In the contemporary society, issues related to post modernism, realism, and anti-realism have attracted heated debates. Many individuals do not believe in the modern approach to the truth and knowledge. Since the early 1950s, there have been several debates among nurse scholars. This paper focuses on postmodernism, realism, and anti-realism in nursing.
The effects of postmodernism in our society are real. In the hospitals, these effects are evidenced from increasing cases of nurses being accused of improper behaviors. In some places, postmodernism practices in health care are very rampant (Dahnke & Dreher, 2011). Postmodernism has influenced modern nursing maturity. For instance, in parts of Africa patients with psychological issues are referred to a traditional healer. The traditional healer interacts with the patients and diagnoses their health problems. There are several occasions that the healer’s assessments have been said to be true and consistent. With this illustration, it is apparent that postmodernism is real in our society. In medicine, post modernism comes into play when individuals lose hope in the current medical practices and turn to alternative medicine for healing. Equally, in our hospital prayers held for the inpatients and outpatients attest the effects of postmodernism in nursing. For instance, after prayer sessions are held in our hospitals patients normally feel relieved. Through this comparison, I acknowledge that that both alternative healthcare practices and prayer sessions held for patients in our hospitals are part of postmodernism.
Realism and anti-realism in nursing
For the last the last 50 years, there have been struggles between realists and anti-realists. As such, realists believe that all the postulates proposed by scientists are true. On the other hand, anti-realism is expressed in various ways. These ways suggest that there are multiple realities, science is a social construction, and that scientific truth is relative to history. Just as the postmodernism, realist and anti-realist arguments have attracted heated debates among nursing scholars. Anti-realism and realism are differentiated based on the philosophy of science because scientific theories reveal the truths about the world.
In nursing, realism should be perceived as a theory about the principles of science. As such, from a realism, perspective scientific innovations are considered as discoveries. On the other hand, from anti-realism perspective these investigations are considered as inventions (Klee, 2000). Through these arguments, it should be realized that the major differences between the two groups are evidenced by the way we perceive the natural world and scientific advancements. Equally, through the above arguments I believe that just as any reader can create the meaning to the text he or she is reading, an individual can also create the world according to his or her culture and personal experiences and perceptions.
I believe that philosophical debates for the last few centuries have proved that realism and anti-realism can take many forms. Over the years, the meaning of these terms has become clearer as scholars continue to unravel the relationship between these theories and the truth that they imply.
References
Dahnke, M. D., & Dreher, H. M. (2011). Philosophy of science for nursing practice: concepts and application . New York: Springer Pub..
Klee, R. (2000). Scientific inquiry: readings in the philosophy of science. New York: Oxford University Press.
Klemke, E. D., & Hollinger, R. (1998). Introductory readings in the philosophy of science (2 ed.). Buffalo, N.Y.: Prometheus Books.
When discussing about research it is important to discuss about the definition of research and according to various sources, research is any activity that is conducted or based around investigations on an intellectual foundation and whose objectives are to discover, interpret and lead to revision of knowledge. When we are discussing about educational research we have to be more specific as it involves the study elated to issues in education that ends with knowledge that is generalizable and which can be applied to numerous situations. In layman’s language it can be termed as the search for truth. According to (Wittrock 2006) , educational research can be further divided into Descriptive, correlation, experimental, case study and qualitative study. When coming up with a solution towards motivating children within the school environment, we may have to include action research. Action research within the realms of educational research is the attempt by practitioners to come up with scientific solutions to current problems. These solutions end up guiding in the evaluations of decisions. In our case we want to improve the motivation of children within our schools. In short action research equates to looking into problems, thinking about them and acting on the issues. The processes involved in action research are collection of information, analysis and making the best decisions based on the information and facts at hand as argued by (Spodek 2006)
Processes involved in action research
(Morris 2006 ), argues that when we want to talk about children’s motivation, we must first discuss about the children who are affected or is it the parents or teachers who are affected. We must also discuss about the nature of the problem. We also have to discuss and illustrate the cause of the problem that could lead to lack of motivation.After identifying the cause we must come up with a solution with how to motivate the children. Finally we have to weigh up if the methods used to motivate the children are successful or have failed. Motivation can also be discussed within paradigmatic context, positivist, post positivist and critical theory.
In educational research, there are three paradigms namely critical, interpretive and positivist theory. Of each of these paradigms, all have their benefits and their disadvantages. Positivist paradigm dictates that the research condition is driven by factors such as human behavior that is analyzed through scientific methods. Positivist research often uses scientific methods and its main point of concern is on control and prediction. It is based on actual experience, this mode of research highlights more on cause and effect. This sort of theory tends to take a broad view of the findings as one truth. What makes it highly popular is the fact that the findings are presented in a clear, definite and structured way. Just like it has its benefits, the disadvantage of this theory is that not all the phenomena and fundamentals can be collected and analyzed. Investigations into behavior of the children, their motivation and their values that could be all attributed to one factor. Natural phenomena when related and controlled are difficult to isolate, this fact has been argued by (Blankstein 2004).
It is argued by (Spodek 2006) that when it comes to interpretive theory, the children are studied together with their characteristics. Each child is noted to be having different behavior in regard to each other. Their opinions in additions to their attitudes are also considered. The major benefit when using the paradigm is the fact that one can easily find meaningful explanation of objects. Generalization tends to be more important than the meaning.hen it comes to its weakness, the result that can be found through this they could easily turn out to be more complex, hence making analysis and interpretation difficult. When it comes to research into human characteristics, especially in children studies it is good to be subjective when talking in terms of interpretive theory. In addition analysis within a data framework has to use a thinking process. (Association for Effective Schools ) argues that when it comes to research in educational context many perspectives uses various perspectives in studying phenomena. This theory results in many solutions that easily lead to a variety of interpretations. Interpretive methods have long been used to read the background cultures. Law and order has regulated man’s behaviorism towards each other in line with spiritual laws.
Critical theory looks at the influences affecting educational research. Focus is more on finding the issues affecting children issues that may be affecting their studies. Critical theory come up with ways of coming up with solution to issues and which actions to implement that will lead to solving of the problems. Solution to the problem is led by reality. This theory can use positivism in the control of the environment that the children may be experiencing.
Origins of Educational Research
The theory of positivism is based on the assumption that true knowledge is based on experience that is real. Positivism is commonly differentiated against naturalistic research. Naturalistic research ties to define the nature of things and the interpretation of the world. It tends to be more subjective towards investigations. A common form of naturalistic research is ethnography. Positivism has been a widely held from the time of the ancient Greeks to present day times. This concept is a developed form of idea since the 19th century when philosophers and sociologist applied an approach to science philosophy. This notion was further highlighted by Auguste Comte who is known as one of the major propagators of positivism theory. His thoughts later propagated into logical positivism which is stricter than earlier theory (Blankstein 2004). Logical positivism originated from Vienna and since then has been widely accepted by movements such as the Anglo-American movement. Logical positivism tries to apply pure logic when it comes to statements. This is just one kind of positivism. Positivism is guided by five principles as argued by (California Center for Effective Schools 2009). All the five principle are important so as to be able for one to say that the educational research has been successfully conducted.
In all sciences, there is unity when it comes to logic of inquiry.
That result can be manipulated and predicted as long as the conditions are known
Positivism stresses on the need for research to be deductive so as scientific statements to be tested and observations to be noted.
Research should not be biased in any way as the truth should always guide any findings.
Logic and universal conditions hold be the drivers of science. Science should be used to result in knowledge without any regard to values that have been found through research.
When we talk about interpretive theory, we typically talk about the nature of human behavior and how it can be said to be a result of acceptance of free will and is subjective to the person’s environment. This theory is based on structural forces and the pull and push factors that are related to them. This theory was put out first by sociologist like Max Weber, who is responsible for consolidating interpretive volumes on religion.
At the moment schools conform to the modernistic theory which stress on the needs of security and societal conformity. This seeks to create a uniform set of truths. Modernism theory can be best described as an effort to explain the highest number of phenomena with the least number of set laws. This over time come to prove to naught as the human diversity factor is not considered. For the modernist, their only concern is being completely right. This is in total disregard of the context of the environment or the time. They are more concern with maintaining the status quo. As time continues to pass ad the number of children increase, problems within the sociopolitical and educational arena are proving to be immune to the solutions being offered in school or by the education that we are being taught. As stated by (Association of Effective, Schools. 1996).Education of children needs to take into consideration changes in race and the ever increasing gap between the haves and the have-nots. Modernist believe hat this is impossible as there is only one solution to a problem. Change within the context of the modernism theory is very slow and an option should be highly encouraged. From a school setting, post modernists ignore the notion that there is only one universal truth in order to let the other perspectives to be considered. Modernism being a way of encouraging administration was let to flourish during the end of the last century and this theory is still the one being followed by school system.
Relationship between Theory and Practice
(Kritsonis 2007)based his argument that in the past theories has been formulated in order to come up with the best practices in order to implement educational practices. These theories have come to be overtaken over time. The way they have been practiced over time has proven that they are liable to change. Theory dictates that student should be exposed to an environment whereby they are highly encouraged to be creative. Innovation will only be fostered in a setting whereby, people are allowed to be individuals rather than to conform to societal rules and regulations. Post modernism theory preaches the advantages of such a free society. Just as there are advantages such a free society is bound to be vulnerable to evil elements. Taking this into the school context the students can turn out to be social misfits within the school. The only way that individualism within the school can be encouraged without the risk of losing grip for the administrators will be the handing of punishment when and where it is due. Punishment will ensure that all are following the rules and discipline will be enforced.Such a school system is necessary such that the whole society will yield towards law and order.
Postmodernism
Post modernism tries to describe the current state of events with regard to past phenomena which could be in cultural context or intellectual context. The rise of post modernism rose was seen in the 1920’s as a new movement and was related to the arts and political outworking. It takes a rather radical view of the modern theory and is seen as a distrust of the ideologies that existed at the time. The theory tries to reintroduce concepts hat were seen as traditional and viewed in both extremes. This theory was largely driven by the disillusionment that came about because of the Second World War. It normally refers to non aspect of the history. Post modernism has historically developed within the subject of arts and architecture. Statement that have been passed by (Kritsonis 2007).The role of any educator is to make sure that policies are drawn such that children are encouraged to be the best that they can be. When it comes to post modernity in the education fraternity, goals have to be measured and for results to be achieved then data have to be delivered in time. Discipline has to be first cultivated by an effective principal or headmaster. He or she must portray valuable leadership skills that are necessary for communication to members of the school fraternity. Post modernist only opposes the notion that there is universal standard law. They go ahead and act upon the ideas that at times could seem immoral and times absurd. This is one of the ways that communication barrier between the principal and students can be broken. With a post modern frame of mind, educators must realize that there are various forms of the truth and all of them must be considered. All the elements of education cannot be fixed by a single bullet or a single solution. The greatest mistake that educators can try to commit is to practice towards one theory. This not only serves to create disharmony within the school environment but may also seek to develop lack of motivation within the students themselves. Unlike the theory of modernism, post modernism seeks to unite the knower with both the process of knowing and known. Asd argued by (Kritsonis 2007), this further encourages the educators to use intuition and logic when passing information to the students. Logic is used to support the belief that comes about die to intuition. A good example of post modernism way of thinking is the way that the colour red is associated differently when put to different contexts, for example. The colour red hen shown on the traffic lights means stop or danger but when viewed with a ladies dress could easily be interpreted as another meaning all together. This brings about the importance of educators and other people involved in the education sector to modify their temporary understanding when it comes to passing of information. Post modernism encourages creativity and innovation as it give s the children the ability to make choices hence this leads to motivation. Personalization is highly encouraged under an environment of postmodernism. Human diversity is not only important in education but is also important when talking about developing of human character. This gives the educators more freedom to pursue more truths as the human diversity is highly considered as a solution and should not be considered as a threat towards modernity or those in authority this is according to (Harper 2008).Different backgrounds have impacted society in a way that they have led to the different behaviorisms amongst person.
