Category: Population

Contraception or birth control is a fertility control aimed at preventing pregnancy. Some countries try to discourage access to or limit contraceptives, as they believe contraceptives to be immoral, unethical, and undesirable in terms of political viewpoints. People resort to contraception usage for several reasons. The first one is that they want to prevent pregnancy and indulge their sex-related whims with no further side effects, such as an unexpected child. The second reason is that they do not want to get sexually transmitted diseases (STDs). Safe sex practices are correlated to the diminishing risk of STD existence. Contraceptives might not guarantee the complete protection of STD development. Macounová et al. (2021) claim that contraception provides protection only against unwanted pregnancy but not against HIV and STDs (p. 8). All these negative side-effects come from peoples impacts. However, the high rate of anticontraception usage affects several countries policies in terms of a low total fertility rate. Several countries are concerned about the spread of birth control pills or other ways of contraception, while other countries, like India, implement social programs planning family size utilizing fertility control (Chauhan & Prasad, 2021, p. 10).

Some countries try to implement several social programs limiting and prohibiting contraceptives, as they want to raise the level of fertile women within their governmental programs related to population rate. Other countries are overpopulated, such as China and Japan, and they welcome fertility control strategies. Most nations discuss the prevalence and availability of various kinds of contraceptive techniques globally concerning policy and unmet needs in industrializing nations (Bolin et al., 2021, p. 138). Several states being industrialized nations manifest signs of a low total fertility rate. It happens because of a low unemployment rate among Japanese men who are bad candidates for further marriage. Men in Japan occupy temporary jobs that make them unable to sustain a family and would-be-children. The second primary reason for low fertility is that the Japanese government does not provide citizens with a decent parental leave for childrens service. For this very reason, Japanese residents do not want to bring babies into the world, and it has little to do with contraceptives.

India is considered to be an impoverished country facing problems in different spheres, such as overpopulation, a high rate of migration, a weak economy, and a poorly organized health care system. To improve the current situation, authorities have to reassess several policies concerning nutritional problem solutions that are typical of people from low-social segments. Mahato et al. (2020) state that these problems are common for Indians, as they suffer from a high incidence of infectious diseases (p. 122). Indians faced low performance of child health and maternal indicators and nutritional problems that are rampant in significant parts of India predisposed by social and economic factors. To solve this problem, a government has to implement single-micronutrient deficiency prevention strategies. They are: reassessing nutrition compositions given to people, and the health care availability making people check up on their physical condition regularly (Elhag & El Ansari, 2021, para. 2). Indians face non-compliance with nutritional supplementation because the government institutes pay less attention to individuals from low social class. The Indian government might find financial sources to support and protect people from preventing a high rate of digesting diseases.

General rations, supplementary feeding programs, and therapeutic feeding programs take the leading role in maintaining population nutrition. Volin et al. (2020) state that nutrient supplements to household communities are liable for the improvement of the nutrient adequacy of general food distribution rations for vulnerable sub-groups (para. 4). This statement implies that people from low social classes suffer from supplementary feeding programs that do not correspond to nutrient norms.

References

Chauhan, B. G., & Prasad, J. B. (2021). Contraception use and fertility aspiration among currently married young men in India. Do gender attitudes matter? Children and Youth Services Review, 122, 1-15

Bolin, A., Whelehan, P., Vernon, M., & Antoine, K. (2021). Birth control, abortion, and methods of birth control in cross-cultural contexts. In human sexuality (pp. 50). Routledge.

Elhag, W., & El Ansari, W. (2021). Nutritional deficiencies post bariatric surgery: a forgotten area impacting long-term success and quality of life. Bariatric surgery-from the non-surgical approach to the post-surgery individual care. IntechOpen. Web.

Macounová, P., Tomáaková, H., `najdrová, A., Stanovská, M., Polochová, M., Tomáaek, I., & Maar, R. (2021). Education of adolescents in the prevention of HIV/AIDS in the Czech Republic. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(11), 1-12.

Mahato, S. D., Ghoshal, S., Ghosh, A., Haque, M., Mandal, A., Acharya, S. K., Biswas, A. (2020). Food security and nutritional availability of farmers in tribal areas of India: the complexity and challenges. Current Journal of Applied Science and Technology, 39(45), 114-124

Volin, N., Thompson, L., Cohen, M. K., Rogers, B. L., & Webb, P. (2021). Maintaining and expanding the refine repository for food assistance research. U.S. Agency of International Development.

