The World Bank produced its first global poverty estimates for developing countries. These estimates are found in the world development report of 1990, which used house hold survey data for 22 countries (Ravallion, et al., 2001).
By incorporating data collected during the last fifteen years, that database has expanded considerably and now it includes 440 surveys representing almost 100 developing countries (Jimenez, 2007).
The commonly used a dollar a day standard indicator for determining poverty rates at the household level was instituted in the 1990 report. Because this indicator failed to effectively capture the different economic situations of many poor countries, another yard stick for measuring poverty in poor countries was formulated.
This standard is known as purchasing power prices (PPPs). It was chosen by the World Bank for use in determining the poverty rates of poor countries.
The most used Poverty indicators for developing countries includes according to world bank includes; percentage of poverty gap at national level, percentage of Poverty gap at rural level, Poverty headcount ratio at 1.25 dollars a day (purchasing power prices) of the percentage population, Poverty headcount ratio at national poverty level of the percentage population, Poverty headcount ratio at rural poverty level of the percentage rural population and lastly poverty headcount ratio at urban poverty level of the percentage urban population.
Types of Industries that Characterize Impoverished Countries
Developed nations gain from their trade because they produce and export industrial commodities, whereas the poor countries specialize in primary goods production and lack enough commodities for export. Technological progress in the world seems to work to their disadvantage (Singer and Ansari, 2004).
The essential difference between the rich and poor countries is not that they produce different types of commodities but the main difference between the two is that, the rich nations produce a different mix of goods and services while the poor countries produce a single mix of goods and services (Singer and Ansari, 2004).
In many poor countries of the world, national income and productivity usually increase at a very insignificant rate. These two factors hinder poor countries from taking on new investments, increase their production rates and lower their imports (Soubbotina, 2004).
Most poor countries are affected by political instability which hinders investors from investing in those countries. This also makes the already established industries in those countries to relocate to much stable countries. All this negatively affects the economic growth of the poor countries.
Actions to Spur Economic Development in Poor Countries
Based on the review of the experience of the last decade and extensive research on the nature and causes of poverty, a multidimensional approach to poverty reduction is recommended to liberate the poor nations from poverty (World Bank, 2002).
Poor countries should develop an expanded framework with actions at the country level planning. They should do all they can to create vast economic opportunities for their people, empower their citizens and enhance their security development (World Bank, 2002).
Opportunity is crucial to the creation of opportunities which are actions that support healthy economic growth. Empowerment means strengthening the capacity of poor people to affect decisions that have a bearing on their lives and removing barriers that prevent them from engaging effectively in political, social and economic activities.
Security is the resilience and preparedness to shocks such as illnesses, disasters and economic downturns. In order for development in poor nations to be fast tracked, it is necessary for the Nations to collaborate with industrialized countries, international organizations, private companies, research communities and other global players across abroad spectrum.
Conclusion
It can be noted that, the World Bank whose mandate is to improve the worlds economic status has been able to offer assistance to several countries in the world. Poor countries are given first considerations in programming and implementing of the World Banks projects.
Most Non-Governmental Organizations and Donors have also been at the fore front of alleviating poverty and human suffering in poor nations. It is therefore upon the leaders of the poor nations to initiate an enabling environment for development to take place.
References
Jimenez, E. (2007). Development and the next generation. Washington, DC: World Bank Publication.
Ravallion, M., Galasso, E. and Salvia, A. (2001). Assisting the transition from workfare: A randomized experiment. Washington D.C: World Bank Policy Research Working Papers Series. Print.
Singer, H. and Ansari, J. (2004). Rich and Poor Countries: Consequences of International Disorder. USA: Routledge.
Soubbotina, T. (2004). Beyond economic growth: an introduction to sustainable development. Washington, D.C.: World Bank publication.
World Bank. (2002). Poverty reduction and the World Bank: progress in implementing WDR 2000/2001. Washington D.C: World Bank corporation.
As it is today, the world has seen so many different ages of civilization that have so far had a great impact on the world itself. Each civilization age has brought about innovations that have been used to simplify the way people live for the sole purpose of preserving humankind from extinction.
Of all the ages, the 20th century has had the most significant impact on improving the welfare of humankind. At the end of the day, it has brought tremendous growth population worldwide. This growth in population has made the third-world countries record the highest numbers though bedeviled with poverty amidst the poor economic conditions thus leading to Paul Colliers book The Bottom Billion, an issue that the author presents strategically.
He uses it when referring to the countries in the world, which make up the majority of the billion population of the world that unfortunately sits at the bottom of the world in terms of poverty and development. In his description, Collier (2007), says, most of the 5billion, about 80%, live in countries that are indeed developing, often at an amazing speed (p.3).
he bottom billion are countries, which, despite being in the 21st century, have their living standards way back in the 14th century due to problems of war, poverty, diseases, illiteracy, and the general poor economic conditions that are still falling. In his book, Collier is referring to poor countries located mostly in Asia and Africa as well as other countries located in South America.
Some of the bottom billion countries in this case are countries like Somalia, Chad, Eritrea, Laos, Myanmar, and Vietnam amongst others. One characteristic about these countries is that they are often led by despotic leaders who are themselves filthy rich thriving on looting from the countries resources.
Collier focuses on these countries because they are in coexistence with the 21st century countries and that he is afraid that their problems will soon be pulling the 21st century countries down. He says, this problem matters, and not just to the billion people who are living and dying in the fourteenth century conditions&It matters to us (p. 3).
By focusing on the bottom billion as an issue, Collier is trying to send a warning message to the 21st century countries whose comfort zones will soon be taken away by the problems emanating from the bottom billion countries. Perfect examples of this case include problems like diseases, which have already been eradicated in the first world countries. With war and poor economic conditions persisting, citizens from the bottom billion countries will always seek refuge in some of these first world countries.
With them, they will import the problem of diseases, crime, and economic strain to the 21st century countries. Lawlessness in countries like Somalia has led to the revival of a once old age practice of piracy in the high seas. Pirates from these lawless countries have led to businesses suffering losses to the tune of billions of dollars in ransom payments as well as deaths of sailors.
They have also made transport by ships an expensive affair due to the incurred costs by shipping lines trying to beef up security for their vessels. Despotic leadership in countries like Chad has made these countries become lucrative drug smuggling routes for drug cartels eying European markets.
Relationship between the civil war and poverty
Civil war is an internal conflict within a given country that results to more than one thousand deaths mainly combatants (Collier, 2008, p. 18).
Civil war or civil strife usually leads to stagnation of daily economic, social, and political activities leading to situations of strife. The relationship between the civil war and poverty is so synonymous that one cannot separate the two. According to Collier, civil war is more likely to breakout in low income countries (2008, p. 19).
This case can be predicted by halving the income of a country, which doubles the countrys risk. The relationship between the civil war and poverty is that, on one hand, civil war reduces the income of a nation by driving away any form of investment or economic activities.
On the other hand, poverty or low income in a country is a catalyst for civil war because lack of income will drive the unemployed masses to take up guns as long as the rebel movement pays up and or becomes a source of income.
Examples used by Collier
According to Collier (2008), a typical low income country faces the risk of a civil war of 14% in any five year period (p. 20). Civil war or merely the prospect of civil war will always send any investors, foreign or local, away for their safety because, in case of a civil war, lawlessness will reign due to insecurity.
Civil war leads to the collapse of any form of administrative order and thus the need for any investors to secure their investment from losses. Furthermore, property damaged during the civil war is never compensated by neither the government nor insurance companies. To justify his argument of the relationship between poverty and civil war, Collier goes ahead to say, while civil war reduces income, low income indeed heightens the risk of a civil war (2008, p. 19).
The author gives the example of Condo DRC formerly Zaire. He explains that, due to poverty, it became very cheap for rebel leader Laurent Kabila to mobilize fighters, as they were cheaply available. Therefore, poverty and civil war are synonymous. They are interchangeably used as causes for one another.
My Opinion
In my opinion, poverty and civil war are synonymous. As explained by Collier, they lead to one another regardless of whichever comes first. On the other hand, poverty only cannot lead to a civil war without further underlying issues. In most cases, some form of interest will lead to poverty. It will be used as a reason to start a war.
There are many poor countries worldwide, which have been poor for so long yet peaceful. However, there are successful countries, which have been brought down by civil war without necessarily being poor. In my opinion, a stable countrys natural resources can lead it into a civil war due to external interests, but with a perfect excuse for war.
A good example is the fall of Libya. Libya has been a peaceful country for so long with its civilians living a first-world lifestyle. However, due to the wests interest in its oil, it (west) had to use the reason of creating democratic space to destabilize the country and control its resources. Therefore, other than civil war and poverty being the causes to each other, mineral resources too can be added as a cause besides the two.
Resource surplus
What does Collier mean?
Resource surplus can mess the politics of a given country because any group that has access to these resources tends to use the same resources to entrench its rule or cause thus tilting the politics of the given country to its favorable causes or ideas. When a country has surplus resources, it sometimes becomes an impetus for different groups to try to control the same.
A good example to this is the Nigerian government problem with the rebel movement in the Niger Delta. The ruling elites within the country have taken control of all the oil resources coming from that region to enrich themselves besides funding their political careers thus keeping them in power for as long as they can survive.
This, on its own, is one way of messing up the politics of a given country because the people on the ground are influenced in a way to elect leaders who they might not have elected in an ideal situation thus an abuse to the democratic process. This claim is described as patronage politics (Collier, 2008, p. 44).
In another way, resource surplus can mess a countries politics by turning that countrys politics from being issue-oriented to resource-oriented thus sidelining all the other important social issues that political leadership should uphold. On the other hand, leaders who lead countries with massive resources do not depend so much on the peoples taxes to run the country.
Therefore, in one way, the peoples say is diminished. A perfect example to this is the monarch rulers of the Arab world who control the countries with oil resources thus making them totally unanswerable to their subjects. These resources have made the countries politics be controlled by a few people.
Reasons for his statement
External forces interested in mineral resources within given countries always finance different factions of the political divide to have a leeway in the exploitation of the given countrys resources. This was seen during the Libyan conflict when the western countries, which were interested in the Libyan oil, were asked to make their military contributions as a license to access the Libyan oil after the conflict. Collier (2008) makes this statement in view of different situations happening in different countries.
He gives an example of Madagascar when the incumbent president Didier Ratsiraka lost the elections. He refused to leave power. Therefore, as a way of retaining control of the country, his allies laid a blockade on the port, which was one of the main revenue earners of the country (Collier, 2008, p. 83).
Another example given by Collier is the politics in Botswana. However, a small landlocked country, it is rich in diamond. Thus, a clique of a few people determines the political direction of the country. These are ways that most resource-rich have been affected by their politics. Angola as a country is mineral-rich in both oil and diamond.
For a long time, the value of these two minerals controlled the direction the conflict took. When diamonds were fetching much more money than oil in the international market, Unita, the rebel movement, thrived a lot. It was even able to attract recognition from such countries like the United States of America. Nevertheless, when the value of diamonds fell with the value of oil rising, the government was able to crush the rebel movement.