The notion that there I only one way to doing things are quickly rubbished as there are all theories face challenges. The educators who know his are quick to accept the fact that motivation within the school environment is highly encouraged through creative education that pursues thinking outside the box as argued by (Kumar 2005 ).A postmodernism leader in educational matters is able to open up leadership to include all the stakeholders involved in the education process of the children. Education process is all about the children and hence should be more futuristic and focused more towards their needs this has been mention on several occasion by (Kritsonis 2002).
Conclusion
It is time that we should realize that the knowledge e knew then has been overtaken by time and that we need to change the way that we view the meaning of children education as stated by (McEwan, 2003). For children to be motivated to learn, a proper environment where creativity and innovation has to be nurtured. Such an environment ill have to contend with the reality that it will first be difficult to change the notion of modernist. The notion that there is only one absolute truth and all else is false needs to be revised. It has been quoted on several occasions that ignorance is doing the same things over and over again and expecting a different result. This is especially true when the technique applied is not working at all. Post modern theory highly relies on the core values of knowledge of one self and surrounding, reality and values parted to the student.
Steps to promote motivation in our current education system
High valued assessment should not rely on regular testing: High valued assessment such as graduations should be judged differently from the way other assessments are judged. This is because the consequences of failing high stake are disastrous. As we consider that the world is becoming a global village, we must consider the background of individuals before subjecting hem to the same assessment. The ability of an individual should not be subjected to one assessment as the assessment are known to be very one dimensional. The work ethic of an individual or his ability to work cannot be solely based on assessments but are rather known when the person is subjected to practical environment. Conformity is further encouraged by testing; this has seen an education system that is more result based rather than trying to gather knowledge as argued by (Fichtman 2008).In some instances we have seen very bright students failing on the day of examinations simply because they encountered incidences that they could not avoid. Maybe being involved in an accident prior to doing the exam. This will cost the student a chance to perform to his level best and the result will be disastrous on the candidate. According to (Williams 2009), courses should be scheduled to be flexible around the students: The courses being offered by schools should focus more on being flexible towards learning times that the student will be able to grasp more. It has been stated by (Klein 2005 ) that the notion that students should sit the whole day in order to gather knowledge should be abolished as each and every student have their times when the brain is most able to learn and take in more knowledge. Introduction of block scheduling can go a long way in ensuring that the student is not hindered by barriers in time. We have heard many times about the students who have to break off from school in order to take care of other responsibilities, such cases will not exist if a clear and definitive block system is put in place as expressed by (Epstein 2009)
Promotion of Vocational skills to all students: It is a well known fact that not all students will finish college or will join college. Hence it is the responsibility of the education system to come up with other means in order for all people to be useful members of the society regardless of whether they finished school or not vocational skills will provide the students with enough hands on experience in order to foster survival in today’s cut throat world. For the students who are deemed to have passed, the training will come as an added on advantage that they can use while for other people who did not pass so much, the training will o a long way in ensuring that they are integrated in the society. Post modernist educational leaders are able to realize the benefits of such programs and implement hem as soon as possiblethis has been argued by (Wittrock 2009).
Provision of a safe school environment: On several occasions English ( 2003 pp. 98), argues that leadership within the school environment plus the physical setting of the school must be in a position to support the teachers and students in order for the process f learning and teaching to take place. The school environment should be independent from vices such as drug abuse, violence or any other behaviour that hinders the learning environment. (Kelly 2009) argues that respect to the rights of each and every member of the school community should be highly encouraged and discipline to persons not following the rules and regulations must be enforced. A safe school environment can only be fostered when both the teaching fraternity and the students learn to be proud of the school. It is not only bad behavior that should be checked but also a safe environment away from natural or manmade disasters is very important. This can be done by practicing drill such as fire drills, tornado drill an others to ensure that the lives of the person within the school fraternity are saved in case of any disaster.
Hire the Best: as argued by (Steffe 2003) A postmodern educational leader is fully aware of the challenges facing his students and teachers; hence he will take the necessary steps in order to ensure that the students get quality rather than quantity. Hiring of intelligent and innovative staff will often lead to higher motivation in the school population. Each teacher is different in regard to the teaching styles this encourages creativity within the school environment. Individualism should be encouraged and this should be coupled with hard work.
Promotion of an all inclusive school culture: A school culture that is based on the virtues of respect and equality both in and outside the classroom will lead to a boost in the student’s morale/ The diverse nature of each and every student should be seen as a contributing factor when it comes to cultures and knowledge. Differences should be celebrated instead of being shunned. This will boost morale within the school fraternity (Kritsonis, 2007).
Supporting the students in order to educate the rate of school dropouts: Alternative classes and co curricular activities should be encouraged among the student community, as a way of ensuring the rate of school dropout is reduced: Learning to understand student will go along way in dealing with the cause of why students drop out of school. Research has identified that the main reason why students drop out is because of different emotional stress that each endures. The level an impact of emotional stress may vary. Drug abuse and other related problems may also plague the students and this can turn out to be a stumbling block towards the completion of students unless support is given. This support can be given in term s of care of the student community as stated by (Deal, T. E., & Peterson, K.D. 1999).
Equipping the staff community: The school staff must be equipped with the relevant tools and knowledge, which will be necessary for a student community that has always been changing: (Foreman 2006). States that the staff must be dynamic in the way the way they carry themselves and the way that they address current issues facing the students today. The school must invest in both personal and professional growth of the school staff. By doing this the students will learn to appreciate the staff and the efforts taken in order to pass the knowledge to them. Also the teachers will also be proud of the school and will be ready to sacrifice in order for the students to be motivated.
Post modernism offers a way for the future as it will encourage creativity and ill motivate students within the school environment to be respectful towards authority which will in turn be reflected in the general society, for other factors to also run in harmony; postmodernism has to be embraced within the school environment. This will lead to a culture of respect for the elders. Creativity has been used in the past in order for big business to run and capitalism to exist. For capitalism and the big wheels of business to continue, we have to consider the theory of postmodernism. The idea of individualism both within and without has been use to make people focus on the strengths and less on their weaknesses. People and more students will be motivated to identify and user their talents. Conformity is the greatest enemy to the path of self discovery this is according to (Williams 2009).
What will lead to this massive cultural change that we expect? Probably modernists think that it may be by sticking to the status quo and by following the one solution to each problem, For postmodernist this can only be attained by ensuring that individualism is encouraged and that each and everybody has something to bring to the table. The diversity that we all share amongst ourselves is a sign that e were all meant to be individuals by ourselves. The day when we can be able to tolerate each other’s opinion Is the day that we may all learn that each human being was create for a purpose.
References
Association of Effective, Schools. (1996). what is effective schools research? Web.
Blankstein, A.M. (2004). Failure is not an option. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
California Center for Effective schools (2009). Effective schools. Web.
Deal, T. E & Peterson, K.D. (1999).Shaping school culture: The heart of leadership. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
English, F. (2003). The postmodern challenge to theory: practice of educational administration. Springfield, IL: Charles C Thomas Publisher, LTD.
Epstein, J.L. et al. (2009). School, family and community partnerships, Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
Fichtman N. (2008). The Reflective Educator’s Guide to Classroom Research: Learning to Teach and Teaching to Learn Through Practitioner Inquiry. San Diego, CA: Corwin Press.
Foreman, N. (2006).A handbook of spatial research paradigms and methodologies, San Diego, C.A: Psychology Press.
Harper, H. (2008). Advocacy research in literacy education: seeking higher ground. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
Kelly. A (2009). School violence, Retrieved July 9, 2009, from About: Secondary Education Web site:
Klein, D. (2005). Community research: methods, paradigms, and applications, New York: Praeger.
Kritsonis, W. (2007). Ways of knowing through the realms of meaning. Houston, TX: National FORUM Press.
Kritsonis, W (2002). William Kritsonis on schooling Mansfield, OH: BookMasters, Incorporated.
Kumar, R. (2005). Research methodology: a step-by-step guide for beginners. New York: SAGE,
Morris, T.(2006). Social work research methods: four alternative paradigms. San Diego, CA: SAGE
Spodek, B. (2006). Handbook of research on the education of young children. London : Oxford Publishers.
Steffe, L. (2003). Association for Effective Schools (1996). London: Oxford Publishers.
Wittrock, B (2006). Handbook of research on teaching. London: Oxford Publishers.
Williams, A, (2009). Understanding geographical and environmental education: the role of research. San Diego, CA: Continuum International Publishing Group.
Contemporary architecture has a range of characteristic features, such as; the collision of different styles, the expression of ideas in shapes, the use of cutting-edge technologies, experiments with materials and colors, energy efficiency, interaction between indoor and outdoor space, and other peculiar trends. At the same time, contemporary architecture has one more important characteristic. It is still able to astonish people.
Contemporary architects create works that make the viewers of their designs feel controversial emotions about them. Maybe, one day the society will get accustomed to the constructions of incredible colours and shapes. However, today such buildings as London’s 30 St Mary Axe (or the Gherkin), the Sage Gateshead in north eastern England or the City Hall, the headquarters of the Greater London Authority, the U.S. Kansas City Public Library and the Aqua Building in Chicago, Illinois all engender heated discussion within society.
Australia is no exception, besides its Sydney Opera House which is famous throughout the world, this country has amazed us with Melbourne’s Federation Square, the Sidney Myer Music Bowl and many other incredible buildings. Australian architecture is considered to have its distinctive features that have no precedent in the World.
“Bright orange and curling overhead like a roller-coaster…”, “A vibrant palette of crimson, orange, bronze, gold, black and brushed silver”, “a great light and open space with curving walls, windows and ceilings” (Nma.Gov.Au), it would be quite difficult to guess what this conundrum is about. Nevertheless, this is the description of the National Museum of Australia building. It was constructed by Ashton Raggatt McDougall (ARM), one of the prominent Australian companies of architects famous of originality of their works.
In this essay, the works of ARM are discussed as the incarnation of postmodernist ideas in architecture. The purpose of the essay is observation of ARM’s style and definition of postmodernism “outside” and “inside” several projects fulfilled by them; critical reactions on the works by Ashton Raggatt McDougall are observed as well.