The selected measure of morbidity, mortality, or natality

The Natality index, or as some scientists claim fertility rate, is the indicator showing the number of children is to be born theoretically by one woman until she reaches a specific age when she cannot give birth to any child (OECD Data, n.d.). Moreover, this index neglects the migration and mortality processes to make the indicator clearer from other factors except womens possibilities to give birth to children.

The numerator and the denominator, and how is it typically reported

This index is calculated and presented as the total number of children to one woman, so that if one woman, on average in the world, can theoretically produce four children until she reaches the fertility-free age, then the ratio will represent 4 in the numerator and 1 in the denominator. In this case, the index will be equal to 4. However, the birth rate may also be traced as the number of children born per 1,000 people or women, so that if there are ten children in the nominator, and 1,000 people in the denominator, then the index will be 0,001.

Demographics by which the measure is available

The number of children may also be presented for ethnicity and race (Statista, 2021). In some cases, the age factor may be illustrated. The other demographics are not made due to ethical issues.

The selected measure for the past five years of available data for two geographical areas in the U.S.

The birth rate in the state of Texas has constantly been declining for the past five years, from 70.7 children per 1.000 women to 62.5 children in 2019 (Peristats, 2019). While observing the Country level, the situation is even worse: from 62.5 children per 1.000 women in 2015 to 58.3 children in 2019.

The timeliness of the measure

The index is demonstrated yearly by many organizations due to the social statistics efficiency in most countries. However, in the USA, it is usually a 2-year delay. One possible reason is that the rate is presented as children per 1.000 women, so they must turn their digits into the other metric to present clear statistics.

How the measure has changed in the past five years

The overall tendency is negative, so the nations with low fertility rates are assumed to be aging nations. These circumstances are interesting because the main reason for a decline in economic prosperity is that women aim to have higher education and remain working for the long-term perspective without pausing their worktime to give birth to a child. However, the low fertility rate may cause economic stagnation because of the increasing pressure on the working labor force so that they would have to work harder and earn less to pay all the taxes for the pension and continue living normally.

How and why the measure may or may not vary by geographical area

The measure significantly varies by the area of the population due to one main reason. It is assumed that the overall countrys intelligence negatively affects the birth rate (Stanhope et al., 2017). This may be caused by the womens willingness to continue living child-free and choose a professional career path instead of creating a family by neglecting professional growth.

The primary, secondary, and tertiary prevention measures that are available to address the selected measure of morbidity, mortality, or natality

The primary prevention measure is that it is crucial to determine the countrys need of the rates dynamics. After that, when it is defined whether to increase or lower fertility, some specific measures may be applied to the society: direct family support in case of need in fertility growth, for instance (United Nations, 2017). The tertiary prevention of the fertility growth or decline is that there can be provided a working place security or its cancelation so that women could benefit from being mothers and return to the same working position after the specific period (BBC News, 2020). Evidence-based interventions main idea is that the first stage (primary stage) plays a pivotal role in the countrys actions in this question (Pregnancy Health: Community Folic Acid Campaign, 2020). This is because making the wrong choice may destroy any plan for fertility growth or decline.

References

BBC News. (2020). How do countries fight falling birth rates? BBC News. Web.

OECD Data. (n.d.). The OECD. Web.

Peristats. (2019). Peristats. Web.

Stanhope, M., & Lancaster, J. (2017). Foundations for Population Health in Community/Public Health Nursing  E-Book (5th ed., Vol. 1). Elsevier Gezondheidszorg.

Statista. (2021). Total fertility rate by ethnicity U.S. 2019. Web.

Pregnancy Health: Community Folic Acid Campaign | The Community Guide (2020). The Community Guide. Web.

United Nations. (2017) Government policies to raise or lower the fertility level | Population Division. Web.

Introduction

Pediatric care often includes invasive procedures such as injections and venipuncture, which can cause pain, anxiety, and fear in children. According to Canbulat ^ahiner and Türkmen (2019), pain experienced during medical procedures can lead to profound long-term physical and psychological consequences. Therefore, a healthcare provider should ensure a childs comfort during this type of procedure to deliver responsible, ethical, and holistic care.

This group project examines the effectiveness of various interventions within the distraction method since those interventions might greatly assist pediatric nurses in alleviating pain and distress in children. However, it is also crucial to understand which interventions are more effective than others in the context of different groups within a pediatric population. Otherwise, potentially beneficial interventions may be misused, which can result in diminished effectiveness.

