of the person because in Cameron County, especially in the older generation, the mentality is not so much on centralized on thinking about the future of themselves, it focuses more on the current moment. This course will coach the applicant on planning for the future and creating a stepping stone to achieve the realistic goals that are set. The applicant will be observed within the year and will be graded based on testing to determine if the individual is ready or honestly capable of having the mentality of wanting to achieve the goals that are set. According to a study, people that are poor have a higher chance of wanting to achieve, fast or any easy way to their goal. Rather than the rich that can withhold themselves and wait for their planned goal to be met. This mentality of the poor mainly takes a roll because their poor are used to having the very minimal and they are not sure how long the offer is going to be there for them. However, if there is a plan in place, the goal will be there for a fact. This different mentality will not only help with their economic position for themselves but it will follow for the rest of their generation and will eventually lead Cameron County out of poverty. Another requirement is

1. Stoesz, David, Karger, Jacob, H. American Social Welfare Policy: A Pluralist Approach, Brief Edition. [Chegg]. Retrieved from https://ereader.chegg.com/#/books/9780205921485/

This essay explores the possible relationship between poverty and crime outlining the way in which social class may impact a person’s predetermined future in a life of crime. It is long believed that people of a low social class were more likely to partake in a life of crime due to their uneducated and unruly childhood. The higher class believes that the working class’ lack of education nurtures them into following the assumption that they will one way or another fall into a life of crime. Although, this essay will also look at the possibility that there are other facts that may lead to a life of crime such as childhood, trauma, and free will.

Results from the national office of Statistics support the idea that poverty has links to crime as it shows that 41% of people who fall into the bracket of a household income between £10,00 and £20,000 experienced anti-social behavior within their local area in the year ending March 2020 (ONS, 2020). Thus, showing that deprived areas have a higher possibility of crime or anti-social behavior taking place. Poverty affects someone’s life in many ways as the environment an individual grows up in shapes them into the person that they become in their teenage and adult years. Those in the working class are raised entirely differently than children of higher social standing in many ways, they are expected to be more independent at a young age perhaps because they may have a single parent who needs support within the household with other younger children to be able to go to work and provide for the family. Marxist ideologies show that poverty is related to crime as it highlights the fact that criminal law operates to protect the affluent and those of the upper classes abandoning the lower classes and their needs. Thus, creating the notion that offending is a rebellion against capitalism and the stereotype of the lower class being incapable of leading a civilized life.

However, Marxism does not take into account that many underprivileged people living in poverty have no other choice but to partake in criminal activity in order to obtain the means to survive, such as shoplifting. People living in poverty may be forced to shoplift food items as they do not have the means to purchase these items any other way, the only other option that a person in this circumstance would have is going to a food bank but this is not easily viable as they often have a long waiting list and procedures to follow before they can allow anyone to join. This would not be an option for an individual suffering from poverty as they do not have the means to wait for approval and are then forced to take an illegal approach to solving the problem they face. Opposed to this new right thinker Charles Murray claims that “the UK welfare system has allowed the lower class to become useless and thieving bastards” Murray (cited in, Bagguley and Mann 1992). This creates a stereotype of working-class people being inadequate and constantly relying on the government to provide for them due to their own laziness.

The stereotype that the lower class is given as being ‘reckless’ and ‘troublemaker’ often influences their behavior into fulfilling the expectations that society has bestowed upon them with these labels. The media plays a huge part in ensuring that those living in poverty are seen are less fortunate and worthy of attention by painting them as criminals. This is unsurprising as many news outlets are controlled by those of high social standing who wish for society to see those of a lower class as vagabonds and thugs. Growing up in poverty meant that these people had no way of possibly deterring the way in which people viewed them as they did not have the power in society to encourage the news outlets and peers to view them any differently. The subcultural theory of status frustration emphasizes the way in which lower-class people would act out into reaching the expectations of society as lower-class boys in school would misbehave and draw attention to themselves in a negative way to reach the expectations of their peers rather than what the teachers may have thought of them (Albert Cohen 1995).

Amartya Sen, a great Philosopher says, 

‘Poverty is not just a lack of money; it is not having the capability to realize one’s full potential as a human being’. 

Since long Poverty is seen as a lack of money but in reality we should be concerned with capabilities instead, whether a person has whole that liberty that he or she admires. Poverty is not natural, it’s man-made. 