To advance in the discussion, it is necessary first to discuss the essence of postmodernism as a phenomenon in modern culture. The characteristic features of postmodernist culture are the switch from content to form, collision of different styles and techniques, elimination of standards, canons and the framework of traditional values, aspiration for experiments and originality, exaggerations and play with meaning (Storey, 2009, p.183).
Postmodernism tends to eliminate the borders between art and everyday life, “low” and “high” culture”, commercial and not commercial, seriousness and entertainment (ibid.). These principles turned out to be possible to embody in architecture as successfully as in other kinds of art, and the works of ARM are the evidence for this statement. Below, some of the projects by ARM are discussed from the perspective of postmodernist trends in their design.
Bingham-Hall and Goad (2005) highlight that the style of ARM has no analogy in the world. They characterise it as not concerning with “orthodox notions of architectural space, linguistic conventions or tectonic truth” (p. 75). This is an eloquent illustration of how the postmodernist desire to follow to no standards and frameworks is embodied in architecture.
The authors emphasise that the ARM do not demonstrate “commitment” to a single aesthetic” (ibid.). The architects experiment with shapes and textures, meanings and contexts. Their aim is “transfiguration, transformation (visual, sensual and spiritual)” (ibid.). The description of the Storey Hall (p. 76) makes one involuntarily think about how strong the aspiration of postmodernism culture for possessing, copying, “quoting” and then fusing is.
The “devotional” building is coloured “a vivid green in honor of the Hibernian Irish Catholic Community” and “purple and white, the colours of the Women’s Political Association” (ibid.). The building has the allusions to “much loved Melbourne monuments” (ibid.). Moreover, Jackson and Johnson (2002) also mentions the resurrection of the “ideas from the Romantic period of the early Enlightening” .
Another good example of the incarnation of postmodernist ideas in architecture is the “open book” extension of the St. Kilda Library constructed in the early 1990s. Jackson and Johnson discuss the incredible “literal symbolism” of the building. In this object constructed of “bluestone grave like monumental tomes found in local cemeteries, the ARM embodied the idea about the gradual elimination of paper book publishing that existed in 1990s (ibid).
This construction is the embodiment of the postmodernism’s desire to focus on “manners” making “matters” only a source of new original ideas and associations and express ideas literally (even very literally). The idea of the Library extension makes one think about time and changes that it brings; the idea is significant and important, but the architects prefer to express it in an eloquent, clear manner, not veiling the “content”; thus, the construction is the “open book” in all senses of this expression.
Thus, it is possible to notice several distinctive features of ARM’s style, which are shifting the balance between content and shape, originality and experiments, fusion of history and the present, and “literal symbolism”. It is easy to see how these principles took shape in one of ARM’s most significant and famous projects, which is the National Museum of Australia (NMA).
“Avoiding traditional museum interpretations, the architects developed a post-modern structure reflecting the diversity of the Museum’s collection”, announces the official website of the NMA (NMA.Gov.Au).
This approach to construction of culture and scholarship facilities seems to be ARM’s favorite subject when one recollects the St. Kilda’s Library and the Storey Hall, “ARM’s architecture highlights the chaos of transforming scholarly institutions into commercial sellers of new packages of knowledge to international customers” (Johnson and Jackson, 2002).
This quotation eloquently reflects the approach of design of the NMA building: the museum is much more than a store for historical knowledge preserved by the exhibits for the select few; today, it has turned into one of the most popular places of tourism and entertainment in Australia being incredibly popular with the guests of the country. Indeed, the museum sells “packages of knowledge to international customers” (ibid.).
In the construction of the NMA, ARM’s “literal symbolism” and eagerness towards exaggeration are displayed quite eloquently. Each of its parts is connected with a certain idea. A certain part of the museum’s exhibition spaces the Garden of Australian Dreams, “a symbolic landscape” with “large sculptural forms within a body of water” (Nma.Com.Au).
It is described as “a 3D Pop Art street directory of an “other” Australia” (Bingham-Hall and Goad, p.77), the giant loop and the bright Uluru line (Nma.Com.Au).
The architects also play with colours (“crimson, orange, bronze, gold…”) and textures (“from smooth finish of the anodized aluminium panels… to the deeply patterned moulded concrete surface…) (ibid.).
Thus, the NMA has been constructed in ARM’s traditions outlined by the authors of the sources discussed above. Indeed, having constructed their “most controversial building to date” (Bingham-Hall and Goad, p.77), ARM have done their best to turn the museum into the facility that is able to successfully sell “packages of knowledge to international consumers”.
At the same time, together with the “postmodernist exterior” of the Museum, the inner space and the exhibitions offered in the NMA diverge from traditional approaches that exist in museology and incline to the ideas of postmodernism, which awakens critics’ controversial remarks but excites the majority of visitors.
The buildings discussed above have been constructed during the previous decades; it would be interesting to see how postmodernist trends show themselves in ARM’s works today. Now, it is necessary to allude to one of ARM’s latest projects, which is the so-called Portrait Building (completion due 2014) (ARM).
During the last decades, the works architects from different countries of the world contributed to the fact that today it is quite difficult to impress citizens with design of a skyscraper. The Gherkin building mentioned in the introduction is just one example, and it is possible to recollect many others. ARM’s new project does not amaze with its strange shape or bright colors.
Nor does it imply using some peculiar technology or materials – the building is planned to be constructed of concrete. Its façade just displays… the portrait of William Barak, “the last traditional ngurungaeta (elder) of the Wurundjeri-willam Clan”, originally designed by sculptor Peter Schipperheyn (ibid.). The portrait is formed by a series of panels on the balconies and can be seen by viewers from a big distance.
The architects describe the project as the “symbolic representation of Melbourne’s indigenous culture and history” (UAP Marker), which makes one think about the expression “literal symbolism” by Jackson and Johnson mentioned above. In this project, one may see the fusion of the past and the future, everyday life and culture, painting and architecture, which is very peculiar to postmodernism.
The Portrait Building provides high-quality apartments, gives credit for a significant personality of the Australian history, and impresses the observers. In fact, the approach to design of the building is quite similar to that used in construction of the National Museum, where history and modern times, learning and entertainment co-exist and interact.
After getting familiarised with ARM’s works, one may be interested in the critical responses to them. It is quite difficult to imagine that they may not awaken hot discussion with contradicting opinions. It would be reasonable to mark that attitude to ARM’s style has been changing.
It has been marked above that there are certain similarities in approach to the design of the Museum and the Portrait Building. At the same time, the critical responses on both projects demonstrated how the viewers gradually “get used” to ARM’s postmodernist ideas.
The projects of the National Museum and the Portrait Building are separated by almost a decade; at the same time, despite the mentioned similarity between the approaches to the design, the responses on the Portrait Building are much warmer than those devoted to the National Museum.
The reviews devoted to the National Museum emphasised the presence of postmodernist trends in NMA’s design and, as well as in the approach to developing exhibitions. For example, calling the NMA a “mishmash”, Tim Lloyd discusses the exhibitions of the museum and compares it to the South Australia Museum (2003, p.68).
Lloyd emphasises the eclecticism, inconsistency and presentation of the “politically charged version of history”. However, this did not hinder for the museum to become a commercially successful project since the first years of its existence (ibid.).
Having described the landscape of the Garden of Australian Dreams, Catherin Bull makes the conclusion that it “has met one of designer’s goals, to challenge the traditions and mores of the profession, and, just as importantly, to be seen to be doing so” (Bull, Stead and Ashton, 2002).
At the same time, analogically to Lloyd, Bull mentions that the professional debate about the Garden does not hinder its popularity with children and adults who enjoy the sensation of hyperreality. Talking about the museum and museology, Naomi Stead marks the “overriding allegory – Australian nationhood as many stories tangled together” (ibid.), which sounds quite consonant with the discussion of ARM’s “literal symbolism”.
Stead nevertheless mentions that in the ways the exhibitions are organised and placed, “the relationship seems less successful” (ibid.). This makes one think about Lloyd’s statement about the inconsistence of the museum. Thus, though admitting that the NMA is popular with visitors, reviewers are somewhat critical regarding the postmodernist approach in NMA’s museology.
Postmodernist trends are considered as the way to attract attention and impress rather than deliver useful, serious information. Despite this criticism, the NMA also had a range of positive reviews – for example, Drayson says that “its value to our cultural heritage… cannot be measured in dollars and cents” (2001). When viewing the bidy of critical response as a whole skepticism was nevertheless prevailing rather than excitement and approval.
However, comparison of the NMA reviews and those devoted to the Portrait Building demonstrates that today the society is more ready to accept the architects’ ideas expressed in the “postmodernist manner”.
The reviews devoted to the Portrait Building emphasise that besides its originality, the project has a significant message which is important to deliver to the modern Australian society. In a bright, “popular” manner, the architects give viewers opportunity to think about history and keep its outstanding personalities in their memory.
“The Wurundjeri community is very moved by this gesture and appreciates the respect that both Grocon and ARM have shown in developing this exciting concept”, says Megan Goulding, the Wurundjeri Tribal Land Council CEO (CSR Wire).
The government also supports the idea of the Portrait building, “…This commemoration of the life of William Barak is one that the Victorian Government certainly applauds”, says Richard Wynne, Victorian Aboriginal Affairs Minister (ibid.). Architects also give positive evaluation to the ARM’s project, “Congratulations to ARM on an excellent site-specific integration of artwork and architecture.
It is sure to make a strong and lasting contribution to the site and the city” (UAP Marker). It is interesting that not only architects and critics give positive evaluation to the Portrait building; ordinary citizens also support the project. The poll carried out by Heraldsun (Barry) demonstrates that about two thirds of the participants (711 of 1101) like the design of the building, and only 390 participants expressed their dislike towards it.
Thus, it is reasonable to emphasize two changes that are demonstrated by the critical reviews of two abovementioned buildings. Firstly, the society is not afraid of “literal symbolism” any more; nor is it irritated by it. For a long time, absence of any allegory in art, particularly, in architecture, was considered the manifestation of bad manners.
A library building in the form of a book, a portrait on the building – yet several decades ago such approaches to expression of ideas would be evaluated as shallow and tasteless. However, today “manners” are not expected to be an unpretentious instrument used to tell about “matters”.
The second dramatic change is the reduction of the gap between education and entertainment. The National Museum was criticized by many critics, as museums were expected to provide visitors with important information and hardly be the place for fun. Today, the “educative function” of the Portrait building is beyond question for people. “…I suspect a lot of people will read a whole lot of things into this”, says Daniel Grollo, Groco chief executive (Barry).
The review of four projects developed by ARM gives us opportunity to notice eloquent manifestations of postmodernist trends in ARM’s creative works. The NMA and other designs of ARM are considered to be full of “literal symbolism”, eclecticism and aspiration for breaking the rules of architecture.
The exhibitions of the museum, despite being evaluated by some reviewers as inconsistent and politically subjective, prove to be commercially successful, which means that ARM really succeeded to construct an object that has become a “commercial seller of new packages of knowledge to international customers”. The architects do not tend to create “empty” shallow projects; each of them has its idea, a message to the community.