As such, our project states the following PICO question: how effective is using a distraction method during an injection compared to using no distraction on a childs perceived pain in a pediatric population? Consequently, the paper contains a review and analysis of scholarly works on the subjects of various distraction interventions and their impact on pain, anxiety, and fear reduction in children and adolescents. In addition, the paper provides age- and procedure-related recommendations to medical practitioners, which stem from the evaluated effectiveness of different intervention types.

Evidence Table

Table 1. Evidence Summary.

Background

Multiple scholarly papers underscored the adverse effects of pain in the pediatric population during invasive medical procedures. Dabas (2019) defined pain as sensory and emotional feeling with actual or potential tissue damage and a major source of distress in infants and their family members (p.5). Bice and Wyatt (2017) claimed that ensuring comfort for children should not be restricted to pain management but also include interventions to alleviate fear, anxiety, and distress. Redfern et al. (2018) stated that pain experienced during needle procedures might lead to delay or avoidance of treatment in adult life. Additionally, pain may disrupt communication between nurses and children, hindering care delivery (Rezai et al., 2017). Therefore, alleviating pain-induced negative experiences during a medical procedure is seemingly critical for eventual treatment success.

Non-pharmacological methods such as distraction may serve as an effective means of pain alleviation during injections or other invasive procedures. In theory, various distraction interventions can divert a childs attention from painful sensations (Canbulat ^ahiner & Türkmen, 2019). However, the effectiveness of particular distraction techniques may significantly depend on age groups within the pediatric population or specific types of invasive procedures. As a result, a problem arises  it is unclear which interventions would be helpful in a particular situation. In this regard, it is important to review existing scholarly sources to develop practical recommendations for nursing personnel.

Purpose

The purpose of this study lies in providing evidence-based recommendations for nursing personnel. In particular, our group strived to confirm whether distraction interventions during invasive medical procedures are genuinely effective. If the evidence from the scholarly sources proves the effectiveness of the distraction method, it would also become possible to derive practical recommendations for pediatric nurses. In this regard, the parts of the PICO question stated in the introductory section can be defined as the following:

• P (Population): the pediatric population included in the reviewed scholarly sources encompasses multiple age groups  from 6-month-old infants to 18-year-old adolescents;
• I (Intervention): the primary reviewed intervention method is a distraction, applied during invasive medical procedures, mainly  injections. Various types of distractions, such as soap bubbles, music, video games, and many others, were examined;
• C (Comparison): our main research interest lay in comparing perceived levels of pain, anxiety, fear, and distress in the groups which experienced distraction techniques to the groups, which did not experience them;
• O (Outcome): the desired outcome lay in confirming or refuting the effectiveness of the distraction method in pediatric care. In addition, in case if methods effectiveness is confirmed, our group intended to provide practical, evidence-based recommendations for the pediatric nursing personnel.

To summarize, our group intended to review existing sources on the subject in order to confirm or refute the effectiveness of the distraction method in various age groups within the pediatric population. In addition, this paper aimed to derive practical, evidence-based recommendations for nurses depending on the literature review results. Essentially, our team attempted to conclude whether the distraction method is effective and which distraction techniques should be used in various circumstances.

Search Methods

The search for relevant scholarly sources started from accessing three significant databases: the Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL), PubMed, and the Cochrane Database for Systematic Reviews. The following groups of crucial search terms were used to separate results into five categories:

• Child* AND distract* AND pain AND (shot OR injection)  20 initial results located;
• Pediatric AND distraction AND injection  14 initial results located;
• Children AND immunizations OR vaccine OR vaccinations AND distraction method AND nurse*  60 initial results located;
• Children OR adolescents OR youth OR child OR teenager AND distraction techniques  187 initial results located;
• Reducing vaccine pain  3 initial results located;

As such, the initial combined searches yielded 284 possible entries, 9 of which were eligible for the final selection. The scope was narrowed down through the application of several inclusion and exclusion criteria. The article had to meet the following criteria to be eligible for text assessment:

• Research had to be published in a peer-reviewed journal in the English language;
• The date of publishing had to be not earlier than January 2015;

In addition, several exclusion criteria were applied to narrow the scope of review even further:

• Duplicate studies were removed from selection;
• Research that did not focus on non-pharmacological interventions sufficiently enough were excluded from the scope;

This approach allowed to establish a review scope of 30 sources across five categories of the initial search. The text of these 30 articles was further assessed for eligibility. In the end, only 9 articles remained eligible and were selected for inclusion in the evidence table.