Mahatma Gandhi quoted, ‘Poverty is the worst form of violence

Yes, Mr. Gandhi Ji is right. Where people are stifled by a blob of this poverty, on the other hand, millionths never realized that they would be lying in their homes being pain-stricken. What I mean to say is that despite not being poor in terms of money, people are pain Stricken by a lack of opportunities. The reasons for such miserable conditions can be vast. Let’s take into consideration- Domestic Issues. Undoubtedly, Men lavish all illegitimate desires while they compel women to adhere to all norms made by androcentric society. Therefore, their wings get tormented if they question their liberty and opportunities. Isn’t this Pathetic? I wonder. Well, this issue is quite a serious and genuine one. Then comes another serious Predicament –  Overpopulation. Well, I did not say that the government is not serving us with opportunities but the problem lies within us. Population and jobs are inversely proportional to each other. That is more the population, less jobs. Therefore, making people are deprived of jobs and basic necessities. Thereby, making them poor.

Moreover, many of us used to believe that people with an abundance of resources (money inclusive) are generally happy and cherish their contented life and serenity. But with coming maturity, I realized that this is not the case. Happiness lies within which means inner happiness is utmost. I wonder, What is the use of that money that does not give us happiness? I wonder, Is Poverty genuinely all about lack of money? Big No to this question. For instance, Wajid Khan- despite being one of the rich singers and composers died of Covid-19 and Kidney Failure. He could not even use his money. He did not get a chance. He was busy with his work. When genuinely he realized that this is actually time to enjoy and live life to the fullest. He died. A big question arises, What is the use of such money? This is actual Poverty. Unfortunately, Wajid Khan was a poor man with a lot of money.

Also, Someone who has very little resources, like a person from generations of poverty, will have a longer road and a bigger challenge in their journey to a better life. It will take support, encouragement, mentors, and acceptance from people they trust and eventually, they will succeed and that will make them rich. That’s actual richness. Pain shows us what actual richness and Poverty is. Nonetheless, Poverty is about much more than just money. We now understand that it is also about the standard of living and different types of deprivation. Perhaps as the next step, we need to remind ourselves that the poor are trapped in a social reality. And this determines their choices and the chance of progress. Across the world, social norms have been constructed by the rich. And institutions have been designed for the rich. A family is not poor only because there isn’t enough money; they are poor because neither of these creations serves them. This, too, must be counted.

A: Patterns identified in the city

It has been recognized that the schools that are furthest from the City Centre and that are on the North and West side of the city are typically higher performing and have a lower percentage of pupils claiming FSM. Therefore, there is clear segregation between the city, whereby the higher-performing schools, where there are a lower proportion of children receiving FSM are concentrated on one side, showcasing a division between poverty and attainment in the city.

The schools that are on the other side of the city, the East and the South, are all similar in their characteristics. Despite being closer to the university, the GCSE performance among these schools is poor, and the percentage of FSM recipients is evidently greater than the schools across the city. The demographics in this particular city suggest that the schools located in the East and South of the city, particularly around the City Centre, and the schools that attract pupils who are more likely to be FSM, suggesting that East and South parts of the city are where there is greater poverty.

This particular city illustrates this with an evident divide constructed upon the location of these schools. These demographics in this city suggest that the schools located in the East and South of the city, mainly around the City Centre are the schools that attract pupils who are more likely to be FSM recipients or with Special Educational Needs or English as a first language.

B: Why do we care about this segregation?

As noted by Hirsch (2007) children from different backgrounds have distinctive experiences through schooling, therefore we cannot rely on altering the way the curriculum is delivered to disadvantaged pupils, rather the access these pupils have to resources in and outside of school can enhance their experiences as well as more equitable. ‘Children are more likely to have low achievement if they receive free school meals and if they live in poor urban areas’ (Hirsch, 2007, p.4.) This showcases the way in which poverty and factors beyond the control of pupils can affect their attainment and future prospects. Moreover, children from poorer backgrounds have roughly half the chance of attending the high performing schools (Burgess and Briggs, 2010, cited by Allen et al, 2013, p. 163.) Therefore, it is necessary to identify patterns of segregation that prevent children from disadvantaged backgrounds from accessing an equitable education.

Numerous studies have identified that children from disadvantaged homes are less likely to perform well in school, on average, in comparison to their more advantaged counterparts. (Ladd, 2012.) Income plays a vital role in the educational achievement of pupils (Hirsch, 2007.) As well as this, parental involvement in their child’s schooling is largely influenced by socio-economic status too (Harris and Goodall, 2008, p.279.) Educational achievement in the rural areas is higher in comparison to urban areas of the city, suggesting that those living in the urban areas, acquire a lower income. This can impact pupils’ grades and achievement from as early as the age of seven and more significantly by the age of sixteen (West, 2007.) Not only does the impact of parental income disrupt the attainment of pupils, but also how long they stay in education. For example, those pupils who are in employment or a form of training by the age of sixteen, are more likely to have left due to the lack of financial resources from their parents for them to continue (Rennison et al, 2005, cited by West, 2007, p 284.) Therefore, not only does this segregation between income and poverty affect pupils’ short term, but also has a negative influence on social inequality and the future incomes of these young people (Marcus, 2018.)