At the same time, ARM do not “draw a veil” over these ideas like artists of the period of modernism did; the message of ARM’s works is clear to ordinary citizens, which is the manifestation of the postmodernist elimination of the border between “elite” and “popular” art. Observation of the reviews devoted to ARM’s projects has demonstrated that the society is gradually “getting used” to the postmodernist trends in architecture and now welcomes the mentioned approaches in design of buildings.
References
ARM, 2010. Portrait. ARM. Web.
Barry, E., 2010. Building with Portrait of Leader to Become Melbourne’s newest landmark. Heraldsun. Web.
Bingham-Hall, P. and Goad, P., 2005. New Directions in Australian Architecture. Singapore: Periplus.
Bull, C. Stead, N. and Ashton, S., 2002. Landscape, Museology, and Alliance. Architecture Australia, 91(2). Web.
Modernism and Postmodernism are the most vivid movements in art and design of the 20th century.
Modernism with its concentration on the exact forms and lines appeared as the reaction to the traditional vision of art and design of the 19th century with references to interesting forms and luxurious objects.
Postmodernism which developed in the post-war period rejected the main principles of Modernism and combined all the lines and forms to make the imaginative product of art and design.
The era of Postmodernism in art and culture is associated with the middle years of the 20th century when the top point of its development in design is the 1980s.
It is the period when the representatives of the Memphis Group in Italia shocked the public with their postmodern vision of objects and products.
Ettore Sottsass is discussed as the most prominent figure of the Memphis Group, and he designed the most provocative elements of furniture which are considered the vivid examples of the postmodern design now.
The success of Ettore Sottsass’s Olivetti Valentine typewriter, Carlton bookcase, and Tahiti lamp can be explained with referring to the fact that developing his works, the designer followed the major principles of Postmodernism which attracted the public with their controversy and presented his specific vision of the space and role of objects in it.
Ettore Sottsass’s works and Postmodernism
To analyze the peculiarities of Ettore Sottsass’s works effectively, it is necessary to pay attention to the major principles of Postmodernism in the sphere of design.
It is also important to note that the discussion of Postmodernism should be realized with using the notions of ‘principle’ and ‘tendency’ rather than ‘rule’ or ‘norm’ because the ideology of Postmodernism rejects the idea of using any rules for creating the object of art and design.
The objects of the postmodern design astonish the public with their expressive visual characteristics and with the combination of the lines, forms, and materials which are not traditionally used together.
The ideologists of Postmodernism often state that this movement is based on the freedom of expression and evokes a lot of people’s emotions. Those combinations which can be perceived as absurd contribute to creating the specific harmony of Postmodernism.
Thus, the forms and colors of the objects are rather radical and too vivid, and they can seem to be exaggerated by the designer or their contradiction can be used to accentuate the controversy of the designer’s idea.
Moreover, the style of postmodern designers including the representatives of the Memphis Group is based on the principle to see something extremely unusual in ordinary things.
Ettore Sottsass and the other Italian designers organized the Memphis Group in 1981. The members of the group specialized in working out the pieces of furniture, the glass products and ceramics with the help of urban technologies.
The main characteristic features of the objects were the vivid fluorescent colors and strange forms based on the asymmetrical lines. The works of the designers were considered quite original, and it was rather difficult to combine them with the traditional elements of the interior.
The red plastic Olivetti Valentine typewriter, Carlton bookcase, and Tahiti lamp designed by Ettore Sottsass became the symbols of the postmodern era in design which are familiar for the public because of their recognizable bright colors and rather ‘ironic’ shapes. Furthermore, the material which was mainly used for producing the objects was bright plastic.
The red plastic Olivetti Valentine typewriter
In spite of the fact the red Olivetti typewriter was designed before organizing the Memphis Group in 1981, it is possible to say that this object significant for the development of the postmodernist movement (“Olivetti Valentine Typewriter”).
The famous red plastic typewriter was released in 1969. Ettore Sottsass was working for Olivetti Company during several years in order to develop the models of the portative typewriters and the other office machines.
The red plastic model which was presented on Valentine’s Day made the revolution in design of the everyday items for offices and personal use because of the unusual combination of the material, shape, and color.
It was the real success due to the fact today the red Olivetti Valentine typewriter is discussed as the design icon and the symbol of pop art as the reflection of the trends of Postmodernism.
This typewriter is also successful because now it is one of the most famous models of typewriters in the world which are exhibited in museums all over the world.
Moreover, it is necessary to note that the Olivetti typewriter was also presented in grey and green colors, but the designer made the accents on the red color because of its extreme attractiveness for the public and symbolic meaning.
The theoretical principles of Postmodernism are realized in developing the Olivetti typewriter in many aspects.
From this point, it is necessary to concentrate on the unusualness of the idea to design the special typewriter for Valentine’s Day with using the red color as the symbol of the day for realizing the idea.
The technical characteristics and features of the typewriter are also significant to be discussed with references to the concepts of Postmodernism. The red Olivetti Valentine typewriter is not as powerful as the other models of the Olivetti typewriters, but it is ease in use and light because of being made from plastic.
A lot of postmodern designers used such urban materials as plastic to create the definite items in order to accentuate the shape, surface, and colors of the object in their opposition to the everyday ‘grey’ reality.
The main postmodern ideas which are manifested in the red Olivetti Valentine typewriter are vivid and intensive color and lightness which contradicts with the complexity of the shape (“Olivetti Valentine Typewriter”).
Ettore Sottsass’s Carlton bookcase
The Carlton bookcase was presented in 1981, and it became the sensation because of the traditional public’s vision of bookcases (“Carlton Bookcase”). This construction seemed to be rather unusual and irrelevant, and irrational with references to the design of bookcases.
However, rationality is not the principle of Postmodernism that is why the Carlton bookcase became the famous item of the furniture and the most extraordinary bookcase in the history of design which is now the trigger for the collectors’ pride.
Working out the Carlton bookcase, Ettore Sottsass achieved his aim and presented the element of the furniture which followed all the ideas of the postmodernist culture and was rather cheap because of the peculiarities of its production.
Nevertheless, today it is one of the most famous and expensive examples of the postmodern art and design.
The postmodern design is based on the idea of paradoxes where the things which cannot be combined in usual circumstances are combined because of the designer’s will.
Moreover, the accents are made on the usual functions of the unusual in their shapes and colors things. Ettore Sottsass was also good in combining the contrasting elements while creating a new object.
Thus, the Carlton bookcase is produced with the help of rather cheap plastic the usage of which meets the requirements of Postmodernism to concentrate on the elements of urbanism even in using such urban materials as plastic laminate, acrylic, and aluminum.
The gleaming surfaces of these materials reflect the light and produce the necessary effect for creating the atmosphere of the postmodern world.
The elements of the construction which should be perceived as the Carlton bookcase are playful, and this effect makes the bookcase not the item of the furniture, but the real object of the postmodern art and design (“Carlton Bookcase”).
It is rather difficult to consider the Carlton bookcase as a case or a shelf which can be used for placing books or the other functions because it is an independent art object which attracts the public’s attention with vivid intensive colors which are not combined with each other, but create the specific effect of dividing the space of the bookshelf.
Moreover, the platform of the bookcase is spotted, and its color creates the contrast with the basic colors of the bookcase. This contrast also accentuates the ideas of Postmodernism where contrasts are perceived as the origin for creating something new and original.
The banality of the basic forms and lines of the Carlton bookcase is in opposition with the general presentation of the object as the whole which is rather impressive and colorful.
The Tahiti lamp
Ettore Sottsass’s Tahiti lamp is often discussed as the designer’s most eccentric work because of its style and combination of materials (“Tahiti Lamp”). The success of this lamp is supported by the detail that in spite of the fact the lamp was firstly produced in 1981, today it is one of the most recognizable desk lamps in the world.
The shape of the lamp is rather ordinary, but the idea is fabulous because with using the imagination, the audience states that this desk lamp resembles the exotic bird.
It is possible to determine the details of the work which are the long neck of the bright yellow color, the pink head, and the red beak. The metal brown detail can symbolize the wings of the tropical bird (“Tahiti Lamp”).
It is important to note that the success of all Ettore Sottsass’s can be explained by the active usage of bright colors and especially red tones which attract the public’s attention to the work, and they are associated with some inclination.
The Tahiti lamp can be discussed as the successful example of the postmodern design because its aesthetic was reflected in many items created by the other designers who were inspired by the provocative and astonishing works of Ettore Sottsass.
The theoretical ideas of Postmodernism are realized in producing the Tahiti lamp with references to using the combination of different materials which are wood, metal, and plastic laminate.
Ettore Sottsass follows his style and the bright colors of the item’s details are mixed with the speckled laminate base of the desk lamp. This detail became one of the characteristic features of the designer’s style.
In spite of the bold and random shapes of the lamp, it draws the attention of the audience, and it is discussed as the remarkable object of art and design.
The representatives of the Memphis Group made the accents on combining the extremely vivid colors with the ornamented surfaces which seemed to emphasize the texture of the material visually, but the designers used the urban materials with the luminous surfaces.
The play of contrasts is one of the main distinctive features of the postmodernist movement which ideas were followed by Ettore Sottsass.
The designer’s Tahiti lamp is developed for the active use personally and in offices, but it cannot be perceived just as an item on the desk because of the complexity of its design and the status of the ‘classical’ Postmodernism.
Ettore Sottsass organized the group of the Italian designers in 1981, and this period was significant for the development of the ideas of Postmodernism in art and design.
The success of the Memphis Group’s representatives is based on the fact that they originally started producing the items and elements of furniture which depended on the combination of such different materials as plastic, wood, and metal, the combination of vivid colors, and the combination of functions.
The designers of the Memphis Group did not only work out the elements of furniture but also experimented with glass, ceramics, and lightning in order to provide the interesting and amazing visual effects with their products.
Thus, Ettore Sottsass and the other designers from the Memphis Group did not only follow the ideas of Postmodernism in their work but also manifested these principles by themselves with creating the vivid world of paradoxes.
Some critics can state that the works of Ettore Sottsass are bold and rather absurd, but this thrilling freedom in representing the objects is often discussed as the characteristic feature of the postmodernist movement.
That is why, the figure of Ettore Sottsass can be referred to as prominent in the sphere of the postmodern design because all his works are successful, and his style has a lot of followers.
Fredric Jameson’s postmodernism theory is considered to be “the effort to take the temperature of the age without instruments and in a situation in which we are not even sure there is so consistent thing as an ‘age,’ or ‘zeitgeist’ or ‘system’ or ‘current situation’ any longer,” it is supposed that the shift from modernism to postmodernism transpired from urban planning and architecture to various stylistic features of arts, literature, theater, film, music, dance, and painting, to MTV, CNN, and the internet. Cyberspace and part-human and part-robot fantasies are believed to be just as postmodern as the threat of nuclear and ecological self-destruction, globalization and deregulation, or the morbid projections of generation X. Given the plurality of interpretations, it is hardly surprising that “postmodernism” is often accused of being an illogical catchphrase. Above anything else, it has provoked highly opposing descriptions of its political goals, cultural functions, historical materialization, punitive location, and geopolitical realm.1
By way of examining the most pertinent theories of postmodernism (Irving Howe, Susan Sontag, Leslie Fiedler, Fredric Jameson, Ihab Hassan, François Lyotard, Jürgen Habermas, Andreas Huyssen), this paper brings to light an understanding of whether the term designates a certain aesthetic strategy, a historical period, or a particular way of thinking most prominently associated with modernism, pluralism and deconstruction.2
Introduction
Postmodernism is a style applied in architecture, arts, literature, and criticism established in active response to modernism, about other periods or styles in an excessively concerned way and a rejection of the idea of high art.