Research Methods

Out of 9 articles deemed eligible for further research, 4 were designed as randomized control trials with control and experimental groups, and 4 presented a systematic review of scholarly sources on a subject. In addition, a study by Russell and Harrison (2015) can be described as a descriptive secondary sources research on methods of pain reduction in infants. This work is closer to a review; however, its scope does not allow to classify it as systematic. Our group has conducted a breakdown of research methods used in the scholarly studies.

Randomized Control Trials

Research by Dabas (2019) explored the effects of various distraction interventions during immunization in an infant population setting. 100 infants were pre-selected via random sampling techniques and assigned to several experimental groups tied to a particular distraction intervention. In addition, a special control group was provided with standard care. The dependent variable analyzed in the research was the mean pain score measured by the FLACC pain scale, while distraction interventions served as independent variables.

Canbulat ^ahiner and Türkmen (2019) studied a pediatric population group of 120 children aged 6 to 11 years. The research goal lay in evaluating the effectiveness of distraction cards in pain and anxiety reduction during intermuscular injections. Similar to a study by Dabas (2019), the researchers separated children into experimental and control groups. Perceived levels of pain and anxiety served as dependent variables, whereas distraction cards were considered an independent variable.

Longobardi et al. (2019) studied the effects of distraction with soap bubbles in the pediatric emergency room setting where children waited for medical examination and procedures. The research population scope included 74 children aged between 7 and 10 years. The participants were separated into experimental and control groups and reported their pain, fear, and anxiety perceptions. Distraction with soap bubbles served as an independent variable; levels of pain, anxiety, and fear depended on it.

Finally, Redfern et al. (2018) examined the effects of the thermomechanical stimulation with a Buzzy device on pain, anxiety, and patient satisfaction during needle procedures. The total population sample included 50 children in the 3-18-year-old age range. Children in the experimental group were distracted with a Buzzy device, while their counterparts from the control group received injections without a distraction. Participants from both groups reported their pain and fear perceptions before and after the procedure. Final results were calculated through statistical tools, similarly to other researches in this category.

Systematic Reviews

A systematic review by Bice and Wyatt (2017) explores studies, which examined various non-pharmacological interventions aimed at achieving holistic comfort for children during pediatric procedures. In total, the authors reviewed 33 scholarly studies and presented their findings in connection to four common themes of comfort intervention: music therapy, caregiver facilitation, amusement and entertainment, and multifaceted (mixed) approach. In the end, Bice and Wyatt (2017) concluded which interventions are more effective depending on the patient population and particular invasive procedures.

Birnie et al. (2018) conducted a comprehensive review of sources from six databases: CINAHL, CENTRAL, MEDLINE, PsycINFO, Embase, and Web of Science. The selection of their research included 59 randomized control trials with 5550 participants in the 2-19-year-old range who underwent various needle procedures. Non-pharmacological methods  distraction, hypnosis, preparation, breathing interventions, and combined cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) were evaluated by their efficacy in alleviating pain and distress. In addition, pain and distress were separated into self-reported and observer-reported categories, which added an extra dimension to the review.

Loeffen et al. (2020) utilized the systematic review design to develop a CPG for treating children diagnosed with cancer. The review in the basis of CPG included 48 randomized control trials with 2271 participants, 15 of which were focused on psychological interventions. The international panel of 44 members evaluated the evidence in scholarly sources in terms of quality and composed a list of recommendations for care providers.

Lastly, Rezai et al. (2017) studied 31 randomized control trials and two systematic reviews from databases in English and Persian to evaluate distraction techniques effectiveness during venipuncture procedure. Additionally, the researchers tied recommendations on specific intervention usage to particular age groups within the pediatric population. However, this review was focused exclusively on pain reduction during venipuncture, so it cannot be reliably extrapolated on distress alleviation.

Results

Regarding the previously stated PICO question, it is possible to answer with confidence  using distraction method during injection is effective since it allows to alleviate perceived pain in the pediatric population. The overall level of evidence may be weak; however, both randomized control trials and systematic reviews show the positive influence of distraction interventions during needle procedures. Most importantly, scholarly sources did not contain evidence of harm coming from using the distraction method. As such, pediatric nurses should use distraction intervention in their daily practice; however, certain recommendations should be considered to achieve optimal effectiveness.