Recommendations for escaping the bottom billion
Collier has made several sensational recommendations for pulling the bottom billion countries from the bottom billion pit. These recommendations range from social economical move to military interventions. He calls for military interventions as a way of forcing out despotic governments who are in total control of the military apparatus of their countries as a way of freeing up some of the rundown countries (Collier, 2008, p. 184).
A good example of such a military intervention is when the Kenyan defense forces stormed Somalia after a decade of lawlessness, and got rid of the different factions that were controlling the country. This qualifies as a perfect example of military intervention to restore order where the locals have failed, or are sharply divided.
International arbitration may happen when such international institutions like the World Bank and the international monetary fund step in to advice on economic reforms to be followed in a bid to inject the much-needed capital into the economies of these worlds.
These institutions can also play a supervisory role on these countries economy to ensure that the recommended policies are followed to the letter. Investor insurance can also be used to attract investors to these countries by providing the necessary guarantees to investors who wish invest in these countries in such areas as infrastructure (Collier, 2008, p. 154).
In such cases, these institutions fund projects in partnership with the local governments. Another form of solution is internal arbitration whereby different factions of the country are brought to a round table discussion to solve the problems facing the country. Another solution is coming up for a charter for investment, which draws an investment plan for these countries.
What can the UAE learn from Paul Collier?
In my own recommendations, the UAE should find a way of engaging all interested parties in the running of its affairs. The UAE, being a rich country in resources, has seen the monarch and a few people run its affairs. One thing the UAE should learn from this book is that, with its rich resources, the country is an attraction to external forces, which are interested in its resources and who will one day move in to change the regime for the sole purpose of controlling its resources.
Citizens in a country who have everything provided for except democracy will one day stand up against the government and demand for involvement in the political process of the country. This will most definitely lead to war because the rulers of the country cannot wish to let go of power that easily.
Thus, they will use their military power to fight off any changes to their status. Earnestly the UAE should slowly introduce an arbitration process that would bring in the people to make them feel as part of the process of governance. The UAE should also try to find a way of diversifying its income because some of the mineral resources it relies on are not renewable.
One day, in case of their exhaustion, it might lead to poverty due to loss of income for the country. Though Colliers solutions are seen to be viable, they cannot be taken entirely as so since they are theoretical in nature thus requiring an input of many other factors for them to be totally workable.
Reference
Collier, P. (2008). The Bottom Billion: Why The Poorest Countries are Failing and what Can Be Done about It. New York: Oxford University Press.
Developing countries are faced with various problems, the main one being poverty. Recent researches show that in most of these countries, the rich continue to be rich each day while the poor becomes poorer. Unlike in the developed countries like United Kingdom, economical imbalance is very common in the developing countries.
There is the class of the rich elites and the class of the illiterate poor. The minority rich in these countries own factors of production, giving them power to acquire even more wealth. This creates an economic imbalance where one fraction has a stronger economic power, while the other bracket suffers from poverty.
Several bodies including the United Nations and World Bank have come together with an aim of alleviating extreme poverty in the member countries, especially the living conditions of those living below one dollar a day in these developing countries. This has however, remained very elusive due to the leadership of these countries. These people lack the necessities that include food, clothing, and shelter.
The World Bank in 2001 reported that the level of poverty in some of these countries is one the increase due to leadership practices that are based on greed and self interest (Hill & Jones 2010, p. 67). While poverty level is reported to reduce in developed countries, in some countries like Haiti, people are still in absolute poverty. This research will focus on poverty in Haiti. This paper seeks to ascertain the argument that poverty of poor countries is due to the wealth of the rich.
Poverty in Haiti
Haiti is a Caribbean country occupying some portions of Hispaniola Island. This nation is recorded to be the first to gain independence in the Caribbean community in the year 1804. Within the western hemisphere, Haiti is ranked as the poorest country. Researches show that approximately 80% of the rural population in Haiti lives in extreme poverty.
Haitis income per capita of $250 is considered a tenth less than the average of that in Latin American (Evans 2012, p. 78). This nation is also very popular among the Caribbean community, known to be the poorest in America as per the measurements of the Human development Index (Hooley 2008, p. 190).
Worldwide, Haiti nation is categorized as one of the poorest countries. The life expectancy for Haiti is only 57 years compared to 69 for Latin Americans. This is because of inadequate healthcare facilities. Almost three quarters of the Haitians are illiterate.
This is worsened by the fact that the country has limited natural resources that they can use to develop themselves. The nature of poverty in this nation is associated with several factors. The rich class in Haiti has greatly contributed to the current status of the majority poor in this country. The current government is trying to come up with measures that can help mitigate the current state of poverty in this country.
The Historical Perspective of Poverty of this Country
From the historical perspective, the current poverty levels of Haiti nation can be viewed on various grounds. The Hispaniola Island, which a third of it falls under the current Haiti, attracted many Europeans in the pre-colonial period. The coming of Europeans to the island brought so many issues that directly affected Haiti people several years after their departure. The Europeans came to this land to colonize the people around this place.
When the slaves were released following the abolition of slave trade and slavery, all the slaves were settled in this land which later became the Haiti state. The rich Europeans and Americans enslaved many Haitian for several years and when they were freed, they were not given any economical support to start a strong nation.
Haiti slaves used to work in the agricultural lands for these rich farmers and in their businesses without any pay. These colonizers acquired a lot of wealth from the coffee, sugar plantations, and other businesses because of slave labor. These two factors explain the root cause of poverty in this country.
The enslaved Haitians were treated ruthlessly and with a lot of hatred leading to the death of many. Enslavement brought the practice of voodoo religion that led to the rise of the class system that is present in Haiti to date.
These people resigned to their fate, and believed that they were a third class people, and nothing could be done to change this. Among these slaves was a minority group comprising of the Catholics who were light skinned, and were able to speak the French language (Hooley 2008, p. 17).
These were treated with some little concern as compared to the blacks who were not able to read, write and did not believe in Christianity. This majority group practiced the voodoo religion and spoke Creole language. They were considered by the ruling class as people who could not hold any position of leadership in the society, however junior the position.
The minority class took the available leadership positions and when slavery was brought to an end, they acquired most of the available resources that were left by the whites. This was the genesis of the rich class and the poverty-ridden Haitians in this country. The rich class ensured that the trend that was left by the whites is maintained.
They embraced segregation based on the level of wealth owned by them. The two social classes had different service resources like schools and health centers. This contributed to the status of Haiti witnessed today. History has it that in the 1780s, Haiti was a relatively stable state with a very strong agricultural sector and transport system by world standards then. It grew coffee, sugarcanes, cocoa, and cotton.
These agricultural products attracted so many Europeans and French in the markets. These two groups started relying so much on the Haitian agricultural products to help them develop their industries in their homeland. However, these nations ensured that these products were taken at cheap prices with the help of the puppets they left in power when the country was declared independent. This greatly contributed to the fall of the economy of the Haiti, a state they are yet to recover from to date.
Corruption in Haiti
The vice of corruption is very common in most governments of developing countries. Corruption is commonly exercise by those in power in any these countries because on self interests. According to the Transparency International index report, Haiti is ranked among the countries that are most corrupt (Ferrell 2011, p. 112).
This report outlines a clear relationship between corruption and poverty in Haiti.Corruption leads to poverty in many aspects. Practice of this vice results into lowered rate of economic of growth. The systems of taxation are biased and there is unequal distribution and access to resources. In Haiti, due to high corruption rates, international donors are always hesitant in assisting them.
In 1994, charitable organizations gave the nation 2.6 billion dollars with an aim of assisting the poor Haitians. This donation cannot be accounted for to date. It is reported that in Haiti, those in power highly abuse their offices for their personal benefits. Corruption in Haiti is wide spread and felt in all aspects of life which include social, political, and economic spectrum. Socially, corruption features in a number of areas.
In Haiti, less than a half of the population has access to medical health care. The majority can only afford ill-equipped hospitals which offer very poor services. The minority group has the best medical health centers with the best services. In schools, very few get access to quality education services with the families of the rich acquiring having access to best schools. Those who take the social leadership are the elites who own factors of production and therefore, have the capacity to corrupt their way to power.
Politically, the vice is manifested in many ways in this country. The Haiti leaders are very corrupt. They use their political power and privileges not for the support and benefit of the nation but for their own gains. The law of this nation is modeled in a way to favor the rich.
There law does not address areas like land tenure, bank operations and regulations, administration of the countrys income, and many other areas. The law is meant to benefit the rich. Despite this, those in power always ensure that this law is poorly implemented to their favor.
According to Gerber (2008, p. 83), the law favors the rich while discriminates against the poor in the community. The Haitian law states the penalties for criminals and officials practicing corruption (Ferrell 2011, p. 118). This law however, has not been implemented effectively. Many government officials found engaging in corrupt dealings in their offices and impunity are not prosecuted. They would find their way to freedom, and back to their office by compromising the corridors of justice.
High levels of corruption in Haiti have great impacts on the economic status of the poor in this country. Corruption makes both the foreign and local investors in the country to shy off from this country.
The only groups that have invested in this country are the few elites who can afford to give out bribes. Comparing Haiti and other developing countries around the world, this nation is one of the lowest in the per capita income. Generally, corruption is viewed as the main contributor of poverty in Haiti.
Poor Haiti Governance
Haiti nation is highly faced with poor governance, worsening the level of poverty in this nation. After revolution, those elected to power turned into tyrants. Instead of governing the nation for the benefit of all Haitians, these leaders main objective was to protect and maintain their power irrespective of the means.
When Papa Doc was elected into power in 1957, he did not deliver as was expected. Although interested in improving the living standards of many within the countryside, he also majored in ways of protecting his leadership (Handlechner 2008, p. 118). On his election, the Haitians thought he was a source of hope for the poor nations.
Their hopes and expectations were turned down, worsening their poor situation. When the son took over after his fathers death, a series of economic problems were experienced in Haiti. He neglected the interests of Haitians completely and introduced a lot of bureaucracy to the investors.
He instead mismanaged all the revenues from charity bodies and World Bank. Jean Claude Duvalier consumed all the revenues in his luxurious lifestyle with other few Haitian elites when he came to power (Gountas & Mavudo 2008, p. 78). This was a high contributor to Haitian poverty levels.
The Haiti government, apart from being poor and corrupt, is full of bureaucracy. For the foreigners and those from the majority poor to invest they have to follow several procedures which delay the process and finally discourage them from investing in the country. The competitive ability of most of the Haiti firms in the world market is poor. This is because of lack of government support. As such, the rate of unemployment in the country is very high. This has worsened the economic status of the poor.
Conclusion
The discussion above demonstrates that poverty of poor countries is directly related to the wealth of the rich. The rich have factors of production which enables them to generate more wealth. This means that the rich can generate more wealth at the expense of the poor. This is worsened by the fact that the rich uses their wealth to get to position of power in the country. Once in power, the engage in corrupt deals that make the poor poorer while making them wealthier.