At the dawn of the 1980s and 1990s, the leading modification of postmodernism adapted traditional architectural details and styles in entirely original compositions, without the awkwardness and oddities of ironic postmodernism. Stern called this variant creative postmodernism or modern traditionalism. Venturi, Moore, and Graves all moved in this direction, joining other architects such as Graham Gund, Thomas Beeby, and Stern. A representative example of this design approach is Stern’s Observatory Hill Dining Hall (1982-1984) at the University of Virginia in Charlottesville. The dining hall combines red brick, white wood trim, and Tuscan Doric columns, referring to the adjoining buildings by Thomas Jefferson, but employs modern building forms and walls with large windows (Encarta, 2007).3
Differences between modernism and postmodernism
Modernism flourished between the 1650 and 1950s. Empiricism and epistemological are the two dominant approaches in gaining knowledge. Empiricism, knowing through the senses, gradually evolved into scientific empiricism of modern science with the development of modernist methodology.4 While epistemological approach uses reasoning or logic. “Modernism is an experiment in searching the veracity of a situation. It can be characterized by self-consciousness and reflexiveness. This is very closely related to Postmodernism (Sarup 1993).”4
Frank Lloyd Wright, an American architect, wrote in 1910 that the modern building would be ‘an organic entity…as distinguished with that former insensate combination of parts…one great thing instead of a quarreling collection of so many little things.’ Similarly, Walter Gropius insisted that the modern building must be true to itself, logically transparent and virginal of lies on trivialities’ The prophets of modern architecture insisted time and again on the unity of the building, as the organic express of an inner principle, rather than the external imposition of from…Le Corbusier praised Michelangelo’s Capitol in Rome for the way that it heaps itself together, in unity, expresses the same law throughout, and wrote that a building was like a bubble which is perfect and harmonious if the breath has been evenly distributed and regulated from the inside. The exterior is the result of an interior.
Postmodernism occurs from the 1950s up to our present time. Postmodernism existed due to the insufficiency of the modern approaches to knowing, postmodernists support epistemological pluralism which makes use of multiple ways of knowing – scientifically and logically.
Ryan Bishop defines postmodernism in a brief article from Encyclopedia of Cultural Anthropology (1996) as a diverse movement, originating in aesthetics, architecture, and philosophy. “Postmodernism embraces a systematic skepticism of grounded theoretical perspectives. Applied to anthropology, this skepticism has shifted focus from the observation of a particular society to the observation of the (anthropological) observer.”4
Postmodernity mainly focuses on the tensions of distinction and similarity erupting from processes of globalization: the accelerating circulation of people, the increasingly dense and frequent cross-cultural interactions, and the unavoidable intersections of local and global knowledge. “Postmodernists are suspicious of authoritative definitions and singular narratives of any trajectory of events.” (Bishop 1996: 993). Post-modern attacks on ethnography are based on the belief that there is no true objectivity. The authentic implementation of the scientific method is impossible.
“Postmodernism has meant a renewed awareness of the suppressed linguistic or connotative dimension in architecture”
It is not difficult to imagine how these “progressive and conventional” categories could be applied to a series of examples of orthodox modern architecture in defense of a theory of “simplicity and consistency” in architecture. However, it is also apparent that these categories could be listed with the provision that each of the different kinds of anticipation should not be fulfilled. In Man’s Rage for Chaos, Morse Peckham gives a distinctive list of categories with the provision that the anticipation should not be fulfilled and calls them “discontinuities”. In Peckham’s theory, “discontinuities” are a defining characteristic of art.
Robert Venturi, author of Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture (Museum of Modern Art, 1966), is one of the most noted architects of the Philadelphia school and Professor of Architecture at Yale. Though he completed only a few commissions, his ideas have been extremely influential and his projects widely published.
He writes: I prefer ‘both-and to ‘either-or,’ black and white, and sometimes gray, to black or white. A reasonable architecture arouses various levels of meaning and combinations of focus; its space and its elements become readable and workable in several ways at once. (p. 23.)5
He sees “orthodox modern architecture” as illustrated by “either-or,” where, for example, a support is seldom an enclosure. The examples that he presents of both-and-in architecture include the ceilings of Sir John Soane’s secular chambers which are “both rectangular and curvilinear, and domed and vaulted.” (p. 36.) Also referred to is pre-cast concrete construction which can be continuous yet fragmentary, flowing in profile yet surfaced with joints.” (pp. 36-37.)5
“The most obvious and frequently remarked – on form of pluralism in postmodernist architecture is its openness to the past”
The last quarter of the 1970s reinforced a recent trend in architecture toward pluralism of styles. Modernism does not dominate anymore, in the sense of high-technology, smooth-skin, metal-and-glass geometric formalism. Previous extensive retort against historical styles, regional forms, and traditional materials has now changed to enthusiasm for them. There is a renewed interest in local character, in richer artistic experiences, and a greater diversity of materials, colors, patterns, textures, and methods of construction, although some of the more conservative architects condemn this trend.6
American architecture at the beginning of the 21st century has avoided the single-style sterility that International Style modernism threatened to impose. Instead, it remains open to a myriad of design approaches, suitable to a wide variety of locations, functions, and symbolic messages.
Deconstructivism
In theory and early designs, deconstruction included the dismantling of architectural elements and the reorganization of their constituent parts. In these designs, architects did not concern themselves with the physical laws of the real world, and most of their early proposals were impossible to be built. Later on, actual buildings came into being from some of these ideas, and the architects had to address the realities of construction and the weight of materials. The resulting buildings were typically disjointed in form, and they dramatically contradicted standard conventions of design and construction.
Architect Frank Gehry has enjoyed the playfulness deconstructivism allows. Gehry’s designs vary from a kind of ascetic modernism in the early 1970s to increasingly asymmetrical compositions in the late 1980s and 1990s, with colliding angular forms and other unusual juxtapositions. As the geometries of his buildings became more intricate and he introduced compound curves, Gehry and his staff depend increasingly on computer-aided design, adapting software developed in France for aircraft design.
The intriguing forms of Gehry’s architecture attracted worldwide attention, and he received a commission for the Vitra International furniture assembly plant and museum (1987-1989) in Weil am Rhine, Germany. The museum portion of the building provides a good example of Gehry’s use of curving and intersecting volumes and spaces. A second facility for Vitra (1988-1894) near Basel, Switzerland, also incorporates curving forms, with portions covered in sheets of zinc metal.
Gehry’s approach transpired in his striking design for a branch of the Guggenheim Museum (1991-1997) in Bilbao, Spain. The computer became an essential part of the design and construction process by simultaneously solving design problems, developing construction details, working out structural technologies, and keeping track of building costs. Rare titanium metal came on the market as the Russian government sold its titanium reserves to raise urgently needed finances. As a result, Gehry could purchase this costly metal and have it fashioned into thin sheets to cover the curving surfaces of the Bilbao Guggenheim. The lightweight and reflective titanium surface accentuate the building’s sculptural masses, which shimmer in sunlight (Encarta, 2007).7
Images
Pablo Sanchez/REUTERS
Figure 1. Guggenheim Museum Bilbao
Designed by American architect Frank Gehry, the Guggenheim Museum Bilbao opened in 1997 in Bilbao, a city in northern Spain. The building’s curvaceous form is made even more unusual by the rippling reflections on its titanium surface.
Erik Samper/Liaison Agency
Figure 2. Bilbao’s Guggenheim Museum
The Guggenheim Museum Bilbao opened in the Basque city of Bilbao, Spain, in October 1997. Located on the city’s waterfront, the modern art museum offers a dramatic contrast to Bilbao’s industrial setting.
SuperStock
Figure 3. United Airlines Terminal
Designed by German-American architect Helmut Jahn, the United Airlines Terminal in Chicago’s O’Hare International Airport opened in 1987. Flashing lights above and curving colored glass to each side provide a stimulating visual environment for airline passengers as they move between the terminal’s concourses. Jahn’s design transforms the functional elements of steel, glass, and lighting into visually expressive, ornamental forms.
Guy Gillette/Photo Researchers, Inc.
Figure 4. Sony Building, New York
American architect Philip Johnson strongly influenced the rise of the postmodern style of architecture. His design for the AT&T Building (now the Sony Building), constructed in New York City in 1984, had a particularly strong impact. The building’s architectural devices, such as the use of allusion in its Renaissance detail and Chippendale-style pediment, make it a symbol of postmodern architecture.
“When it becomes possible for people to describe as “postmodern” the decor of a room, the design of a building… a proliferation of surfaces… the collapse of cultural hierarchies … then it’s clear we are in the presence of a buzzword” (quoted in Storey 181-182). With this bright and quite continuous quotation, John Storey illustrates the confusion that exists in point of the term “postmodernism”, and thus demonstrates significance of the discussion presented in the Chapter 9 of his (2009).
Indeed, today the term “postmodernism” is actively used in different fields of our social, political and cultural life, and in many cases this use is spontaneous, confused and shallow. Thus, despite postmodernism is given a concrete definition in specialized literature, the occurring everywhere vagueness connected with it requires further discussion of this term.
Having outlined the field of interest which is the notion of postmodernism in relation to popular culture, Storey observes the evolution of postmodernism from its origin to nowadays and makes the effort to define the “general aspects of postmodernism” (182). The discussion includes both alluding to other researchers’ works and providing the author’s own commentary. In turn, we will try to find the correspondence and points of agreement between different researchers’ views and thus approach to understanding of postmodernism.
Origins of Postmodernism: Back from Museums and Academia
It is impossible to discuss a theory in isolation from conditions of its origin. To help a reader to understand better the essence of postmodernism, Storey describes the cultural environment of the late 1950s and 1960s characterized by domination of modernism. Despite of its name, the modernist art did not seem “modern” any more; it became “a set of dead classics” (cited in Storey 182). The new generation challenged “canonization” of modernist art which was considered “high”, elitist, not comprehensible for an average viewer, listener or reader (182).
The generation of 1960s brought a new view on the world and, particularly, culture, a so-called “new sensibility” (cited in Storey 182). On the one hand, young people did not wanted culture to be an issue for the select few and thus opposed to the modernist approach to culture and art. Storey describes this difference quite brightly: at that moment, instead of remaining “the best that has been thought and said”, culture became “a whole way of life” (183).
On the other hand, popular culture evolves towards seriousness: it is expected to be more than just an opposition to “high art” and the means of entertainment (ibid.). However, we should understand that it was the attempt not to make “low” culture “high” or backwards, but to reject the notions of “low” and “high” in culture, or so-called “great divide” (cited in Storey 183). This rejection, according to Storey, became the crucial distinction between two generations’ view on culture.