Recommendations

It is possible to provide several evidence-based recommendations which will assist pediatric nurses in their practice. Firstly, applying distraction method to children during injections is risk-free; researchers strongly recommend nurses to use it. Secondly, the distraction technique of choice should be tailored to the patients age. Soap bubbles are especially effective and versatile since they are easily affordable and work for a wide age range of children. Lastly, distraction is beneficial for infants as well  simply showing them a toy lowers observed levels of pain during injections. Overall, our group recommends equipping pediatric cabinets with means of distraction appropriate for different age groups of children.

Conclusion

Through selecting and reviewing scholarly sources on the use of distraction methods during injections, our group attempted to answer a PICO question about the effectiveness of distraction in the pediatric population. The evidence supported the beneficial character of distraction interventions in comparison to the lack of them. Despite a relatively weak level of evidence, the beneficial effect of distraction was confirmed by systematic reviews and randomized control trials. As such, the distraction method can be recommended for liberal use in pediatric practice.

References

Bice, A. A., & Wyatt, T. H. (2017). Holistic comfort interventions for pediatric nursing procedures: A systematic review. Journal of Holistic Nursing, 35(3), 280295. Web.

Birnie, K. A., Noel, M., Chambers, C. T., Uman, L. S., & Parker, J. A. (2018). Psychological interventions for needle-related procedural pain and distress in children and adolescents. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 10(10), CD005179. Web.

Canbulat ^ahiner, N., & Türkmen, A. S. (2019). The effect of distraction cards on reducing pain and anxiety during intramuscular injection in children. Worldviews on Evidence-based Nursing, 16(3), 230235. Web.

Dabas, P. (2019). Effectiveness of distraction techniques on pain intensity during immunization among infants. International Journal of Nursing Education, 11(1), 59. Web.

Loeffen, E., Mulder, R. L., Font-Gonzalez, A., Leroy, P., Dick, B. D., Taddio, A., Ljungman, G., Jibb, L. A., Tutelman, P. R., Liossi, C., Twycross, A., Positano, K., Knops, R. R., Wijnen, M., van de Wetering, M. D., Kremer, L., Dupuis, L. L., Campbell, F., & Tissing, W. (2020). Reducing pain and distress related to needle procedures in children with cancer: A clinical practice guideline. European Journal of Cancer, 131, 5367. Web.

Longobardi, C., Prino, L. E., Fabris, M. A., & Settanni, M. (2019). Soap bubbles as a distraction technique in the management of pain, anxiety, and fear in children at the paediatric emergency room: A pilot study. Child: Care, Health & Development, 45(2), 300305. Web.

Redfern, R. E., Chen, J. T., & Sibrel, S. (2018). Effects of thermomechanical stimulation during vaccination on anxiety, pain, and satisfaction in pediatric patients: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Pediatric Nursing, 38, 17. Web.

Rezai, M. S., Goudarzian, A. H., Jafari-Koulaee, A., & Bagheri-Nesami, M. (2017). The effect of distraction techniques on the pain of venipuncture in children: A systematic review. Journal of Pediatrics Review, 111. Web.

Russell, K., & Harrison, D. (2015). Managing pain in early childhood immunization. Nursing New Zealand, 21(2), 2224.

Introduction

Fiat money as a medium of exchange has existed for many years. In this regard, what began as bartering, the oldest means of trade, led to the development of hundreds of currencies and, consequently, to alternative currencies used by online communities today. Thus, conventional currencies have evolved throughout history to become the most accepted means of payment globally, with governments controlling their issuance. People can acquire products or services through these legal tenders or official money issued by a centralized bank. However, the alternative currency is crypto money which can act as a substitute or a replacement for conventional currency. Unlike traditional legal tender, cryptocurrency can be created by any person or entity because banks or governments do not have monopoly power over their existence. In this case, cryptocurrencies, for example, Litecoins, Cardano, Ethereum, and Bitcoins, are some of the virtual currencies or virtual assets that depend on peer-to-peer networking. The alternative currencies innovative features, simplicity, and high value make them more popular than traditional legal tender.