List of References
Evans, D 2012, Poverty in the contemporary world, Wiley Indianapolis.
Ferrell, C 2011, Corruption in the third world countries, Cengage Learning, New York.
Gerber, K 2008, Fighting poverty in Africa and other third world countries, Pearson Education, Cape Town.
Gountas, J & Mavudo, F 2008, Poverty: A Decision-Focused Approach, McGraw-Hill, North Ryde.
Handlechner, M 2008, The poor states in the world, GRIN Verlag GmbH, Munchen.
Hill, C & Jones, G 2010, Strategic management theory: an integrated approach, Houghton Mifflin, Boston, MA.
Hooley, G 2008, Poverty Management, FT Prentice Hall, Harlow.
In spite of the recent occurrence of global economic recession, the economy of Indonesia has been going on growing at a steady rate, making the country to be classified among the middle-class countries.
Due to Indonesia realizing constant economic growth, there has been a steady decrease in the overall poverty level in the country: the level has dropped from 17%, witnessed in the year 2004, to about 12.5% in the year 2011 (IFAD 1).
However, even if Indonesia has realized a reduction in the overall poverty level, the poor people, especially those living in the rural areas in this country, are currently worse off and the gap between the wealthy people and the poor is getting wider and wider (IFAD 1).
In this paper, I am going to support my viewpoint that; despite Indonesia realizing substantial economic growth, rural poverty in the country remains to be a big problem that needs to be addressed with urgent need. The conclusion section of the paper will present a summary of discussion.
Rural Poverty in Indonesia
Suryahadi and Hadiwidjaja point out the idea that Indonesias power to bring down the level of poverty became stronger after the occurrence of the Asian financial crisis (Suryahadi and Hadiwidjaja 20). However, they also offer an explanation that there is a slower rate of poverty reduction among the rural poor (Suryahadi and Hadiwidjaja 20).
They point out that the growth of Indonesias economy does not benefit individuals who need to be greatly attended to (Suryahadi and Hadiwidjaja 20). As on one hand a larger number of people living in poverty are found in the rural areas, on the other hand, there exists a division in which the pace of poverty reduction slows down in rural areas and speeds up in urban areas after the crisis (Suryahadi and Hadiwidjaja 20).
Moreover, these researchers observe that, the contribution made by the urban services sector growth , which is found to be very much effectual in poverty reduction, reduced for the rural regions after the occurrence of the Asian financial crisis (Suryahadi and Hadiwidjaja 20).
Following this, the impact of the urban services sector is not currently felt in the rural areas in the same way it used to be before the occurrence of the Asian financial crisis. As a result, it is not a big surprise that the overall rate of reduction of poverty level in Indonesia decreases (Suryahadi and Hadiwidjaja 20).
Approximately fifty percent of the Indonesian population lives only slightly above the poverty line (IFAD 1). This population that is near to poverty is prone to such unfavorable conditions as increases in the food prices, poor health, natural calamities among other factors, which can easily take them back to poverty (Hasan, Rana and Quibria 261).
In spite of the country taking appropriate measures, in the recent times, to bring improvements in the health as well as education sectors, the quality of health care and public services cannot measure up to the same standards as those of other middle-income nations but remains behind (Loayza and Raddatz 141).
It is also reported that high levels of undernourishment among the young kids, higher levels of deaths among mothers, lack of clean drinking water and poor quality of education for children, are found to be the most common problems affecting the poor people living in rural areas in Indonesia (IFAD 1).
An example of a fluctuation in food prices causing an increase in the poverty levels among the near-poor people can be given of a situation that occurred during the years 2005 and 2006. During that time, the Indonesian government banned imports and this led to an increase in domestic rice price (Suryahadi, Hadiwidjaja and Sumarto 7).
This was considered by a number of researchers as being among the main causes of the increase in the poverty levels (McCulloch 45; Warr 14; World Bank 1). It is pointed out that, even if there was introducing of the UCT and an expansion of Raskin benefits around the same time, near poor households were unable to cope with the rising price of their single most important consumption good (Suryahadi, Hadiwidjaja and Sumarto 7).
About 70% of the total number of the people in Indonesia lives in the rural areas and their major source of income is farming (IFAD 1). Research shows that poverty in these rural areas is on the increase and it has been reported that about 16.5% of the people in the rural areas live in poverty as compared to about 9.9% of those who live in urban areas (IFAD 1).
Wetterberg, Sumarto and Pritchett point out that in Indonesia, the difference in the rates of poverty in the urban and rural areas always stands at above 6%, apart from the case of the year 1998, in the course of the Asian financial crisis which adversely affected the people living in the urban centers more than those living in the rural areas (Wetterberg, Sumarto and Pritchett 145).
A very large number of small-scale farmers are not able to capitalize on the available opportunities that economic growth offers (IFAD 1). The farmers are mostly not in a position to have access to the financial and agricultural extension services and they also do not have good and reliable markets for their farm products (IFAD 1).
Moreover, production of food by the rural population greatly puts focus on satisfying the subsistence needs (de Janvry and Sadoulet 13).
Even if this country engages in the production of the crops that have a high market value such coffee, cloves and cocoa among others, the government has not invested much in the processing, marketing and management systems which are required in the expansion of production and take full advantage of this demand (de Janvry and Sadoulet 13).
Poverty in Indonesia is more prevalent in the isolated eastern islands than other areas and in this region, about 95% of the people in the rural areas live in poverty (IFAD 1). In most parts of this region, people engage in subsistence farming.
The native people that have always been marginalized and have not been able to benefit from the development programs put in place by the government are in these areas. The areas in the coastal region have been environmentally degraded and the villages can only be accessed with much difficulty.
People living in these areas find that the only way they can overcome the problem of poverty is to migrate to the urban areas (IFAD 1). Some research findings have shown that migration to urban areas from the rural areas plays a big role in poverty reduction.
For instance, Abuzar Asra, following his research on poverty levels among the people who live in urban areas and rural areas, found out that in the period between 1987 and 1996, there was significant decline in poverty levels as a result of rural to urban migration in Indonesia (Asra 1).
Moreover, the women, especially those living in rural areas in Indonesia, are very susceptible to poverty. They have limited access to quality education, receive less pay as compared to men and they are often discriminated against in their communities as well as their households and may be excluded in decision making (Miranti 80).
Conclusion
The argument in this paper has been that: despite Indonesia realizing substantial economic growth, rural poverty in the country remains to be a big problem that needs to be addressed with urgent need. It has been found out that the country became even stronger in working towards bringing down the level of poverty after the recent Asian financial crisis.
However, poverty reduction has been found to be slower in the rural population than in the urban one. Over 70% of Indonesians live in rural areas and basically depend on agriculture for their livelihood.
But there is no adequate government support for agricultural production and marketing and the people who live in the rural areas mainly focus on subsistence farming.
In addition, women and people living in remote areas have been marginalized and discriminated against and they do not have sufficient access to the government services.
Moreover, the people in rural areas in Indonesia are also vulnerable to some unfavorable conditions such as changing food prices and poor health conditions among others. Such conditions may not make it possible for these people to evade poverty completely.
It is important that the Indonesian government take necessary measures to ensure all its people receive equal benefits from the economic growth that is being realized by the country.
de Janvry, Alain and Sadoulet Elisabeth. Agricultural Growth and Poverty Reduction: Additional Evidence. World Bank Research Observer 9.25 (2009): 1-20. Print.
Hasan, Rana and Quibria George. Industry Matters for Poverty: A Critique of Agricultural Fundamentalism. Kyklos, 57.2 (2004): 253-64. Print.
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Loayza, Norman and Raddatz Claudio. The Composition of Growth Matters for Poverty Alleviation. Journal of Development Economics 93.1 (2010): 137-151. Print.
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Today, different societies in the world are grappling with various social issues that affect them. The current report was compiled to examine some of these social issues that are presently affecting different societies in the world. To this end, the author discussed the various social issues from the perspective of their (authors) coursework.
Some of the social issues that the report highlighted include racism, sexism, and heterosexism. The report found that, based on cultural values, different people exhibit different prejudicial attitudes towards others. The prejudicial attitudes are what bring about the aforementioned social issues.
The author dwelt mostly on racism, which, in most cases, informs individuals attitudes towards the other issues. The report focused on an organization that plays a big role in addressing all forms of racial discrimination, hate, and bigotry. The Southern Poverty Law Centre is the organization that the report focused on.
The report examined the organizational structure of The Southern Poverty Law Centre. Further, the author sought to analyze the sources of funding for the organization. Finally, the report examined the activities undertaken by the organization and the benefits thereof.
In the process of compiling the report, the author adopted a qualitative research approach. To this end, the author relied on documentation as the means of collecting data.
The report was targeted at scholars of social science, as well as professionals in organizations like the one highlighted. They are some of the parties that stand to benefit from the findings of this report.
Key words: The Southern Poverty Law Centre, discrimination, sexism, heterosexism, discrimination
Introduction
In any given society, there are several issues that relate to the people found therein. Some of these issues relate to the individuals personal lives. Communities around the world vary from one place to the other and from one time to the other.
For example, perceptions regarding what should be considered normal behavior vary from one society to the other. It is important to understand that social issues are not really tied to economic issues in a certain society. There are various social issues that need to be addressed in any given society.
The issues include, among others, racism, sexism, as well as heterosexism. The differences in opinions touching on some of the social issues have led to contempt and stigmatization in the society.
The current report revolves around some of the issues highlighted above. In the report, the author will look at one organization that is attempting to minimize hatred and bigotry with regard to some of the social issues that have emerged controversial in contemporary society.
The organization in this case is The Southern Poverty Law Center. In this report, the author will examine how The Southern Poverty Law Centre is making attempts at enabling the vulnerable members of its society get justice and protection from the hate and bigotry they have suffered at the hands of their fellow members of the community.
Several reasons convinced the author to focus on The Southern Poverty Law Centre in this report. One of the reasons is the authors belief, in and appreciation, of Rothenbergs (17) assertion on the need for equality.
The major purpose of this report is to analyze some controversial issues in the society today. The author acknowledges that there are various controversial issues that affect dynamics of the society today.
In the report, the author discusses the need to let every individual enjoy the benefits associated with membership to that society. The author regards this ability to enjoy those benefits as a right on the part of the individual.
To appreciate the need for equality and equity in any given society, the author will rely on the activities of an organization championing the same in compiling the report. That organization, as initially mentioned, is The Southern Law Poverty Centre.
The Southern Law Poverty Center: Community Report
An Overview of Some Social Issues Addressed by the Center
Using the information gathered from coursework, the author will highlight some social issues in the society, with special focus on those issues addressed by the center.
The issues will be highlighted as they form the basis of the report. The purpose of highlighting these issues is, among others, to help the reader appreciate the need for this report. Following are some of the key social issues identified:
Racism
Kenned (133) argues that there exists different biological groups, which he calls races. Mankind is subdivided into these groups. The scholar further suggests that the perceptions and actions towards the aforementioned notion are what constitute racism.