Thus, the significant changes took place during the discussed period. However, can we define them as a cultural revolution? Based on Storey’s work, we cannot say so: the author does not tell about dramatic confrontation between “old” and “new” cultures and their adherents, but provides a quotation by Lawrence Alloway, “We felt none of dislike of commercial culturestandard among most intellectuals, but accepted it as a fact, discussed it in details, and consumed it enthusiastically” (quoted in Storey 183). Thus, appearance of popular culture seems a new logical, consequent step rather than revolution.
At the same time, Storey’s narration may provoke a range of questions in a reader’s mind. Particularly, it would be rather interesting to discuss the origin of the 1960s generation’s desire to eliminate the border between “high” and “low” culture.
Despite the author outlines the field of discussion as postmodernism in popular culture, we nevertheless cannot omit the fact that any cultural phenomenon does not appear only in cultural environment itself: it is always triggered by (or, at least, consonant with) certain factors “from outside”, particularly, social processes.
Thus, a reader might be interested: what caused this desire to take art back from “museum and academia”? Why and how did aspiration for “popular culture” and this “new sensibility” appear? Storey glances over the events in the USA, such as the war in Vietnam, the wave of feminism and defense of black citizens’ rights et al (184).
Despite being almost left behind the focus of discussion, the questions above seem quite significant and outline the directions of the possible further study: answering them would provide a reader with more complete and eloquent picture of what postmodernism is.
Another point for the additional discussion is American cultural environment as the origin of popular culture (183). We may state that for several decades, the American society had been enjoying culture that can be hardly called “elitist”. For example, we may recollect the American jazz of the 1930s-1940s which was popular with various strata of the society.
At the same time, we see that the time border of the appearance of pop culture, the origin of postmodernism, refers to a later period. Thus, it would be interesting to define more exactly the “point” at which “not elitist” culture became “pop culture” discussed in Storey’s work, and to specify the difference between them: this difference might play the role of the soil on which postmodernism grew.
Jean-François Lyotard about Knowledge, Money and Resurrection of Modernism
To approach to defining the phenomenon of postmodernism, Storey observes ideas of authors who substantially contributed to the debate. Particularly, Jean-François Lyotard contributed to introduction of the term “postmodernism” into academic discussion and devoted his study to contemporary postmodern condition.
Lyotard talks about postmodern condition in contemporary science. The purpose of a research is no more finding the truth but generating the material that can be used, sold and bought, “It will hear only, “What use is it?” “How much is it worth?” and “Is it saleable?”” (Storey 185); the purpose of education is not providing students with absolute knowledge, but teaching them “how to use knowledge as a form of cultural and economic capital…” (ibid.)
Thus, we can conclude that Lyotard’s ideas emphasize several characteristic “shifts” of postmodernism: the shift from matters to manners, from absolute to relative, from “truth” to “performativity” (ibid.), from knowledge to exploitation of intellectual capital, from ideal to money.
The last shift is quite consonant with Andy Warhol’s statement about popular culture and its commercial essence provided by Storey, “commercial art as real art and real art as commercial art” (183). Thus, we see that in the process of discussion, this elimination of the border between “real”, “true” and “commercial” emerges as one of the significant attributes of postmodernism.
Together with the pessimistic view on the postmodernist condition, the French philosopher expresses his hope for the light at the end of the tunnel, “postmodernist culture is not the end of the much superior culture of modernism, but the sign of the advent of a new modernism” (185).
Jean Baudrillard about Originals, Copies and Hyperreality
The ideas of another French philosopher, Jean Baudrillard, look “codirectional” with Lyotard’s statements discussed above. According to Baudrillard, “it is no longer possible to separate the economic or productive realm from the realms of ideology or culture” (quoted in Storey 186).
Baudrillard introduces the notions of simulation, simulacrum and hyperrealism into the discussion of postmodernism. He emphasizes the general tendency in contemporary culture which is “copy instead of original” or “copy without original” (187). Baudrillard defines the process of elimination of distinction between a copy and an original as “simulation”; a copy is called “simulacrus”. Thus, Baudrillard’s version of postmodern condition is hyperrealism: the mode where simulation dominates.
The world where copies substitute originals… Copying CDs and watching films in the different corners of the world, introducing “cardboard police cars”, “Sex and the City” New York tours – we do not even notice how “the dissolution of TV into life, the dissolution of life into TV” progresses (quoted in Storey 188). However, Storey makes an important statement: hyperrealism is not that people lose understanding of the difference between reality and simulation; it is that this difference gradually becomes less important (189).
Storey outlines one more point of intersection of Baudrillard’s and Lyotard’s positions: the “metanarratives”, such as God, science, Marxism et al do not define the truth any more.
The matter of truth itself becomes not just relative, but simply insignificant. In other words, like a researcher is more interested not in discovering the truth, but in applying and selling a discovery, an average citizen is more interested in Deirdre Rachid’s story (188) itself than in veracity of her existence. Thus, though holding the discussion from different angles, two philosophers nevertheless demonstrate agreement in understanding the essence of postmodernism.
Fredric Jameson about Cultural Periodization and Historical Amnesia
Despite Jean-François Lyotard buries Marxism as a “metanarrative” (Storey 184), Fredric Jameson holds the discussion of postmodernism in a Marxist or Neo-Marxist framework. He demonstrates Marxist approach to defining the essence of postmodernist culture.
Analogically to the Marxist periodization of economical development of the society, Fredric Jameson talks about periodization in culture determining three cultural “formations”: “realism”, “modernism” and “postmodernism” (191).
He nevertheless does not state that domination of one cultural mode is accompanied by collapse of other modes: while nowadays postmodernist mode dominates, other ones are “emergent” or “residual” (ibid.). This statement reminds us of Lyotard’s idea about postmodernism as “the sign of the advent of a new modernism” discussed above.
Cultural modes (above, we defined them as “cultures”: modernism, postmodernism et al) are not mutually exclusive; nor is evolution of culture linear (this means that domination of one mode does not eliminate the possibility of future domination of “previous” modes”). However, this approach does not “match” with Baudrillard’s view of cultural evolution as a “linear, unidirectional story of decline” (quoted in Storey 191).
At the same time, we can notice that the further narration demonstrates that Jameson’s ideas are rather consonant with those of Lyotard and Baudrillard. Jameson defines postmodernist culture as “pastiche”, which is parody without a satiric motive; he talks about its unoriginality, perpetual “borrowings”, “quotes” and repetitions with minor changes.
He gives the example of “nostalgia films” and states that today we see a switch from history to “historicism” which is shallow and full of clichés (193); this “historical amnesia” reminds us of the changes connected with the notion of truth and switches noticed by Lyotard, as well as simulation discussed by Baudrillard. The history shown in films is only the simulation of history, but it becomes less and less important for viewers: they prefer to see bright and recognizable clichés rather than historical truth.
Another significant point of agreement is the connection between culture and economy, commercial essence of postmodern culture. Outlining the correspondence between multicultural capitalism and postmodernism, Jameson states that postmodernist culture favors and promotes “the logic of consumer capitalism” eliminating the difference between “aesthetic production” and “commodity production” (quoted in Storey 194).
Jameson’s statement about “aesthetization of everyday life” is consonant with the statement about turning culture into “a whole way of life” mentioned above.
John Storey about Pluralism of Value, Globalization and Convergence
Having observed ideas of philosophers who made significant contribution to emergence of a notion of postmodernism, Storey continues the discussion. He formulates three aspects of postmodernism which he considers crucial.
Storey emphasizes the changes of cultural values that take place in the epoch of postmodernist culture: what seemed absolute and certain does not seem such any more. This provokes the following questions: “who is “valuing”?” and “what is “valued?” Storey alludes to Pierre Bourdieu’s idea: distinctions in culture are defined by existence and competition of different social groups; these are social groups who evaluate “a particular mode of dress” or “a poem by T. S. Eliot” (Storey 202).
Correspondingly, cultural values identify and maintain the difference between them. We may notice that this idea of “challenged cultural values” has much in common with the idea of “challenged notion of the truth” and “destroyed metanarratives” discussed above.
The second issue discussed by Storey is globalization in culture. In fact, instead of becoming a “global village”, our planet turns into the “American global village” (204). Here, the connection with the idea of commercial in culture is eloquent: firstly, the USA exports commodities that are popular throughout the world, which makes export of culture much easier; secondly (which to some extent results from the first point), the American culture is always commercially successful: selling, buying and copying it is beneficial.
The third aspect of postmodernism in culture is convergence. The same content can be used with the help of different platforms: we listen to the same songs on a laptop, a player or on the radio; we do an incredible number of operations with our mobile phones (210). Why not? In the world where “copies” do not need “originals” any more, transferring culture through different platforms is natural and simple. A consumer’s task is just to choose the most convenient platform in order to get the most pleasure.
Conclusion
John Storey’s discussion of postmodernist culture is of big significance: it helps a reader to comprehend the term “postmodernism” deeper than a “buzzword” which it is sometimes seems to be. In his work, Storey provides material that gives opportunity to understand the origin and the essence of postmodernist culture.
Having got familiarized with Storey’s and other researchers’ ideas, we may notice that they often intersect and complement each other. There are several distinctive features of postmodernist culture, such as challenging traditional values and notion of truth, important role of “simulations” and commercial essence of cultural production.
The ideas of Storey et al are not just the words; we can notice their numerous illustrations around us. Today people watch reality shows and burst with emotions awakened by characters’ behavior even not believing that the “show” is “real”; we know well what “fashion of 60s”, “70s” or “80s” means, but we do not find words to describe “fashion of 00s”, as it is full of repetitions of previous decades’ trends.
The term “postmodernism” has been defined, but the question about its “eternity” remains unsolved. Today, it seems impossible to predict whether culture will again divide into “high” and “low” and continue “taunting” (Storey 194) commercial motives or not.
Bibliography
Storey, John. Cultural Theory and Popular Culture: An Introduction. 5th ed. New York, London: Pearson Longman, 2009. Print.
Overview of Postmodernism Characteristics in Trafford Centre
According to marketing analysts, postmodernism has great effects on contemporary marketing (Schroeder 2002, p. 31). Postmodernism ensures that marketing elements and strategies are maintained in relation to the past classical forms (Schroeder 2002, p. 37).
The concept of postmodernism has led to redefinition of marketing from what it used to be (Bocock 1993, p. 62). Some of the characteristics of postmodernism include fragmentation, hyper-reality and de-differentiation (Bocock 1993, p. 63).
Fragmentation is an important component of postmodern marketing (Frank 1997, p. 88). Fragmentation asserts that the concept of postmodernism originated from the field of architecture (Frank 1997, p. 89).
In contemporary marketing, fragmentation is a wrongful use of information for unfair gains (Frank 1997, p. 90). Fragmentation assists postmodernists to circulate hidden information within the field of marketing (Hackley 2001, p. 55: Parsons & Maclaran 2012, p. 16).