Development of Alternative Currencies

A cryptocurrency is designed to function as a medium of exchange. The inception of digital money dates back to 2008. A group of individuals using the pseudonym Satoshi Nakamoto announced the Bitcoin concept and issued a white paper on the subject (Gómez & Demmler, 2018). Today, many forms of digital currencies exist, with new versions being developed regularly. The most popular cryptocurrencies, such as Bitcoins and Cardano, are based on blockchain technology that tracks, validates, records, and stores transaction data across a distributed ledger and decentralized network of personal computers (Gómez & Demmler, 2018). The main benefit of these alternative currencies is that they permit digital transactions outside of traditional banking systems. Thus, unlike other financial assets, this digital money has no link with any authority or physical representation. In addition, these currencies are used by online communities made up of users in various countries. They allow for some measure of international exchange and conversions into major fiat currencies, such as the US dollar and Euro, at low cost (Sensoy, 2019). All these features make alternative currencies attractive for online communities.

Cryptocurrencies have continued to attract the attention of institutional investors, retailers, and buyers of various goods and services. In this case, its widespread is fueled by increased media coverage and investment experts publicizing the innovative features and value that Litecoins, Cardano, Ethereum, and Bitcoin have and are expected to accrue. These cryptocurrencies have also become popular in countries with devalued currencies and high inflation, such as Venezuela (Ellsworth, 2021). In addition, virtual currencies are widespread among traders who use them to transfer large amounts of money for illegal and illicit activities (Kethineni & Cao, 2020). A study shows that between January 2016 and January 2018, the total market capitalization of the entire digital currency grew from $7.4 billion to more than $800 billion (Li et al., 2019). Therefore, these alternative currencies exponential growth is due to increased investor speculation and the introduction of various new cryptocurrencies, with their total number estimated to be over 21,844 different coins (Howarth, 2022). Despite these trends, Ethereum, Bitcoins, and others are not legal tenders and, thus, have limited acceptance among different populations.

Whether Alternative Currencies Can Replace International or Traditional Currencies

Since the introduction of cryptocurrencies, these alternative currencies have experienced an increase in utility, value, and popularity. As a result, several forms of cryptocurrencies have become acceptable to traders and investors who use them to earn returns and store value. The COVID-19 pandemic has not only fast-tracked the shift to contactless and digital payments but also increased the mainstream acceptance of cash alternatives, such as cryptocurrencies (Locke, 2021). Several factors make cryptocurrencies more appealing to a variety of traders. They include a decentralized financial system involving only two parties, which makes the transactions faster and more secure (Prasad, 2021). In addition, cryptocurrencies can be used as intermediate currencies to streamline money transfers across borders, and their investments generate massive profits for traders. The growing acceptance of these alternative currencies has led to a huge debate on whether or not they can replace the traditional fiat currency.

Cryptocurrencies are less likely to replace traditional currencies due to their limited acceptability. These virtual currencies are less popular and acceptable compared to traditional money. Most agencies and regulators perceive money as everything that is broadly accepted as a medium of exchange, a unit of account, and a store of value (Yuneline, 2019). The fiat currency has met these three criteria for several millenniums. Conversely, alternative currencies, such as Bitcoin, are only acceptable to a few users and organizations, limiting their use. This may be linked to the low level of trust among the public due to online theft and the lack of technical know-how for performing transactions using virtual currencies (Sagheer et al., 2022). For example, since Bitcoins inception, only a few organizations, including Newegg, Microsoft, and Overstock, have allowed payments in the currency (Tuwiner, 2022). In addition, many governments worldwide have either restricted or completely banned the use of cryptocurrencies in their countries, further limiting their usage. Therefore, cryptocurrencies are only acceptable to limited users, who mostly use them as speculative investments instead of a means of transaction.

The prices and value of alternative currencies are less stable than the fiat currency. The cryptocurrency market is renowned for its volatility due to the increased fluctuation in its valuation (Yuneline, 2019). For instance, in one day, Bitcoins value declined by 30% (Browne & Kharpal, 2021). The volatility of the virtual currency market is mainly propelled by the speculative nature of the trade since most investors are focused on creating wealth promptly. Similarly, factors such as demand and supply, media hype, and investor and user sentiments can destabilize cryptocurrencies (Yuneline, 2019). In addition, many governments do not support cryptocurrencies as legal tender, making them less credible (Sagheer et al., 2022). Therefore, cryptocurrencies volatility limits their usefulness as mediums of transaction. On the other hand, due to government regulations, fiat money is more stable, making it a preferable means of exchange (Yuneline, 2019). This implies that many individuals, investors, and businesses are more likely to use traditional currencies due to their stable value. Hence, virtual currencies are less likely to replace fiat money due to their high volatility.