Moreover, school choice in the 1990s tended to be based on locality and the nearest school to people’s homes. However, this has now developed into parental choice being informed by OFSTED reports, results, self-promotion, the introduction of new schools, and other choices (Alderson and Goodey, 2018.) This impacted the housing market, resulting in parents who had the financial capital to relocate to areas that are home to ‘good’ schools. This results in segregation that is visible in the 20 schools analyzed above. Segregation in schools occurs at all levels, in grades, for children who suffer from disabilities and other difficulties and mental health sufferers (Alderson and Goodey, 2018.) Therefore, it is necessary to prevent segregation in order to create an equal playing field for all pupils, regardless of socio-economic background, location, and parental income.

Solution

The solution I am proposing is to allocate school places based on a randomized lottery for all state schools under Local Authority Education (LEA) control. The process would work similarly to the Brighton and Hove example and some states in the US, whereby clusters/catchment areas will be created. This will allow pupils to attend a school based on random allocation, to be mixed among other pupils in the catchment area, and also have a reasonable travel distance to the school.

‘Justice demands impartiality, and lotteries are uniquely capable of ensuring impartiality under the right circumstances’ (Stone, 2008, p. 269.) As noted by Allen et al, (2013) a lottery offers admissions to become equal and separates the associations from neighborhoods and the reliance on income through the prices of homes. The explicit function of the lottery system is to overcome repeating patterns of disadvantages when school allocation is based on distance and proximity (Symaco and Brock, 2015, p. 56.) My solution is inspired by the evidence found by Burgess, Vignoles, and Greaves (2014) whereby restrictions such as distance to ‘good’ schools are increasing the levels of inequality between families with different incomes rather than other preference factors. Using ideas and successes from the reforms made in Brighton and Hove, it will be argued that allocation by lottery is the best solution to making education more equitable.

Proximity and location

Evidence suggests that the wealthiest families reside closer to schools that achieve grades that are significantly greater than the schools located closer to poorer areas. Typically, the most common means to assign school places where the number of applications exceeds places is proximity. On average, those among the lower socio-economic group tend to compromise school quality over distance, resulting in segregation among those who can access the higher-performing schools, simply based upon proximity, making social mobility for poorer pupils more difficult. This criterion of proximity is arguably reliable for the significant inequality in children from low-income families attending higher-performing schools (Burgess, Vignoles, and Greaves, 2014.) As outlined by Stone (2008) proximity is largely associated with income and those with a good income are more likely to live among similar families, therefore this itself is a violation of impartiality when allocating school places (p.271.) However, allocation by lottery would decrease the prominence on proximity when allocating school places and can ‘limit socially divisive house buying incentives’ (Cullinane, 2017.) It is therefore evident that wealth plays a huge role in attainment however, as reinforced by many government strategies, education should be fair and accessible for all. Among the disadvantaged families, on average, only half will receive the opportunity to attend a high-scoring school (Burgess and Briggs, 2010, cited by Allen et al., 2013.) Therefore, lottery allocation among state schools, in comparison to test-based allocations or to simply attend the closest school in the catchment area is more equal and does not hold a bias. Similar to the catchment areas created in Brighton and Hove, this lottery-based system must broaden catchment areas to include a variety of schools, otherwise the same inequality will eventually reproduce. As noted by Allen et al., (2013) the catchment areas are crucial to the outcome when establishing a lottery and can result in a less effective outcome, for example in Brighton and Hove, the homogenous catchment areas created less of a significant difference in some catchment areas.

Parental choice

‘Schools matter and schools differ: educational attainment is key to a child’s life chances, and schools vary in their ability to raise attainment’ (Burgess, Greaves, and Vignoles, 2019, p. 690.) According to Ball et al. (1996), school choice was dependent upon whether parents were ‘privileged’ or ‘skilled’ and these referred to parents from wealthier, higher social backgrounds, contrasting to the ‘disconnected’ parents. If school allocation is always associated with things that can be purchased, for example, houses and extra lessons, the outcome of who goes to which school will always favor those among the wealthy (Allen and Burgess, n.d.) Allocating school places by lottery means that the notion of parental choice will have little influence over where children will go to school and are the first step to tackle this segregation, because choice itself becomes a privilege. This offers everyone an equal opportunity. From a social justice perspective, school allocation by lottery will in theory create a social mix in schools and will prevent middle-class parents from pursuing places in the schools identified as more successful. It is not to say that other factors such as demographics and other social factors do not influence social segregation, however, allocation by lottery would eliminate parental choice, targeting to decrease the poverty and attainment gap across schools. Furthermore, it will prevent the wealthier families from buying into things like houses in order to acquire an advantage, which was demonstrated by two particular catchment areas when this was established in Brighton and Hove.