He goes on to suggest that members of these biological groups share some attributes. To that effect, one group can be viewed as being inferior or superior.
Such differences are what led to the existence of the various aspects of racism as evidenced in Jim Crow (Pilgrim 34). Jim Crow was a way of life characterized by stiff anti-black laws. It was practiced in the southern states between 1887 and 1960s. The system made it very clear that black people were inferior to the whites.
The result was a severe violation of human rights perpetrated against members of the African-American community. There was no solace in religion either.
There were doctrines that taught of how God supported racial discrimination. They argued that whites were the chosen people and that blacks were a cursed lot. As such, blacks were meant to be servants for the whites.
Sexism
Wright (24) refers to sexism as discrimination against an individual based on their gender. An example is when men are favored over women in the workplace. In a majority of cases, sexist attitudes are exhibited towards women. But this does not mean that men are completely safe from this form of prejudice.
There are a few reported cases of sexism meted on men by women or their fellow men. Sexism exists owing to the various stereotypes that exist in a particular society. The traditional roles that members of each gender are expected to play in a society are what yield such forms of stereotypes.
It is a common occurrence, in a given society, to find individuals of one gender feeling superior and regarding members of the opposite gender as inferior beings.
The result of such forms of gender prejudices is what Lorber (54) points out as the major cause of women being denied employment opportunities. Extreme forms of sexism have seen a rise in the number of sexual harassment cases, as well as sex crimes like rape (Johnso 153).
Heterosexism
Katz (69) alludes to a form of bias and prejudicial discrimination against persons who ascribe to particular sexual orientations. That particular kind of bias is what he terms as heterosexism. According to him, there are various societies in the world that discriminate against gays, lesbians, as well as bisexuals.
The result of such discrimination is abuse of the rights of persons who fall in this category. Such individuals are denied the right to enjoy some human rights and economic benefits.
Heterosexism gave rise to homophobia (Kimmel 80). The latter is viewed as antipathy towards homosexuals and their overall behavior. In this case, homosexuals are discriminated against and, to some extent, subjected to different forms of violence.
The reasoning behind the antipathy, according to Mohr (578), is the belief that masculinity is a male attribute. On the other hand, femininity is associated with femaleness, weakness, and such other negative connotations.
Such forms of discrimination have seen a rise in the number of organizations that aim to enhance equality and equity as far as sexual orientation is concerned.
The Southern Poverty Law Center
In this section, the author will address the various aspects of this organization. The author will look at, among others, the history and objectives of the organization.
The Southern Poverty Law Center: History
To ensure that the fruits of the civil rights movement are enjoyed by everyone in the society, it was important to have an organization mandated to realize the same. Focus was on the southern states of the United States of America. The civil rights movement had made a promise of racial equality to the people in this area.
To that effect, there were laws put in place to end the apartheid that existed in the society. However, in some parts of the southern states of the United States of America, these laws were not benefitting most of the blacks.
The African-Americans were still being denied some fundamental privileges like decent housing, employment, and access to quality education. Such grave violations of human rights led to a rise in levels of poverty among the black community in the United States of America.
A young Alabama lawyer by the name of Moriss Dees sympathized with the now powerless group of people. Together with other sympathizers, Morris sought to help these individuals.
The sympathetic lawyer founded a civil rights law practice, which he used in handling pro-bono cases for most of the black people. Later in 1971, together with another lawyer, Joe Levin, Morris incorporated The Southern Poverty Law Center. Julian Bond, a civil rights activist, was named the organizations first president.
From there on, the trio sought countywide support to help achieve the objectives of their newly formed organization. Activists responded positively to the pleas of the trio. Presently, the organization has its headquarters in Montgomery. In addition, the organization has stations in various places in the country.
Since its inception, The Southern Poverty Law Centre has put down the efforts of a number of American lethal hate groups through litigation. In addition, the organization has effectively uprooted institutional racism that characterized some parts of the country.
Moreover, The Southern Poverty Law Centre continues to promote and protect American ideals. The same is achieved whenever the organization stands up for the rights of the vulnerable members of the society.
The Purpose of the Organization
The Southern Poverty Law Center is a non-profit organization whose main purpose is to combat hate and bigotry in the American society. The US Constitution (Civil Rights Act) criminalizes racial discrimination (Aristo 23). However, the criminalization was not benefiting a majority of the blacks in southern states (Marki 99).
The civil rights organization purposefully seeks justice for vulnerable members of the society through various measures. The measures include litigation and advocacy on tolerance, as well as monitoring various aspects through which hate is propagated.
To achieve the set objectives, the organization has effectively litigated cases, pro-bono, to the benefit of the black populace. In addition, The Southern Poverty Law Centre is engaged in a program that advocates for tolerance.
The goals of this program have been effectively realized as a result of the charge-free dissemination of literature touching on the subject of tolerance.
Organizational Structure
As an incorporated entity, The Southern Poverty Law Centre has a governance structure that reflects the legal requirements. The organization has a two tier leadership structure. The structure comprises of the board of directors and the senior program staff (leadership).
Presently, the board of directors is comprised of 13 members. The board is headed by Howard Mandell, the chairman. The senior program staff comprises of 9 members. It is headed by Richard Cohen, the president.
The organizational structure outlined above has creates a very cordial working relationship without any form of power wrangles. In addition, the organization has several departmental heads that spearhead the activities of their respective departments.
Source of Funding
As initially outlined, The Southern Poverty Law Centre is a non-profit organization. The organization offers charitable services to members of the black community. To this effect, the organization is exempt from paying taxes. The organization relies on grants, contributions, and bequests as its major sources of funding. It does not engage in commercial businesses.
Types of Activities Supported
Wright (23) argues that it is important to make the community part of the solution as far as addressing discrimination against the vulnerable groups is concerned.
To this end, The Southern Poverty Law Centre supports a number of activities aimed at meeting the set objectives. For instance, there is a program that is aimed at addressing the various challenges that afflict black children with learning disabilities.
In addition, The Southern Poverty Law Centre has a program whose major priority is monitoring hatred. Upon detection of groups that propagate racial hatred and prejudice, the organization makes a report to the relevant law enforcement agencies.
The result is the dismantling of groups that propagate hatred. Further, the organization has a program aimed at availing justice to immigrant workers. Such workers are often overworked and underpaid, as well as being subjected to inhumane working conditions.
Another program supported by The Southern Poverty Law Centre involves advocacy. The organization advocates for tolerance in the society. As Katz (473) proposes, communities must be made aware of the need to appreciate disparities in the characters of their members.
In living up to that proposition, The Southern Poverty Law Centre is engaged in a series of campaigns aimed at preaching tolerance throughout the country.
The organization achieves the stated objective by disseminating literature touching on tolerance at no cost. The response is overwhelming. Many people have embraced the activities of this firm.
Finally, it is worth noting that The Southern Poverty Law Centre is living up to Kimmels (89) proposition of sexual inclusivity. To this end, the organization is engaged in activities that assist in protecting the rights of lesbians, gays, bisexuals, and other sexual minorities.
In spite of the fact that theirs is a national outfit, the organizations mandate as far as fighting discrimination is concerned is focused on the southern states (Gaines 45).
The reason behind this is the scarcity of organizations fighting for the rights of this group of people in that region.
Beneficiaries of the Organization
According to Rothenberg (18), a society has several vulnerable groups that face prejudice. The prejudice depends on such factors as race, sex, and sexual orientation. The Southern Poverty Law Centre is an organization that has identified vulnerable groups within its geographical jurisdiction.
The major groups of people benefiting from the organizations services are those that undergo racial discrimination. That notwithstanding, the organization extends its services to those who are affected by homophobia, as well as those facing discrimination owing to their gender (Bargen 54).
To lead by example, The Southern Poverty Law Centre has incorporated some of its clients into the leadership structure. From the board of directors to the senior program staff, the organization has incorporated would be victims of discrimination.
The author of this report finds such actions quite commendable since they inspire hope among vulnerable groups. Such measures help promote the notion of equality as presupposed by the US Constitution (19th Amendment), which gave females the right to vote (The Southern Poverty Law Centre 23).
Conclusion
The report analyzed the various social issues prevalent in any given society. In addition, the author of the report outlined existing attitudes and prejudices that are targeted at groups of individuals within the society.
As outlined in the report, the varying acceptability of certain issues in a community leads to the prejudices mentioned. The report highlighted the reason behind the existence of some of the prejudices that are mentioned.
The report sought to explain why racism has been propagated in various societies. To this end, the report examined gender as an area where discrimination is exhibited. In this regard, the report explained the notion behind sexism.
Similarly, the report examined the existing sexual preferences and how attitudes on the same have resulted to discrimination. The report linked such forms of discrimination, based on sexual orientation, to homophobia and, by extension, heterosexism.
Despite the existence of discrimination based on various factors, the report mainly focused on racial discrimination. To this end, the report revolved around the need for a paradigm shift with regard to racism in the society.
It is the major reason why the report revolved around The Southern Poverty Law Centre. The report analyzed the said organization with a view of understanding the strides the group is making in the fight against racial discrimination.
The report examined how The Southern Poverty Law Centre has helped fight hate and bigotry. The organizations inclusion in the report is meant to give the reader an insight into the need for civil society involvement towards minimizing cases of discrimination.
The report revealed that The Southern Poverty Law Centre helped the black community fully enjoy the benefits of the civil rights movement. The author used the example to highlight on the need for pro-activeness even in cases where legislation has been passed to curb various forms of discrimination.
Works Cited
Aristo, Helen. 19th Amendment: Womens Right to Vote, New York: Free Press, 2011. Print.
Bargen, Peter. SPLC, Who We Are: Financial Information, New York: SPLC, 2013. Print.
Gaines, Paul. SPLC, Who We Are: Senior Program Staff, New York: SPLC, 2013. Print.
Johnso, Allan. Patriarchy, Massachusetts: Dove Press, 2001. Print.
Katz, Jonathan. The Invention of Heterosexuality, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007. Print.
Kenned, Stetson. Jim Crow Guide: The Way it Was, Boca Raton: Florida Atlantic University Press, 1990. Print.
Kimmel, Michael. Masculinity as Homophobia: Fear Shame and Silence in the Construction of Gender Identity, California: Wadsworth, 2001. Print.
Lorber, Judith. Night to His Day: The Social Construction of Gender, Boston: Worth Publishers, 2000. Print.
Marki, Benson. The Civil Rights Act: U.S. Constitution, London: Free Press, 2011. Print.
Poverty is a major global scourge affecting billions of people around the world. Both developed and developing countries experience poverty-related problems. According to research on world demography, there are over three billion people who survive on less than $2.50 a day around the world. This population represents almost half of the world population. Additionally, the GDP of approximately forty seven poor countries is less than the wealth owned by seven richest countries in the world.
These statistics clearly illustrate how inequality in resource distribution among nations has continued to affect the living standards of people. In understanding the concept of poverty, it is important to double emphasize the fact that poverty cuts across the global screen, ranging from Africa to America through the Arab world. In other words, it is a problem that almost every nation tries to address continuously (Rosen & Gayer, 2010).