Hyper-reality unlike fragmentation refers to how postmodernists combine fictitious and real things to blind other individuals from recognizing the difference between the two things (Bocock 1993, p. 65). Postmodern philosophers use semiotics, which are a part of hyper-reality, to assess and observe signs and other things that happen around people (Bocock 1993, p. 66).
De-differentiation is also a component of postmodernism used by marketers to reap advantages over other individuals (Schroeder 2002, p. 45). The concept of de-differentiation mainly involves the changes made on products to enhance differentiation (Schroeder 2002, p. 46).
Marketing differentiation refers to the way marketers describe disparities in their products with an aim of influencing the potential buyers to purchase their products and shun those of their rivals (Heath 2004, p. 98).
Effects of Fragmentation, Hyper-reality, and De-differentiation on Trafford Centre
Fragmentation
Fragmentation affects how marketing is done in Trafford Centre (Miller 1995, p. 11). Since fragmentation exists on its own, it is used as an “ironic brick-a-brack” to combine the traditional marketing styles and strategies to produce a more effective marketing strategy that can produce attractive results (Miller 1995, p. 13).
Fragmentation has been used in the Trafford Shopping Centre to break marketing information, which is contrary to what people expect (Brown 1995, p. 24). After breaking the information, the postmodern marketers then restructure the broken information to pass a hidden message to the potential buyers (Brown 1995, p. 26).
The potential buyers in the case of fragmentation make their decisions based on the wrong information conveyed to them by marketers (Brown 1995, p. 33). Before the marketers think of fragmenting the information, they first study the nature of the target market (Brown 1995, p. 34).
If the target market is composed of people who are not so illiterate, but has great interest for the products sold in Trafford Centre, they easily feed them with the hidden messages to speed up the decision making process (Maclaran, Catterall & Stevens 2000, p. 13).
Hyper-reality
The concept of hyper-reality is also felt in Trafford Centre; however, it deals in both counterfeit and valid products (Miller 1995, p. 16). The different products have been blended in a way that buyers cannot easily distinguish the real products from the counterfeit ones (Miller 1995, p. 17).
Sometimes the line between the counterfeit and the original products is so thin that the buyers fail to have even the slightest idea about what is real and what is reproduced (Miller 1995, p. 20).
Hyper-reality in Trafford Centre is also done through proxies (Brown 1995, p. 37). Postmodern markers use proxies to take other marketers’ ideas regarding the products that are sold in the shops and make them look like their own (Brown 1995, p. 38).
The marketers who steal others’ ideas do it so as to win customers from their rival shops (Maclaran, Catterall & Stevens 2000, p. 17). In the case of proxies, the marketers do not apply so many tactics to change the ideas, they simply redefine the words and then they appear as if they are original (Hackley 2001, p. 58).
De-differentiation
De-differentiation is used in Trafford Centre to enhance competitive advantage between different firms (Maclaran, Catterall & Stevens 2000, p. 18). It is one of the contemporary marketing strategies used by the shops to win customers from other businesses that stock similar products (Frank 1997, p. 96: Proctor 2000, p. 40).
The markers do not differentiate the products, but they simply make a few changes to them (Kozinets, Cova & Shankar 2007, p. 121). De-differentiation is used in the shops to make products of a particular firm look completely unique (Frank 1997, p. 97).
De-differentiation to an extent, has been used in Trafford Centre to promote monopolistic competition, which is stronger than perfect competition (Heath 2004, p. 102). Some of the marketers in Trafford have redesigned their products to attract a greater number of buyers to their shops (Heath 2004, p. 103: Blythe 2008, p. 33).
The shops, which have redesigned their products to appear very attractive, have managed to retain the customers (Kozinets, Cova & Shankar 2007, p. 123).
Conclusion
The concept of postmodernism has great effects on contemporary marketing. For instance, the concept has led to redefinition of marketing from what it used to be in the modern period. The major characteristics of postmodernism are fragmentation, hyper-reality and de-differentiation.
Fragmentation refers to wrongful use of information for unfair gains while hyper-reality and de-differentiation assist marketers to redesign counterfeit products to look like genuine ones. Trafford Centre is an example of shopping centres where the effects of postmodernism are evident.
In Trafford Centre, fragmentation is used to influence the way customers make decisions. Hyper-reality and de-differentiation are used in the shopping centre to change the outlook of products or to make counterfeit products look genuine.
References
Blythe, J 2008, Key concepts in marketing, SAGE, London.
Bocock, R 1993, Consumption, Routledeg, London.
Brown, S 1995, Postmodern marketing, International Thomson Business Press, London.
Frank, T 1997, The conquest of cool: business culture, counterculture, and the rise of hip consumerism, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL.
Hackley, C 2001, Marketing and social construction, Routledge, London.
Heath, J 2004, Nation of rebels: why counterculture became consumer culture, HarperBusiness, New York, NY.
Not always Postmodernism can be easily distinguished from Modernism. Modernism separates “fine art” and “low art”, or “high culture” and “mass culture”, while Postmodernism tends to compare and mix non-traditional media and images (Harris 2001). Postmodern artists “share a healthy suspicion of all traditional truth claims and value standards, all hierarchical authority and institutions” (Kleiner 2008, p. 987). Postmodern art can be defined through several characteristics, which are most common for all postmodern artworks. The characteristics might include such qualities as expansion, complexity, simplification, performance art, response to surroundings, appropriation, responding to context, appropriation, juxtaposition, collage, politics, feminism, installation art, site-specific, non-traditional materials, mixing images and media, mundane elements, kitsch (Postmodernism Characteristics 2012).
An efficient way to define and characterize postmodern art is to have a close look at some postmodern artists and examine their works. Let us consider three different Postmodernists and make an analysis of some of their works. They are Australian artistic photographer and sculptor Fiona Margaret Hall, American Post-Modern Expressionism artist Donray and Japanese appropriation artist Yasumasa Morimura.
The main themes of Fiona Hall’s art are society and culture. It also reflects the problem of human influences upon nature and the whole world. Fiona’s ideas and way of thinking are usually multi-faceted. Her works are often complex and highly detailed.
Fiona Hall, Medicine Bundle for the non-born Child, 1993-1994.
For example, her work Medicine Bundle for the non-born Child is made from recycled Coca-Cola cans and knitting. Coca leaves from South America and cola nuts from Africa are used in the world’s most popular soft drink, which is a symbol of capitalism and globalization. It is also a global marker of modernity. The work shows the misappropriation of knowledge from the Third World countries, as well as the theme of the desire for consumer goods (Guthrie 2010). Fiona wants viewers to become concerned about their children’s future. She combines a very popular brand and child’s clothes made of it. Hall makes a visible contrast with the object, creating the underlying emotional mood. This also helps to deliver the message to the viewer. Contrast is one of the main elements. It can be seen in the materials, which is the objects of these work made of. The cold and sharp metal stripes can be hardly combined with something that is related to a child. At the first glance, it looks like knitted wool, but then viewers realize that it is something sharp, cutting, and unappropriated for a child’s clothes. This work is unified by repeated use of colors, shapes and items.
Yasumasa Morimura often inserts his face or body into historical artists’ images. By inserting himself into the different works of historical great artists, he shows his respect to them, but it can be viewed as “a cultural statement on many (still) taboo categories of debate – masculinity, femininity, essentialism and the appropriation of historical works” (Yasumasa Morimura 2009). His work includes the painstaking process. He spends a lot of time “re-creating an environment (sometimes to perfect scale)” and “focuses a great deal in sourcing costumes, makeup and props” (Yasumasa Morimura 2009). Sometimes Yasumasa includes kitsch in his arts. He also tends to include pop icons in some of them. “This reference to popular culture from both the East and West signifies the transition of technological advances in art practices as well as exploring the value, or de-valuing, of art history” (Yasumasa Morimura 2009). Many features of contemporary visual art are presented in his works, such as “sense of cultural disconnection, experimentation with process, his tireless pursuit for (in)perfection” (Yasumasa Morimura 2009). All of these features interconnect with the self-determination through his works in an almost comical manner. The major themes in Morimura’s works are related to the exploration of cultural identities, intercultural exchanges, as well as gender identity. These themes are mainly considered in the context of cultural communication and globalization.
Yasumasa Morimura, After Brigitte Bardot 2, 1996.
One of his most famous work is After Brigitte Bardot 2. It is a part of Self-portrait series. Actress Brigitte Bardot is the main subject in this work. She is dressed in shiny black leather shorts and boots, sitting on a Harley Davidson motorcycle. These all are stereotypical features of American pop culture. It is a parody. At the same time, the image is pulled out of a natural context. The archetype of American popular culture is placed on the downtown street of Osaka. Her face is replaced by that of the Morimura. Thus, Morimura shows that “identity can be defined in terms of national icons,” such as the Bardots and Harley Davidsons of the USA and the typical downtown street in Japan (Roca 2009, p. 2). However, Morimura’s Bardot possesses “a more complex, hybrid identity, augmented by the fact that she is played by an Asian male, while being quintessentially Western” (Roca 2009, p. 2). Consequently, Yasumasa shows that “identity should be perceived as a composite of multiple identities”, rather than a single one, in the current context of globalization (Roca 2009, p. 2).
Donray is a Post-Modern Expressionism artist. His style also includes elements of Surrealism, Futurism and Fauvism. His works are known for metaphorical imagery. They are exploring lively nature and life. In addition, they often represent a longing for spiritual fulfillment. His major subjects are objects and landscapes in motion. He is well-known for his innovative technique. Donray’s works include the acrylic and acrylic-on-acrylic method he had discovered. He was using various media from paper and canvas to charcoal, conte crayon and Masonite. Movements including Baroque, Romanticism and German Expressionism also inspired Donray. Donald Kuspit describes his works as “a verve, an energy, a dynamic surging gesture, violent movement, an overall vividness and vitality that places Donray’s paintings among the most interesting of what might be called the post-modern expressionist painting” (Kuspit, Bass & Luytens 2008, n.p.).
His work Woman in a Boat is powerful, energetic and dreamlike. The use of color is bright and contrasting. The imagery is emotional and somehow double-sided. Boat and water are usually represent something silent, calm, gradual, etc. But it is highly contrasted with bright yellow and green colors. The work called Woman in a Boat, though it is almost clearly visible two images. This can be interpreted as if the first darker image of a woman is her physical form, while the bright red image is her spirit, inner essence. Maybe the artist wanted to show that every woman has a fire inside. The central image of the woman is dull and sad, while her fire form is alive and forceful.
Donray, Woman in a Boat, 2006.
In contrast to Modernism, Postmodernism evades from the firm definition. Postmodernism can be defined through the rejection of modernist ideals, but it is not that simple. Despite that Donray, Yasumasa Morimura and Fiona Hall are postmodern artists, their works are completely different and it is hard to find common traits among them. However, these three well-known Postmodernists made a great contribution to this concept.
References
Guthrie, S 2010, Artist of Substance: Fiona Hall, Web.
Harris, J 2001, The New Art History: A Critical Introduction, Routledge, London.
Kleiner, F S 2008, Gardner’s Art through the Ages: A Global History, Ph.D., Columbia University, New York City.