Competition and life chances

The lottery allocation will in practice eliminate competition between schools and pupils, this is because schools should get a random selection of pupils. ‘The most obvious contribution that a lottery can make is to render the final decision impartial (Stone, 2007, cited by Stone, 2008, p. 270.) This enables pupils from all backgrounds and socio-economic groups in getting a chance to attend an unbiased school, providing an educational advantage for all pupils. As identified by Allen et al., (2013) there was a degree of homogenization of the intake of FSM pupils across Brighton and Hove. Commonly, admissions policies favor and prioritize certain students in relation to oversubscription, for example, if they have an existing sibling at the school or proximity. Lottery allocation from the beginning allows equality for all pupils and an impartial decision made by the school and also disregards competition between schools and pupils. Furthermore, this system would relieve students of the mental pressure of competing with others, and to pursue hobbies and interests they are passionate about, rather than what will make them look ‘good’ (Schwartz, 2014.) Therefore, not only will this decrease the competition but will broaden opportunities for students and create a diverse group of young people. Rather than pupils having to compete with each other in order to be good enough to attend selective schools, the system is based purely upon luck (Schwartz, 2014.)

It is important to note that these factors outlined above that identify causes of segregation are not exclusive and by no means do they work individually, often these factors work collectively and inequality is created as a result. As noted by Smith (2012) policies that encourage parental choice do not solely result in segregation, rather a range of factors, such as demographics and socioeconomic factors combined can have a significant impact.

Proposed disadvantages

When confronting social justice issues, particularly educational inequalities, there is no perfect solution, however, a lottery system is one key method in which school provision becomes more equitable due to no biases and preferences of students. However, there are still barriers to overcome.

The first disadvantage of this system is that those parents among the wealthier groups can still decide to opt out of schools under Local Education Authorities and send their children to privately funded schools. Private schools cannot be a part of the lottery system because admissions are subject to parents paying fees. Therefore, the inequality among some particular schools may still become apparent and those pupils who are unable to afford such schooling must settle for schools under LEA and may be at an educational disadvantage compared to their counterparts. However, when using the lottery system, the higher-achieving state schools under the lottery system are then less likely to be dominated by only high-achieving pupils and can result in a more balanced intake (Harrison, 2014.) As well as this, the lottery-based system may make it difficult for schools to cater to the needs of many different types of pupils. For example, the allocation of pupils with Special Educational Needs being taught side by side with other pupils may be contentious (Smith, 2012.) Therefore, classes and year groups may not be able to get access to the resources that best suit them if they are allocated a place randomly. This can put many pupils at an educational disadvantage, resulting in further long-term segregation. However, this issue itself is contentious and may not necessarily be perceived as a disadvantage for some. Smith (2012) identifies the debates centered around the 1981 Education Act and the 2006 United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities article, outlining that inclusion of all pupils should be maintained where possible. Therefore, the lottery system may also impact this positively.

Furthermore, as noted by Symaco and Brock (2015) whilst the system of lottery allocation is designed to solve segregation regarding social composition, the biggest problem may be that travel time to school may increase significantly if children are not sent to local schools. Furthermore, parents who may have more than one child could end up sending their children to different schools (Harrison, 2014.) The former part of this may not be as difficult if the lottery system creates catchment areas in which pupils stay within. Therefore, it is essential that in order to prevent certain areas from being dominated by the higher social classes, the catchment areas include a variety of different attaining schools as well as being reasonable for families to travel. The latter, families may end up with their children attending more than one school is a disadvantage of the lottery system that is yet to be resolved.

When closely considering the impact of the lottery on Brighton and Hove, Allen et al., (2013) document that when analyzing segregation across the city directly, an increased level of segregation was found due to the contentious design of the catchment areas. This resulted in some winners and losers as a result of the lottery and this in itself is arguably unfair. Those who may have been more capable of attending a higher-attaining school may have been allocated to a less successful secondary school and this poses academic and ethical problems. However, this can be solved by addressing catchment area boundaries in order to prevent certain catchment areas from reproducing the proximity problem again.

Despite the proposed disadvantages, the lottery system in practice will tackle the issue surrounding school provision becoming more equitable. Randomized allocation will challenge house-buying incentives in particular areas, a parental choice that can exclude particular families, and unfair life chances for the socially disadvantaged, whilst remaining impartial when allocating school places (Stone, 2008.) As identified in this essay, children from disadvantaged backgrounds are often deprived of opportunities and education in comparison to their wealthier counterparts. Schools are a place in which pupils learn their academics, but also a place in which norms and values are transmitted which stay with pupils for the rest of their lives. It is vital to ensure that every child has fair and equal access to a fair level of schooling and academia. Allocation by lottery is one way to ensure impartiality and fairness for all pupils regardless of their socioeconomic position and background. This way, young people will access an education that is fair and equitable.

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