Based on the negative impact of poverty, there is no doubt that the wish of every leader is to combat this scourge permanently in order to raise the living standards of people. As such, there are preventive programs which have been adopted in most countries.
This report discuses some of the poverty prevention programs that have been adopted by Saudi Arabia and the United States in dealing with a global problem, threatening the lives of billions of people around the world. A part from principally focusing on preventive programs, the report further synthesizes causes of poverty in the two countries together with the economic impact of the proposed measures programs.
Poverty in Saudi Arabia
When most people think about Saudi Arabia, majority are usually clouded with the assumption that the country must be extremely rich based on the fact that it is the worlds leading oil producer. Saudi Arabians are therefore associated with wealthy living standards characterized by latest American cars, high level of technology, designer brands and fashion and innumerable high class malls around the country (Rosen & Gayer, 2010).
This school of thought carries a lot of weight even though the living standards for most Saudi Arabians contradict it. It raises the question of how the country benefits from petroleum products widely spread in the country. Can this be used to raise the living standards of millions of its people languishing in poverty?
Due to the presence of oil in the country like in most Arabic nations, a good number of Saudi Arabians understand the meaning of living a decent lifestyle. The government has significantly invested in fighting poverty by initiating programs that aim at alleviating the life of its people (Ramady, 2010).
Both healthcare and education are given free of charge to Saudi Arabians by the government. However, history has continuously registered low enrollment in education institutions, leading to a higher rate of illiteracy in the country than one would expect. Moreover, all Saudis who have attained the age of adulthood are entitled to a piece of land from the government and a loan to enable them construct a house and develop a foundation for their life.
Like many other countries around the world, Saudi Arabia has experienced fluctuations in economic performance and stability. Its highest GDP per capita was in late 1970s and early 1980s. This realization was mainly attributed to high oil prices, leading to enormous revenue from oil sales. The living standards of most people were also commendable as every person was valued at a GDP of US$16,650 in the year 1981.
Unfortunately, this trend did not continue as the prices of oil drastically fell around the world, resulting in economic stagnation (Ramady, 2010). Coupled with Saudi Arabias fall in oil production, the GDP assumed low figures as people struggled to cope with the situation that was leading to poor living standards.
By late 1980s, the country recorded a GDP of US$5,500. With other factors coming into play like the Gulf War that led to the rise in oil prices, Saudi Arabia experienced quantifiable economic growth once again. Consequently, it recorded US$9,000 as GDP in the year 1999.
Even though Saudi Arabia has a widespread social safety net, inequality in resource distribution and allocation has augmented hatred among majority of its poor people. By the year 1999, the National Commercial Bank indicated that out of the twenty million citizens, wealth of the nation was being controlled by only one hundred and twenty millionaires.
This national wealth that was thought to benefit the entire population equally was estimated at US$400 billion. As a result of this skewed revelation, twenty percent of men in the country, ranging between the age of twenty and twenty nine years lacked employment. This saw most households experience extreme strain in meeting their financial needs.
In responding to the situation that was becoming more evident, the government initiated programs aimed at creating employment for Saudis in the late 1990s. Between 1995 and 2004, there were successful strategies whose principal objective was Saudiization of the labor force (Ramady, 2010). Furthermore, there are several legislations that have been adopted requiring five percent of the population to be part of the private sector.
To achieve this target, most Saudi firms are required to have at least five percent of employees being made up of Saudi citizens. In other words, the government has remained focused on limiting chances of employment for foreigners and increasing opportunities for local citizens.
Some of the measures which have been incorporated include nonrenewal of work permits and raising visa charges that are to be paid by employers before hiring foreigners. Other programs aim at ensuring that more citizens enroll for education to fight high levels of illiteracy and making healthcare more affordable among more citizens (Ramady, 2010).
Poverty prevention in Saudi Arabia
As mentioned above, poverty remains a major problem affecting the people of Saudi Arabia. Emanating from intertwined factors like unequal resource sharing, illiteracy and politics, the government has remained focused at establishing strategies and programs, which target mitigation of the impact of poverty and lowering its escalation rate among Saudis (Ramady, 2010). This segment of the report examines some of the projects that have turned to be a source of hope for many people who have learned to survive under tight financial limits.
One of these programs is the social insurance plan. This is considered as the oldest program that was initiated to alleviate the living standards of Saudis. The force behind this establishment was the Royal family through a decree and efforts from several offices in the country.
The main aim of this program was to promote the living standards of poor and needy people in Saudi Arabia through pensions. Common beneficiaries of the initiative include but not limited to orphans, handicapped individuals and helpless women (United Nations, 2002). The program also offers social help to disabled people, families of prisoners and those affected by disasters. Additionally, the social agency runs productive projects, which enable poor people to meet their daily needs.
Charity organizations are also common in Saudi Arabia. These voluntary organizations usually comprise of Saudis who are mainly interested in doing social work. In attempting to improve the living standards of people, charities are involved in a wide range of activities including monthly assistance, financial assistance to newly married individuals, assistance to patients in hospitals in homes and hospitals, establishment of hospitality homes, helping the orphans and handicapped and care for the elderly (United Nations, 2002).
In general, the programs are aimed at augmenting social development and improving the living standards of poor families by addressing existing problems.
The government has also been a key player in the management of poverty in Saudi Arabia. Since the development of the social insurance agency, the government maintains its support and commitment by ensuring that funds are allocated during national budgetary allotment.
Besides this allocation, the amount allocated has continued to increase up to four times since the agency was established. The social insurance allocation increment ranged between 42% and 38%. In the year 2002, the total charity value was 119,979,410 Saudi Riyal (United Nations, 2002).
In responding to the situation, the Ministry of Labor offers 50,000 Saudi Riyals to individuals who qualify to be technically handicapped. This approach is aimed at allowing handicapped people to run businesses and earn a living. In addition, the launch of a retirement system by the Saudi Arabian government was highly applauded as one of the ways of considering the elderly in the system.
The scheme allows retirees to receive a reasonable amount from the government to allow them lead a normal life after retiring from the civil service. According to the scheme, civil servants are deducted 9% of their salary, which is added to 2% of the governments budget (United Nations, 2002). This money is given as full salary after retirement with the lowest earner receiving 1,500 Saudi Riyals. This applies to those citizens who have served for at least forty years and thirty five years for military officers.
Individuals working in the private sector are also covered by the social insurance. For instance, those who get handicapped while on duty are compensated, based on the assessment done by officials from the insurance organization concerned. In such cases, employees are allowed to contribute 5% while the employer gives 8% towards the insurance system.
In ensuring that its citizens have decent houses, the government has established Specialist Lending Corporations, whose mandate is to offer loans to citizens with affordable terms (United Nations, 2002). As a result, there is no interest charged on these loans to allow low class people to improve their housing.
Moreover, the government initiated the Saudi Industrial Development Fund which offers long-term loans for up to five or ten years, mainly for industrial projects in the country. The main advantage of this approach is to encourage more investors to construct industries that would in turn absorb majority of poor and jobless people as a way of improving their living standards.
The land development fund is also a program run by the government, which supports property construction in towns and villages in order to curb immigration (United Nations, 2002). This allows working people to be equally distributed in the country for nation-wide economic growth.
Another important program in fighting poverty is the establishment of the Saudi Arabian Agricultural Bank. This bank promotes farming by providing easy and flexible loans to farmers to allow them advance farming. Farmers further receive agricultural relief to enable them purchase agricultural inputs and equipment (United Nations, 2002).
On the other hand, Saudi Credit Banks have been started by the government, giving financial aid for home refurbishment, marriage loans and business loans for professionals. Coupled with good infrastructure, the Saudi Arabian government aims at lowering poverty levels in the country.
Poverty in USA
Despite the fact that the United States prides being the worlds most powerful nation, the problem of poverty haunts a number of its citizens who find it hard to pay bills and live in poor standards. By the year 2010, the country registered 15.1% as the proportion of people who qualified to be classified as poor. According to the census bureau, poverty percentage recorded in the year 2010 was the highest in Americas history since 1993.
Between 1993 and 2003, the bureau registered a continuous decreasing trend, reaching 11.3% in 2000 (NPC, 2011). Although recession was argued as a contributing factor towards the increase, some of the high figures were registered before the recession period. Nevertheless, a better understanding of the poverty status in the United States goes beyond analyzing statistical data collected by the census bureau.
What is imperative is the examination of the living conditions for those people considered as poor by the government. Of great significance is the manner in which many citizens view and understand poverty .
Poverty is measured by a number of parameters including but not limited to the inability to find healthy food, shelter and good clothing for ones family. However, a few people included in the poor population fit in this category of people in the society. Notably, material hardship is principally limited in both severity and scope (NPC, 2011).
In this approach, it is equally important to double emphasize the fact that the living conditions of people in the U.S living in poverty have steadily improved. As a result, several goods, which were initially considered as luxuries for the middle class people can be acquired by poor households.
This could be attributed to a drop in prices as a result of the introduction of new products (NPC, 2011). These declining prices for several amenities have widely been used to argue that poverty is not a serious issue Americans. Although most households in the U.S may have the conveniences of life, they normally end up suffering from denial of basic needs for humanity like housing and food.
What causes poverty in America? Poverty is caused by numerous factors in America. One of the stereotypic explanations for the existence of poverty in the American society is the fact that poor people are the main causes of poverty, since everything is possible in the U.S. Several poor people have been accused for the escalation of the situation for not seeing beyond the challenges and luxuries of today (NPC, 2011). Poor people have also been coined as fatalists who relinquish themselves to a culture of poverty in which almost nothing could be done to reverse the situation.
However, this theory of blaming the poor for poverty is unrealistic since there are several poor people willing and ready to work. As such, other factors like level of education have to be considered. Due to lack of wages and minimum opportunities to receive higher education, most of the poor people get no employment consideration as compared to their learned counterparts (NPC, 2011).
Other theorists believe that some poor people would rather be given welfare payments than accepting low-paying jobs like restaurant attendants and maids among others. In the U.S, poverty leads to homelessness, high exposure to communicable and nutritional diseases and low education.
Poverty prevention in USA
In addressing poverty in the United States, it is worth noting that the War on Poverty began several decades ago when President Lyndon Johnson proposed an important legislation, a move that was seen as the presidents response towards poverty in 1964. At that time, the countrys poverty rate was approximately 19%. This proposal by President Lyndon resulted into an anonymous adoption of the Economic Opportunity Act (NPC, 2011).
Under this act, the Office of Economic Opportunity was established to mainly foresee the application of local funds in combating poverty in the country. President Johnson further believed that there was need for the federal government to expand its role in providing education and affordable medical services to American families stricken by the poverty.
Although this proposal was highly welcomed, it lost its popularity in the 1980s and 1990s when it was replaced by the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Act in 1996 (NPC, 2011).