Kuspit, D, Bass, R, Luytens, D 2008, ‘Donray, A Cross-Section’, Exhibition Catalogue, One Man Show, Arlington Museum of Art, n.p.
Postmodernism Characteristics 2012, Web.
Roca, R 2009, ‘The Exploration of Identity through Self-Portraiture’, Niram Art Magazine, p. 2.
Heartney (16) defines postmodernism as an era that followed modernism. In the field of art, there has been a massive change that has taken place, ranging from pre-modernism, modernism and finally postmodernism.
According to Grenz (78), art has experienced changes in line with the changing world. This scholar holds that these changes are a reflection of the actual changes taking place within society.
There are several artists who have made remarkable contributions to the development of art to what it is currently. Brewer (82) says that for change to be real and effective there must be agents of change. These agents would commit to bringing positive changes to a given field.
Their work would define the future of that field. This is the case within this field. Various artists have heavily contributed to the development of art through their unique approach to this field.
These are individuals who have helped shape postmodernism in this field through a noble course that has seen them come up with new approaches and techniques in this field.
Joseph Beuys, Maria Kozic, and Cindy Sherman are some of the postmodern artists who have highly been lauded to have had positive contributions in this field. This research will be discussing postmodernism, with focus on the works of the above-named artists.
Post Modernism
Postmodernism is a term used in various fields, including in art. In the field of art, postmodernism refers to the new approaches that were taken by modern artists as the world experienced various changes.
The reason why this is referred to as postmodernism and not just modernism is an issue that is open to further discussion. Bertens (89) explains that the name postmodernism was adopted because when art changed from the old age to the middle age, it was referred to as modernism.
Therefore, there was a need to distinguish the developments that took place after this. The name ‘postmodernism was considered appropriate for this.
Postmodernism had agents who ensured that it was implemented smoothly. To have a deeper understanding of postmodernism, the research will focus on the works of Joseph Beuys, Maria Kozic, and Cindy Sherman.
Joseph Beuys and Postmodernism
Joseph Beuys was a German performance artist, a sculptor, a graphic artist, installation artist, art theorists among other fields in art. Beuys had a massive contribution to art through his radical policies and the skilled approach he took when handling issues of art.
Beuys was a staunch advocate for human rights. Most of his work was based on the concept of social philosophy humanism and anthroposophy (Docherty 117). He believed that every human being had his worth, irrespective of the social standing, religious beliefs or any other demographical factors.
Beuys is remembered for his advocacies for human rights within German. He was regarded as a radical in the society given the approach he took when defending what he believed was the right approach to take in the society.
Beuys used his mastery of arts to influence society. His concept of social sculpture was of massive impact to postmodernism in art. He skillfully combined politics, issues of gender and class and modern society in his work. He changed the role of the museums.
They changed from being simple entertainment joints to places where rights of the common man were championed. His ability to pass his message through a piece of art transformed the approach that artists took in their art (Natoli 82).
It was no longer a case where artists would base their work on just entertainment. Artists would develop their work to reflect the specific message in the society that the audience could identify with.
Art was becoming an authority in the society through which, values that are cherished were championed.
Perhaps one of the most prominent works of Beuys was the 7000 Oaks project.
Considered too ambitious by a section of the society or controversial by others, this project was not only focused on bringing art into environmental conservation but also to demonstrate that humanity had a role in protecting the environment.
The project brought together the fields of art, environmental issues, and education into one closet. He is also remembered for other industrious work he did in transforming the society in general, an in postmodernism in art in general.
Cindy Sherman and Postmodernism
Cindy, as she was popularly known, was born on 19th January 1954. Cindy was a renowned American photographer, a film director, and a philosopher.
Unlike Beuys who took a radical approach in his work, Cindy was moderate in her policies, always preferring to stay away from any form of controversy (Brockelman 49). However, his works on art are generally believed to have shaped postmodernism in the field of art.
She based her work on the issues that the society was experiencing, in what was referred to as conceptual portraits. Her skills in relating conceptual issues in her art earned her the prestigious MacArthur Fellowship award in 1995.
An author, a fashion guru, an actor and an artist, Cindy had a massive impact in various fields of art. She was one of the best fashion designers of her time.
She is also recalled to have defined the role of women in fashion, media, and art during those early times when issues of gender and class were considered emotive in American society.
She promoted a popular culture where women were believed to have as much potential in art just as men. In her pieces of art, she managed to bring traditional culture and modernism into one mix.
Maria Kozic and Postmodernism
Born in 1957, Maria Kozic is one of the Australian artists that have been considered as very influential in postmodern art. Just like Cindy, Kozic was concerned about the plight of women artist in society.
She was a multi-media artist who was often participated in feminist politics and gender issues. One of her work that made a massive impact in postmodern art is the Blue Boy inflatable plastic billboard which became popularly known as Maria Kozic is Bitch (Hart 67).
In her works, Kozic insisted on the need to have a society where art was used to champion positive virtues. Following the footsteps of Joseph Beuys, Kozic would use art to present her ideas on how society should be run.
Conclusion
Contemporary art has been influenced by works of various renowned artists who dedicated their time to transforming this field.
Joseph Beuys, a German artist, came up with radical policies that transformed the approach taken in art. Cindy Sherman and Maria Kozic have also made a massive impact in postmodernism of art.
Works Cited
Bertens, Hans. Postmodernism: The Key Figures. Oxford: Blackwell, 2002. Print.
Brewer, Robert. Postmodernism: What You Should Know and Do About It. New York: Writer’s Showcase, 2002. Print.
Brockelman, Thomas. The Frame and the Mirror: On Collage and the Postmodern. Evanston, Ill: Northwestern University Press, 2001. Print.
Docherty, Thomas. Postmodernism: A Reader. Harlow: Longman, 1993. Print.
Grenz, Stanley. A Primer on Postmodernism. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1996. Print.
Hart, Kevin. Postmodernism: A Beginner’s Guide. Oxford: Oneworld, 2004. Print.
The postmodernist turn in psychology and social sciences has made interactions between clients and therapists more focused on language and processes to make sense of relationships and feelings. Postmodernism and social constructionism are becoming increasingly common in marital and family therapy practices, so understanding their essence is crucial for a qualified MFT professional. This essay is devoted to the author’s understandings of postmodernism, its connections to other theories, potential uses, and concerns.
From my perspective, the emphasis on language and meaning rather than social/biological systems could be listed among the clear and compelling elements of postmodern thought. The acquisition of social skills in human development is inextricably connected with linguistic competencies and socialization through language, which explains the central role of language in the postmodernist movement (Chenail et al., 2020). Among other things, postmodernism recognizes the great power that words, terms, and subjective understanding have on individuals and couples. This includes the therapeutic influences of language and the opportunity to use it to “unframe problematic framing to help families generate healthier possibilities” (Chenail et al., 2020, p. 418). The tendency to ignore the subjective meanings expressed through language can be harmful in counseling, which is why the listed element is easy to explain.
When it comes to systems theories, there is a drastic contradiction between attempts to explore the family or other units holistically and applying the postmodernist approach. Postmodernism holds that one global theory cannot “describe, explain, interpret, and predict all human behavior” and that there should be “a plurality of possible descriptions and interpretations” (Chenail et al., 2020, p. 418). Since a belief in the absence of objective knowledge is prevalent in postmodernism, this movement rejects attempts to apply systems thinking to the family. For instance, Bowen’s family systems theory views the family as a coherent emotional unit and posits that it is impossible to understand a person without exploring his/her immediate social surroundings (Erdem & Safi, 2018). Such theories emphasize the system’s homeostasis as a contributor to people’s behaviors, whereas postmodernism lays stress on every involved person’s unique worldviews and perceptions.
Postmodernism and social constructionism inform my work by influencing the selection of interviewing techniques and the readiness to accept the multiplicity of perspectives on the same issue in clinical contexts. Social constructionism gives the pride of place to interpretive disciplines and psychological explanations (Gergen, 1985). This perspective is reflected in my interviewing activities with clients, including the prevalence of open-ended and clarification questions. Asking individuals to explain and define even the simplest concepts linked to their marriage issues, which is also known as not-knowing, is also common in my practice with couples. As for other postmodernist approaches, I treat clients as experts and avoid comparing their systems of values with any reference points and outdated expectations of a healthy family (Northcentral University, 2017). In interpersonal conflicts, instead of taking sides, I explore my clients’ unique value systems to help them find any intersecting point to start a productive dialogue.
Partially due to the focus on meanings and subjective concepts, postmodernism has changed the mental health community’s understanding of families’ and individuals’ uniqueness, which supports conversations related to diversity, inclusion, and equity. In the postmodernist approach, instead of therapist-directed sessions, clients are viewed as experts who enable therapists to learn more about their lives and personal goals, thus maximizing the recognition of unique perspectives (Glass, 2019). Postmodern therapists often support the deconstruction of social power and are open to studying prejudice and dominance through exploring their clients’ subjective experiences and worldviews (Glass, 2019). Depending on the therapist’s ability to raise social awareness, insights from psychotherapy and counseling sessions informed by postmodernism can promote the recognition of new groups that experience social injustice or feel excluded from mainstream society. Therefore, through its focus on the individual, postmodernism can support inclusion and the acceptance of diversity.
Postmodernist ideas can support the formation of coping strategies, which are among the essential elements of the recovery model. The concept of recovery rejects the dichotomy of the normal and the abnormal, and the recovery process is generally viewed as an individual’s unique journey to subjective well-being. Therefore, both the model and postmodern ideas demonstrate skepticism towards “the norm.” Using the postmodernist approach, therapists can foster recovery by aiding clients in narratives’ development in the formulation of coping techniques informed by their views of life. However, one confusing point is how the denial of objective reality should coexist with the therapist’s ability to prevent the use of coping techniques that are objectively harmful.
Considering the point above, there are some concerns regarding connections between postmodernism and MFT. Specifically, postmodernism fosters a celebration of uniqueness and a departure from any generalizations about society, which, in my opinion, can hinder the evaluation of MFT sessions’ effectiveness and therapeutic results. If there are no objective criteria of happiness, well-being, and marital satisfaction, the systematization of knowledge on counseling methods that work and do not work can be problematic.
To sum up, postmodernism is a fascinating movement that transforms approaches to helping families resolve interpersonal conflicts. Postmodernism aims to reject fixed and inflexible systems, thus opposing generalization and promoting relativism. Its ideas inform more individualized approaches to family counseling and the thorough exploration of central issues as they are viewed and explained by all affected parties. These characteristics enable postmodern therapists to act as social justice advocates.
References
Chenail, R. J., Reiter, M. D., Torres-Gregory, M., & Ilic, D. (2020). Postmodern family therapy. In K. S. Wampler, R. B. Miller, & R. B. Seedall (Eds.), The handbook of systemic family therapy: Volume 1 (pp. 417-442). John Wiley & Sons.
Glass, V. (2019). Postmodernism and social constructionism in family therapy. In Y. Watters & D. Adamson (Eds.), An introduction to MFT: Systems theory and foundational models (pp. 225-238). Northcentral University.
Northcentral University. (2017). Postmodernism and social constructionism [Video]. Web.