The replacement of traditional currencies with alternative currencies may lead to economic crises. Governments decide the number of currencies to be printed depending on internal and external pressures, thus controlling issues such as inflation (Dapp et al., 2021). Therefore, the lack of government control over cryptocurrencies may result in severe financial problems worldwide. Not to mention, some cryptocurrencies, especially Bitcoin, have a cap of 21 million, implying that even if the need arises, no more coins can be minted (Khalif, 2022). Similarly, the decentralization of the financial system also presents a horde of challenges because such transactions could foster illegal activities such as money laundering and tax evasion (Arias-Oliva et al., 2019). Thus, alternative currencies pose unique challenges making them less preferable means of transaction than fiat money. Generally, it may be challenging for virtual currencies to entirely replace the traditional money system due to their volatility and other vulnerabilities. Therefore, these alternative currencies can only complement fiat money. Cryptocurrencies are still new and need vigorous improvements if they are to replace traditional currencies in the future.

How Alternative Currencies Will Evolve

There is a current debate on how alternative currencies will continue to evolve. However, the next 20 years may represent the beginning of a new phase of these technology-driven currencies that can potentially eliminate major conventional legal tenders (Pollock, 2020). In this case, mainstreaming cryptocurrencies as a payment mechanism will facilitate technological improvements in its ecosystem (Levis et al., 2021). This development is expected to scale operations by enabling Bitcoin, or Ethereums blockchain, to handle millions of transactions faster. In addition, the main challenge that alternative currencies are expected to overcome relates to security concerns. For example, over $ 477 million worth of virtual currencies has been stolen from exchanges by cyber attackers (Kharpal et al., 2022). Therefore, it is believed that the blockchain system will undergo significant growth, driven by innovations both in algorithmic and conceptual terms (Marzo et al., 2022). Thus, anonymous individuals and institutions are expected to create a more secure blockchain ecosystem to facilitate the widespread adoption of cryptocurrencies.

As regulations evolve to keep pace with the cryptocurrency market, the use of digital money will likely expand. A report shows that lawmakers in the United States and globally have shown interest in formulating laws and guidelines to make alternative currencies less appealing to cybercriminals and safer for investors. This follows the bankruptcy of crypto companies, such as Celsius and Arrows Capital, as well as the crash of some cryptocurrencies, for example, Terra Luna, which saw users lose their investments instantly (Gailey & Haar, 2022). Therefore, after these recent events witnessed in the crypto market, it is projected that stringent regulation to control cryptocurrency could arrive in the next few years. Increased government regulation is expected to provide recourse for investors negatively impacted by theft, fraud, or other security breaches (Smith, 2022). Thus, regulation will offer protection, improving their legitimacy and reputation in the future. That means bringing stability to the price and benefits to both consumers and merchants.

Conclusion

In conclusion, alternative currencies popularity has risen because of their well-known benefits, such as ease of storage, minimal transaction fees, speed, and relevance in this digital age. However, unlike fiat currency, which has existed for many years, all cryptocurrencies are not backed or controlled by governments globally. In addition, the blockchain ecosystem, which supports alternative currencies, is very susceptible to hacking. These factors derail them from replacing major conventional currencies, such as the US dollar and the Euro. In this case, the lack of a legal framework to offer recourse for users negatively affected by theft, fraud, or other security breaches makes these digital currencies very volatile. However, looking ahead, more technological advancement is expected to facilitate transactions faster and protect the blockchain infrastructure against a breach. Similarly, as lawmakers try to enact laws to make alternative currencies less appealing to cybercriminals and safer for investors, it is projected that stringent regulation aimed at controlling cryptocurrencies could be introduced in the future. Thus, alternative currencies will need to overcome these key issues to replace conventional legal tenders.

References

Arias-Oliva, M., Pelegrín-Borondo, J., & Matías-Clavero, G. (2019). Variables influencing cryptocurrency use: A technology acceptance model in Spain. Frontiers in Psychology, 10 (475), 1-13. Web.

Browne, R., & Kharpal, A. (2021). Bitcoin plunges 30% to $30,000 at one point in wild session, recovers somewhat to $38,000. CNBC. Web.

Dapp, M. M., Helbing, D., & Klauser, S. (2021). Finance 4.0-towards a socio-ecological finance system: A participatory framework to promote sustainability. Springer.