Another program that has been successful in fighting poverty in the United States is the Food Stamp Program, which focuses on low-income individuals. This program has received massive support from the political class, recording success in insurance of unemployment, childcare assistance and TANF cash welfare to low-income earners (Weill, n.d.). The program overcame numerous challenges, which led to several initiatives of its nature.
In expanding its coverage area, the number of recipients grew from 17.2 million in 2005 to an average of 26.5 million people per month in 2007. Besides the Social Security, the Food Stamp Program is as large as any other American program established to alleviate the living standards of low-income earners. Its support from politicians is attributed to effective outreach, advocacy and thorough reforms. The integrity of the program has also been augmented by the introduction of the Electronic Benefits Cards (Weill, n.d.).
Another American program designed to deal with poverty is the AmeriCorps VISTA. This was approved in 1964 and founded in 1965 by VISTA, Volunteers in Service to America. VISTA was later integrated in the AmeriCorps Network of Programs in the year 1993 and has remained active in the fight against poverty in the U.S for approximately forty five years (AmeriCorps VISTA, 2011).
Impact on the economy
Although anti-poverty programs are commendable in improving the living standards of people in both U.S and Saudi Arabia, it is important to note that this approach may have significant impact on the economy of a nation. In cases where the government is fully funding these programs, a lot of funds could be used, which would otherwise be utilized to run and establish development projects (Rosen & Gayer, 2010).
Recommendations and conclusion
Based on this report, it suffices to note that poverty in Saudi Arabia and in USA remains a point of concern. Although the two countries exhibit different causes and programs initiated to deal with scourge, there is need for these programs to be supported by politicians and other stakeholders in ensuring their success. Additionally, caution has to be taken in adopting a given program to avoid strenuous cases on the economy of the affected country.
In my opinion, the definition of poverty is quite ambiguous. The term is associated with numerous aspects of life. For instance, Arturo Escobar is of the opinion that almost all the definitions given to the word are woven around the concept of lack or deficiency (21). I fully agree with the opinion; however, I suppose that the term is mostly associated with Asia and Africa.
In other words, poverty is recognized as one of the most important social problems. In the forties, the issue was transformed into an organizing concept. For me, in general, poverty is a lack of financial, material and, moreover, moral values, knowledge and chances.
Generally, the issue of poverty requires in-depth studies. In my opinion, there is a necessity to compare the term with its opposite unit in order to understand the concept of poverty and its constituents. So, according to Escobar, the poor were defined as lacking what the rich had in terms of money and material possessions, poor countries came to be similarly defined in relation to the standards of wealth of the more economically advantaged nations (23).
The thesis statement
I think that poverty is not only financial, economic problem, therefore, the economic model of rich developed countries cannot be appropriate for all societies in the worlds due to the different aspect such as mentality, traditions and the level of development of the particular nation.
The body
Generally, I believe that the economic model of a rich nation cannot apply to all nations. Although developed countries demonstrate the examples of successful economical solutions, there are still some contradictions concerning the uniqueness of solution. Moreover, the current situation in the world shows that there are a number of problems within the economical system. Therefore, due to the inner problems, the rich countries do not want to help poor that should develop basing to their resources and the regional features.
On the one hand, one cannot state that economic success depends upon natural forces; on the other hand, knowledge of the underlying facts and economic processes, good planning in setting objectives and allocating resources, and determination in carrying out a program for improvements and reforms, a great deal can be done to improve the economic environment (Escobar 25).
For instance, one can consider the example with Colombia. It has enough natural resources, and its economically advantageous trade position gives the country an opportunity to use contemporary techniques. So, everything that is to be done is to gather speed of its widespread development.
For this reason, one can make a conclusion that the country would not only accomplish its own salvation but would at the same time furnish an inspiring example to all other underdeveloped areas of the world (Escobar 25). This example shows that my viewpoint can be correct. Thus, I can make a conclusion that reliance on natural forces is not enough for economic recovery. The program of economical development should take into account the national and regional features.
The conclusion
I would like to point out that in the late forties, the relations between rich and poor countries have been changed. Substantial mutation can be considered to as the most appropriate term, which can be used to characterize such relations. Now social and economic issues are based on the new strategy. Of course, rich nations should help poor nations out of pure philanthropy. Developed countries tend to ensure progress all over the world.
However, the current economical situation of number developed countries demonstrates that rich countries are not able to help poor . Besides, as I believe that poverty is a lack of moral values and knowledge, not only the financial and economic, I suppose that the problem of poor countries cannot be solved without the understanding of the cultural aspects of the particular region or nation.
Works Cited
Escobar, Arturo. Encountering Development: The Making and Unmaking of the Third World. 3rd ed. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995. Questia. Web.
Various theories have been developed for betterment of understanding of the relation between global poverty and development. In their book, The Origins Of Modern Development Thought, Fagerlind and Saha, clearly outline theories such as modernization theory, Human capital theory, dependency and liberation theory. Others include globalization, and critical development theories, which are just but a few.
Global poverty cannot be fully evaluated without relating it to development. Development involves both social and economic factors that interrelate with global poverty. Economic fluctuations affect especially the poor or mostly developing countries that are usually considered as having a lower GDP (Myrdal, 2002).
In addition, political influence heavily affects growth and development of different countries globally, which in turn reflects the rate of poverty and development. This paper shall discuss two theories, modernization and dependency theories stating what they suggest about poverty.
It will also endeavor to relate them to development and clearly define its development with respect to different aspects globally, putting into thought both social and economic aspects (Fagerlind and Saha, 1989, p 4).
Modernization and Dependency Theory
Defining, compare and contrasting modernization and dependency theories in relation to development and global poverty stating suggestions and causes of poverty globally
Modernization theory as the name suggests, refers to modernizing or venturing to new and better ways of doing things. According to Fagerlind and Saha, modernization developed in the 1950s, came as an upgrade of the evolution theory regarded as development, a dramatic shift from traditional to modern (Fagerlind and Saha, 1989, p 4).
Dependency on the other hand focuses on relationship or rather depending on others. As mentioned by Fagerlind and Saha, dependency theory is a justified cause or contribution to poverty or stagnation of developing countries. Sociologists as Marx, who are in support of dependency theory conclude that the major contributing factor of global poverty are the private and international organization which provide continually for the poor and hence do not give them an opportunity to grow and develop.
Once these organizations supply poor or developing countries with funds, the poor get used to overreliance on such organization (Schultz, 1971, pp. 24-28). Dependency theorist to some extent have evaluated the key causes of underdevelopment in the third world, which is basically the colonizers, capitalist how have shaped the condition the third world are in now.
On the other hand, modernization theorists argue that the key contributing factor to global poverty and underdevelopment is the fact that society is seemingly stubborn to accept change inform of modernization. Modernizing in the form of structural buildings, roads, technology among other modern form of development, destroy the social and cultural formation of the society.
The societies fear that bringing these modernization projects will either destroy their cultural values, practices, and ways of living and forcefully instilling the western culture in their societies. These are some of the reasons why global poverty and underdevelopment is still on the rise (Isbister, 2006, pp. 32-41).
Shortcomings of the dependency theory and the modernization theory
Some of the shortcomings of the dependency theory included, assumption of an equal living conditions and development for all third world countries, neglecting of internal factors such as labor resources, political history that shaped their economy, instead they focused on external factors.
In comparison, despite the modernization theory pointing out that cultures and certain traditional beliefs practices and values as the major causes of underdevelopment and global poverty.
This theory has limited factors such as structural obstacles as inequality, historical background, as this is also a major cause as to why certain societies are the way they are, external factors as governance and political and economic factors (Tucker, 1999, pp. 2-8).
Relating development and global poverty
Development is normally viewed as a positive term that which brings benefit to a nation or globally. According to Fagerlind and Saha, development is a social change, growth, evolution, progress advancement and modernization (Fagerlind and Saha, 1989, p,4). Development was also seen as a negative aspect, which involved destruction of property, houses to create space for structural modern buildings, roads among others.
This form of development was seen as destructive rather than constructive as many were displaced and not compensated while many lost land and property ownership. This is the reason why most developing or poor countries globally are resistant to change as pointed out by the modernization theorists (Hewitt, 2002, pp. 289-308).
For global poverty to be reduced or eradicated, social, economic and political aspects of development has to be dealt with for these are considered the root cause of global poverty. If a nation is on a political rampage and an unstable government, the economy of the country will gradually go down thus leaving way for dependency on well-wishers, donors and other NGOs leading to slow or no development growth (Lewellen, 1995, pp. 19-48).
According to Lerner, D modernization raises the status of a country, by improving its rate of literacy, economic status in terms of exports and imports-this happens when the structural layout as roads, rails and other means of transportation is in place-, neighboring participation through trade and technological empowerment and sharing this ensures development (Stromquist, 2002, pp.19-21).
Conclusion
Dependency theorists disagree with the modernization theory in regards to the concept of development and underdevelopment. In that, dependency theorist argues that the major cause of underdevelopment in the third world countries is the historical influence and impact of the colonizers economically and capitalist.
On the contrary, modernization theorist argues that the underdevelopment is the problem of the third world with them clinging on to traditions and cultures that do not progress, the country economically. Global poverty cannot be fully evaluated without relating it to development.
Development involves both social and economic factors that interrelate with global poverty. Economic fluctuations affect especially the poor or mostly developing countries who are usually consider having a lower GDP (Myrdal, 2002). In addition, political influence heavily affects growth and development of different countries globally, which in turn reflects the rate of poverty and development.
Global poverty will still be on the increase if issues causing poverty such as dependency on non-governmental organizations, donors and other organization continue offering aid to the poor. Instead, these organizations should focus on engaging these poor countries on modern projects that will alleviate them and boost their economic growth and literacy (Lerner, 1958, pp. 43-52).
With the help of new technologies, people are able to acquire knowledge and skills required for investment and development. The barrier formed by societies as cultural values and practices can be dealt with by incorporating the societal values with the modern ones or comparing them and chose the best option rather than forcefully or entirely eradicating them (Woodhall, 1995).
Reference List
Fagerlind, I. and Saha, L.J., 1989. The Origins of Modern development thought. In: Education and national development: a comparative perspective. (2nd ed.) Oxford: Pernagon Press, pp. 3-28
Hewitt, T., 2002. Half a Century of Development. In: Poverty and Development Into the 21st. Century, London: Zed Books, pp. 289308.
Isbister, J., 2006. Modernization Theory. In Isbister. Promises Not Kept. USA: Kumarian Press, 2006, Seventh Edition (32-41),
Lerner, D., 1958. Modernization Styles of Life: A Theory. In: D. Lerner. The Passing of Traditional Society. Modernizing the Middle East. New York: The Free Press, pp. 43-52.
Lewellen, T., 1995.The Creation of the Third World. A Brief History. In: Lewellen Dependency and Development. An Introduction to the Third World. London: Bergin & Garvey, 1995 (19-48).
Myrdal, G., 2002. Modernization Ideals. In: Development. A Cultural Studies Reader. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers Ltd, pp. 11-18
Schultz, T.W., 1971. Investment in Human Capital. In: T. W. Schultz. Investment in Human Capital: The Role of Education. Oxford: Permagon. pp. 24-28.
Stromquist, N., 2002. The twinning of ideas and material conditions: globalization, neoliberalism and postmodernism. In: N. Stromquist Education in a Globalized World: The Connectivity of Economic Power, Technology and Knowledge. Lanham MD Rowman and Littlefield, pp19-21
Tucker, V., 1999. The myth of Development: A Critique of a Eurocentric Discourse. In: Munck, R and D. OHearn(eds). Critical Development Theory: Contributions to a New Paradig. London and New York: Zed Books, pp. 2-8.
Woodhall, M., 1995. Human Capital. In: T.W. Schultz. Investment in Human Capital. The Role of Education and Research. New York: The Free Press, pp. 24-26
Various theories have been developed with focus on their link to global poverty, education and development. These include modernization, human capital, liberation, dependency, democratization, globalization, diversity and postcolonial theories, among others. The theories present numerous links between education and development in developing countries.
For instance, human capital brought about specialization, which in turn led to increased human capacity. Case studies presented from Latin American education systems convey links of education theories to critical development theories. Moreover, 20th century has seen tremendous improvement in education system.
This includes primary, secondary and post-secondary education. However, despite this, poverty is paramount in these areas. This paper will compare and contrast links between education and development in two of the theories discussed in modules two and three. In addition, it will endeavor to establish the differences in major theories of development (Altbach, 1985, pp. 469-484).
Education and development
Education has been of great significance in developing countries in the 20th century. This is not to say that there was no education before the coming of colonialists. Instead, education systems took a new twist since their arrival. Education systems changed from informal to formal systems that included use of classrooms, books, practical, research and technology, among others.
These changes improved quality of education, its effectiveness as well as efficiency. However, the system has not achieved its full objectives, which included eradication of poverty and accelerated development. Moreover, these countries experienced increased institutional difficulties namely, educational frameworks, financing, human capacity, dependency, modernization and neocolonialism, among others.
These theories have therefore drawn criticism as well as consistencies with objectives of education. Theories examined in this module presents education as complex in its relation to development. To this effect, it is important to note that education does not achieve development.
Instead, education is a process of development. In essence, each theory defines one or more aspect of education, which is slightly different or related to the other. Consequently, the second MDG (Millennium Development Goal) was to realize worldwide primary education. This is mainly because education is seen to help in eradication of poverty and diseases in addition to giving voice to society (Arniove, 1980, pp. 48-62).
Development is defined in various perspectives. For instance, modernization theory relates it to compliance with standardized educational systems and social culture as well as industrialization. This is different in dependency and liberal theory, which relates it to cultural and social diversity that allows for indigenous methods.
Ultimately, development is defined with regards to GDP (Gross Domestic Product), poverty levels, infrastructure, human capacity, state policies, among others.
Education is therefore considered as a process of development as it enhances capacity development (human capacity), environmental conservation and awareness of health hazards, among others. In order to facilitate development, effective policies have to be employed by governments on educational system framework and infrastructure.
Education is therefore of great significance to development of a country. Consequently, effective educational frameworks and policies should be in place in order to realize MDG in developing countries across the world (Freire, 1993, pp. 52-67).
Links between education and development in dependency theory
As seen in module two, dependency theory attributes underdevelopment to influence and impact of colonization on developing countries. Impact of western models of education have been analyzed in this respect for a long time. In fact, emphasis has been put on their effects on models found in developing worlds.
Over the years, developed countries have influenced and transformed education policies and frameworks in developing countries. In fact, most developing countries conform to western educational systems. What transpires from such changes are challenges that involve financial input, which is inadequate in developing countries. Education is therefore manipulated through neocolonialism and dependency.
This forces developing countries to conform to patterns, power and models of developed countries. In essence, dependency emphasizes on transactions and relationships between developing and developed countries.
The result of which is dependency on developed countries in almost every aspect of development in developing worlds. Moreover, elements and pointers to development are also same as those of developed worlds (Carnoy, 2000, pp. 43-62).
Development involves both social and economic factors, which interrelate to education. Most developing countries cannot afford to fund educational systems acquired from developed countries. They are therefore forced to depend on donations, aid as well as loans from developed worlds, which in effect increases their national debt and effectively leaves them dependent on donors.
Education systems in developing countries are therefore forced to conform to those in developed worlds. Informal education, which was formerly practiced in developing worlds, is therefore discouraged even through it has significance in education systems.
In essence, dependency theory argues that education systems introduced to developing countries increases their debt levels, effectively leading to underdevelopment and thus neocolonialism as they depend completely on donors (Tikly, 2004, pp. 173-198).
Links between education and development in critical development theory
Critical development theory conveys the fact that development theories are mostly Eurocentric, that is, derived from western patterns and systems of development. It therefore argues that since these theories are based on developed patterns, they cannot address or even explain poverty situations in developing countries effectively.
In fact, according to theorists like Tikly, these development theories are ways of new imperialism and neocolonialism. Developing countries are still heavily influenced by education systems and patterns from developed countries. Tikly goes further to question the possibility of developing countries ever coming up with their own educational systems that are not dependent on western politics and culture.
He believes that availability of alternative forms of education points to the need for recognition of all knowledge produced as valid (McGinn, 1996, pp. 341-357). This issue has been contentious since developed countries rarely recognize ideas conceived from developing countries.
In essence, even though several forms of education have been introduced, the poor, rural as well as indigenous populations are still isolated with regards to education systems. Consequently, full realization of development in developing cannot be achieved when education systems isolate these groups of people. This is mainly because they form the largest percentage of people in developing countries.
Education systems require evaluation of new forms of frameworks that would include the poor, indigenous as well as rural populations in order to realize MDGs in developing countries (Psacharopoulos and Patrinos, 2004, pp. 111-134).
Similarity between the theories
The two theories concur that full potential of development cannot be achieved without education. In other words, education is essential to development in developing countries. The case studies seen in Latin American education systems show that these theories are relevant. This is mainly because developing countries in Latin America are influenced by educational policies in developed countries.
In effect, the poor, rural and indigenous populations are isolated in education, which results in underdevelopment since they form majority of populations in those countries.
Consequently, the two theories are open to new forms of education that will include the poor, rural and indigenous populations in these areas. In essence, new systems of education should be conceived from developing countries to cover all aspects of development for these groups of people (Becker, 1993, pp. 15-26).
Contrast between the theories
As much as the two theories concur on several issues such as introduction of new forms of education, which are conceived based on situations of developing countries, among others, they differ in other aspects. For instance, dependency theories emphasize the fact that education systems have brought about underdevelopment due to its influence on developing countries.
On the other hand, critical development theory acknowledges these systems as processes of development but emphasizes exploration of other forms of educations that would include the poor, rural and indigenous people.
Moreover, dependency theory emphasizes the fact that educational systems borrowed from developed world leads to overdependence on aid from donors and increased debt, which affect economy of the country. This is quite different to critical development theory, which observe it in form of education frameworks that isolates major groups of people in the society (Colclough, 1993, pp. 47-57).
Differences in major theories of development
Several theories of development have been brought forward and tested in developing countries. These include new imperialism, democratization and globalization, among others. Some of the major differences observed in these theories of devilment include their areas of focus.
For instance, globalization has brought about standardization of culture due to influence from developed cultures. On the other hand, democratization has continued to dwindle in industrialized countries. This is quite argumentative because developed worlds profess democratization, even though they do not practice it with regards to developing countries.
Neocolonialism is therefore seen to encroach on developing worlds in every aspect of their development as they increasingly depend on developed countries. The outcome is continued poverty and isolation of the poor, rural and indigenous people in developing worlds. This differs from their acknowledgement of the need to eradicate poverty and diseases through education and development theories (Rival, 1996, pp. 153-167).
Conclusion
Educational and development theories studies above focus mainly on frameworks of developed countries. Results from case studies conducted in Latin American developing countries show that their system of education have improved literacy levels tremendously.
However, this has not eradicated poverty as was projected. Instead, new theories are emerging that would help include the isolated groups of people in development.
These include the poor, rural and indigenous population. Eurocentric development methods are seen to be ineffective in addressing problems in developing countries. It is therefore quite important that new forms of education systems and development theories are introduced based on situations in developing countries (Torres, 2003, pp. 256-284).
Reference List
Altbach, P.G., 1985. Servitude of the mind? Education, Dependency and Neocolonialism. In: P.G. Altbach, R.F. Arnove, G.P. Kelly (eds). Comparative Education. MacMillan Publishing Co., Inc., pp. 469-484.
Arniove, R., 1980. Comparative education and world systems analysis. Comparative Education Review 24(1), pp. 48-62.
Becker, G.S., 1993. Human Capital Revisited. In: G.S. Becker. Human Capital: A theoretical and Empirical Analysis with Special Reference to Education. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, pp. 15-26.
Carnoy, M., 2000. Globalization and educational reform. In: N. Stromquist and K. Monkman. Globalization and Education: Integration and Contestation across Cultures. Lanham MD: Rowman and Littlefield, pp. 43-62.
Colclough, C., 1993. Primary schooling in developing countries: the unfinished business. In: T. Allsop and C. Brock (eds). Key issues in Educational Development: Oxford Studies in Comparative Education 3(2). Oxford: Triangle, pp. 47-57.
Freire, P., 1993. Pedagogy of the Oppressed. New York: Continuum Publishing Company. Revised Edition, Ch. 2, pp. 52-67.
McGinn, N.F., 1996. Education, Democratization, and Globalization: A Challenge for Comparative Education. Comparative Education Review 40(4), pp. 341-357.
Psacharopoulos, G. and Patrinos, H.A., 2004. Returns to Investment in Education: A Further Update. Education Economics 12(2), pp. 111-134.
Rival, L., 1996. Formal Schooling and the Production of Citizens in the Ecuadorian Amazon. In: BG. Levinson, D. Holland (eds).The Cultural Production of the Educated Person. Albany: State University of New York press, pp. 153-167.
Tikly, L., 2004. Education and the New imperialism. Comparative Education 40(2), pp. 173-198.
Torres, C.A., 2003. Education, power and the state: successes and failures of Latin American education in the twentieth century. In: C. Torres and A. Antikainen (eds). The international Handbook on the Sociology of Education: An international Assessment of New Research and Theory. Lanham MD: Rowman and Littlefield, pp. 256-284.
In recent years, the transnational agencies launched a number of initiatives aimed at reducing worldwide poverty and improving international security. Criticizing the modernism and development theories which were used previously, the scholars made attempts to explain the major causes underlying the failure of the development efforts of the previous half a century.
Refocusing on education development as the dominant discourse helpful for achieving the rest of the development goals is one of the most decisions made by the transnational agencies recently.
This paper will discuss the criticisms of the development theories, the historical context of development efforts, the role of international and non-governmental organizations in multilateral education and solutions offered by contemporary scholars to enhance the effectiveness of the launched programs.
Current sociocultural perversion marginalizing the poor
In modern world, all governments make efforts to not only protect their citizens but also to ensure their access to the basic services, including those of safe drinking water, health care delivery and education.
Regardless of the fact that a wide range of domestic state institutions, international agencies and non-governmental organizations launch projects to benefit the poor, the poor perceive formal services as inaccessible and ineffective.
The politics of representation of the Third World has had a significant impact upon the development discourse and formation of culture and subjectivities in developing countries. Escobar (1995, p. 215) noted that the very existence and status of the Third World is currently negotiated. The term of the Third World was created as an opposite of the First World denoting the countries which consider them as developed.
The term has a negative connotation and remains an important construct used by those in power. Notwithstanding the chosen definition of modernity, the Third World should not be perceived as a uniform entity, but rather as a fragmented and polarized combination of diverse regions.
Since the 1980s, resistance to development expressed by the grassroots movements was one of the strategies through which the Third World made attempts to construct their unique identities. This struggle against the intervention of international organization aimed at modernization and globalization into the domestic affairs of the Third World was fundamentally cultural (Escobar, 1995, p. 216).
Another approach used for negotiating the development of the Third World was a concept of hybridization of local cultures and modernity to receive a new entity. However, this biological interpretation cannot be applied to discussion of hybrid cultures as a combination of long-standing cultural practices and an incoming element of modernity integrated into the local cultures by transnational forces.
With the advent of cyberculture and the global economic restructuring, the technologic gap between rich and poor countries has been dramatically increased. Consequently, rejecting to use some of the innovative technologies, countries of the Third World undergo the risks of becoming irrelevant to the world economy.
Even though certain regions are involved into the processes of global economic integration, they remain marginalized from it benefits. As a consequence of the current state of affairs, this phenomenon is referred to as sociocultural perversion.
The solution offered by Escobar (1995, p. 222) is a social reform for the Third World regions to reach the goals of technological modernization and competitive participation in the world economy with a special emphasis put upon the educational policies in these countries.
Historical context and trends in multilateralism and education
The development theories have a significant impact upon the strategies implemented by transnational agencies and non-governmental organizations in relation to education policies for the developing countries.
The combination of state-centric, transnationalist and structuralist theories clearly demonstrates the variety of theoretical approaches to be considered to understand multilateral cooperation and the controversy over the objectives, processes and outcomes of education.
The policy setting in UN education is a rather controversial and complicated process. According to Jones (2005, p. 23), the UN education process lacks harmony and consistency because of the multitude and diversity of educational issues around the world. Historically, education concerns were included into the UN charter during a conference in San-Francisco in April June 1945.
The lobbyist delegations from developing countries and the US-based groups were pressing for the education case, which was expected to contribute to international peace and security. Whereas the process of integrating the education concerns into the UN charter was rather smooth, the question of whether to establish a specialized agency focusing on education remained doubtful.
In the year 1948, education was included into the Universal Declaration of Human Rights as a part of the UN program aimed at promoting peace and interdependence between the states on the global level.
The entry of education as a multilateral concern into the programming of transnational agencies resulted in economic justification of education and consideration of the correlation between poverty of specific regions and the quality and accessibility of education programs there.
Political multilateralism and economic multilateralism are the two major lines of thinking which had a significant impact upon the UN education programming. The goals of the global economic integration and governance were central to the multilateralism pathways chosen by the UN for promoting peace and security in the world. The links between material progress, security and modernization strategies have become explicit.
Jones (2005, p. 31) stated that the circumstances on the international arena were favorable for this way of thinking. Since the mid-1980s, neo-liberalism theories influenced educational theories and became significant concerns in educational policies and practices.
Discussing the issues of the complexity and diversity of educational system, Jones (2005, p. 42) used the term of structured anarchy to emphasize the collaboration and competition among the variety of the UN education agencies.
The main principles which were prevalent in the organization of the UN education since the year 1945 when education concerns were included into the UN chart included globalization, security and multilateralism. The complex interplay of these principles was responsible for the education for all movement.
The international organizations in construction of multilateral education
Within the recent decades, the multilateral agencies, including those of the World Bank, UNICEF, UNESCO and UNDP, have been playing an important role in structuring the world education agenda. These agencies played a dominant role in formulating the International Development Targets (IDTs) and following Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), which became the basis for the education policymaking.
According to Rutkowski (2007, p. 244), the main reason for which the international organizations had impact upon the education agenda on local, national and global levels was softness of the implemented strategies.
At the World Conference on Education for All which took place in 1990 in Jomtien (Thailand) invited 155 national delegations from different countries a framework on providing access to primary education for citizens of all countries was shaped.
According to King (2007, p. 379), the themes raised during that World Conference focused mainly on basic education associated with primary schooling. Moreover, regardless of the precise goals and time-bound target, the Jomtien Declaration and Framework were not prescriptive and were not shared by all countries.
Ten years later after the World Conference in Jomtien, in the year 200, the World Forum on Education for All was held in Dakar. By this moment, it became clear that the target of achieving the universal primary education as it was outlined by Jomtien Framework within ten years was unrealistic.
Six Dakar Targets were formulated at this Forum for expanding and improving access to primary education for children belonging to the most vulnerable and disadvantaged categories and ensuring gender equality in education. Just a few months after Dakar Forum, eight Millennium Development Goals were formulated at the global summit in New York.
According to King (2005, p. 386), the peculiar feature of the Millennium Declaration was formulation of strict timelines for the targets related to the south and the absence of any time limitations in resolutions related to the north. The Millennium Declaration did not pay proper attention to the financial basis necessary for the realization of the offered targets.
With its financing impact and the political force, the World Bank can be regarded as one of the strongest players in the sphere of multilateral education. Regardless of the fact that the World Bank as a UN specialized agency is better understood as a financial institution dedicated to borrowing and lending money, its political influence on the development strategies is obvious.
Regardless of the fact that education is only a minor concern of the World Bank and the annual reimbursements dedicated to this area do not exceed 10 percent of the overall expenses, it addresses a wide range of education issues and is prominent in multilateral education.
A significant contribution made by the World Bank to the global education agenda was the resurrection of interest in higher education which can be seen from the joint initiative of the bank and UNESCO, referred to as the task force on higher education and society (TFHES) (Jones, 2005, p. 135).
Notwithstanding the significance of the World Bank and other international agencies, these were only a few players affecting the multilateral education agenda.
The role of non-governmental organizations in realization of development projects
The Western definition of modernity, according to which certain societies are recognized as more modern and developed than others and obtaining resources and knowledge to assist other less developed nations in achieving modernity, has criticized as Western universalism.
Elu and Banya (1999, p. 183) stated that this definition was used by the north or the so-called First World for inclusion of the southern societies into the north-dominated world. In the context of post-modern critiques, the diversity and complexity of the global development activities has increased resulting in proliferation of external and internal non-governmental organizations.
As it has been mentioned earlier, regardless of all the efforts to reach the most disadvantaged groups of population, the formal services are still perceived as inaccessible by the poor (Narayan, 2000, p. 120). It is one of the reasons for which a growing number of aid agencies were turned into non-governmental organizations which can be more useful for launching the development projects and leading the resources to the poor.
The other reasons for these changes are the growing interest among agencies in strengthening the developmental roles of institutions outside the public sector and the demonstrated potential of non-governmental organizations to reach the poor more effectively than the public agencies do.
Therefore, the popularity of the non-governmental organizations as cost-effective alternatives to public development resources has grown.
Elu and Banya (1999, p. 187) stated that Northern non-governmental organizations were frequently used for transferring the cultural awareness, values and patterns from the countries providing technical and financial assistance to the developing countries as recipients of this aid.
Applying this perspective to the estimation of the role of non-governmental organizations, it can be stated that these establishments are frequently perceived as products of governments using them as temporary mediators for achieving specific political goals and expanding their influence.
However, as it can be seen from the example of African voluntary development organizations, southern countries do not remain passive recipients of the aid provided by northern states but create their local non-governmental organizations as a response to the African needs. Then, the question of theoretical and practical relationships between external donors and the locally-based organizations is posed.
According to Elu and Banya (1999, p. 190) a partnership between the northern and southern non-governmental organizations would be the most appropriate approach to enhancing the effectiveness of initiatives launched by both parties. Regardless of the obvious benefits of potential collaboration, the partnership between the rich north and impoverished locally-based organizations is associated with a number of dilemmas.
Because of the inequality of resources, expectations and motivations of the actors, the effective partnership between the north and south non-governmental organizations is not achieved even though in theory the organizations agree that mutual relationship would be advantageous for them.
Effective solutions for the education agenda
The ineffectiveness of the initiatives launched by multilateral organizations can be explained with the lack of attention paid to the specifics of the education sectors in developing countries. A detailed education sector analysis can be an effective tool for empowering reform and development through the vast majority of studies did not address the issues of the sector structure in the context of the aid relationship.
The need to simultaneously address multiple high priority goals, including those of improved healthcare and education appeared to be an unresolvable tension for Africa and other developing countries. Insufficient analysis of the specifics of situation in different countries significantly reduces the effectiveness of the programs and initiatives.
According to Samoff (1999, p. 270), the main conclusion made by studies addressing the problems of education in postcolonial Africa is that the educational system is in crisis without specification of the underlying processes and the most influential factors affecting it.
The limited national control over the education sector analysis and insufficient sense of national ownership reduce the credibility and opportunities for the practical application of existing studies.
The implementation of development strategies in specific locations can have a number of unexpected and even paradoxical consequences. For example, according to Pigg (1997, p. 259), the development implementation in Nepal was rather complex and had a number of local quirks.
Thus, the highly trained Nepalese health care practitioners were unwilling to work in the countryside, whereas by providing training to the village practitioners, the development strategy increased their ambitions and enabled them to move to the urban areas.
These unexpected consequences were not predicted before the launch of the initiative and prove the importance of conducting a thorough research of the local setting before the development implementation.
Similar concerns were raised by Demerath (2003, p. 137) who pointed out at the shifts in the social attachments and ideologies of individuals after their enrollment into the training programs which are a part of development initiatives. In other words, a careful sector analysis can be an effective tool for enhancing the effectiveness of the education agendas and other development programs.
Analyzing the main reasons for the failure of the global development efforts over the decades, it can be stated that the enhanced partnership between a wide array of aid organizations and a more serious consideration of the peculiar features of certain settings is important for eliminating the deficits in the programs and enhancing the effectiveness of initiatives.
Coxon and Munce (2008, p. 148) stated that external aid donating organizations can threaten the local ideas of what education programs should be. For this reason, indicating global patterns of power and influence, policymakers should consider the specifics of local cultures and pay more attention to the opportunities of enhanced partnership among the different aid donating organizations.
Conclusion
Analyzing the criticisms of the main development theories and initiatives, it can be stated that the lack of attention to the specifics of the situation in developing countries and lack of partnership between different agencies are among the main underlying causes of the failure of the development efforts of the previous decades.
Therefore, the emphasis on education-development relationship, education sector analysis and enhanced partnership between different agencies are essential for improving access to education, reducing the world poverty and enhancing international security.
References
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