Ellsworth, B. (2021). As Venezuelas economy regresses, crypto fills the gaps. Reuters. Web.

Gailey, A., & Haar, R. (2022). The future of cryptocurrency: 8 experts share predictions for the second half of 2022. NextAdvisor. Web.

Howarth, J. (2022). How many cryptocurrencies are there in 2023? Exploding Topics. Web.

Kethineni, S., & Cao, Y. (2020). The rise in popularity of cryptocurrency and associated criminal activity. International Criminal Justice Review, 30(3), 325344. Web.

Khalif, D. (2022). What happens when all 21 million Bitcoin are mined? Nasdaq. Web.

Kharpal, A., Sigalos, M., & Goswami, R. (2022). FTX-owned service being used to launder hundreds of millions hacked from FTX, researchers say. CNBC. Web.

Lara Gómez, G., & Demmler, M. (2018). Social currencies and cryptocurrencies: Characteristics, risks and comparative analysis. CIRIEC-España, (93), 265. Web.

Levis, D., Fontana, F., & Ughetto, E. (2021). A look into the future of blockchain technology. PloS One, 16(11), e0258995. Web.

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Locke, T. (2021). Future of money economist says the end of cash is comingheres what could replace it. CNBC. Web.

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Introduction

In this portfolio, I will attempt to achieve a better understanding between changes in the population and its subsequent impact on economic activity within specific regions and how this influences the construction industry. The primary method of data collection will come from the ONS website with various academic articles and sources contributing to the other facts and views that will be presented in this portfolio.

Economics is about people and choice

The latest data involving population estimates for the UK showed that there is an upswing in population growth. It was revealed that the population grew by roughly 64.1 million in 2013 (an increase of 400,600) from the previous year. A broader look at the UKs population growth shows that its size has increased by 5 million people since 2001 and, when looking at population estimates from 1964, shows that the population has grown by 10 million since then.

Do note though that while an increase in 10 million people from 1964 is impressive given the declining population rates in much of Western Europe, the fact remains that it pales in comparison to the growth rates seen in much of Asia (Almor 2013). Except for Japan, countries such as China, the Philippines Indonesia, Malaysia, and India have experienced exponential growth rates since 1964 resulting in a large workforce that many foreign companies have been taking advantage of through the outsourcing industry (Almor 2013).

Going back to the topic of population growth within the UK, data from the office of national statistics showed that there is a positive birth to death ratio (i.e. there are more births than deaths) wherein there were 212,000 more children born than adults who died within the same year. This is a positive sign for the country since progressive birth rates contribute to greater levels of economic activity. The article Country Intelligence: Report: United Kingdom (2012) explains this correlation by comparing the declining birth rates in Western Europe to drops in economic activity.

The article also states that consumer demand was the main driver of economic activity which, along with robust industrial, manufacturing, and construction sectors, influenced the economic growth of a country. Higher birthrates are thus seen as a positive indicator for a countrys economy since this equates to more people entering into the general workforce, more individuals purchasing products, and concurrently more families resulting in higher rates of real estate purchases (Country Intelligence: Report: United Kingdom 2012).

About this data, it should be noted that there are currently 26.4 million households within the UK with two-person households accounting for a vast majority of the estimate (34 percent of all households within the UK consist of two people only). Based on the data that has been presented and given the progressive level of population growth within the UK that has been occurring since 1964, it can be stated that the population of the country should continue to grow positively well into the future (at least within the next 20 to 40 years).

This will reflect positively on the countrys economy resulting in steady growth rates when it comes to demand for consumer products with real estate becoming a prime consumer commodity. Given the trends that have been presented, construction companies within the UK can invest in the development of affordable two-person household units since the statistics show that this is the largest household sector and thus has the highest level of demand for real estate.

Economic Trends and their effect on the built environment sector

Based on the latest census data, it was shown that the current population of the Ladywood district is 126,693 residents with roughly 47,748 households. What is interesting though when examining Ladywood is that the entire area has differing levels of affluence resulting in areas where there are high rates of unemployment and direction which are then contrasted with areas with relatively new buildings and better wages.

For instance, housing data involving Ladywood showed that more than 50% of the children in the area are living in poverty with the area having significantly higher rates of mortality from preventable diseases as well as high rates of alcoholism. Based on the analysis of Carassus, Andersson, Kaklauskas, Lopes, Manseau & De Valence (2006), the reason behind these cases is due to the low wage environment as well as the lack of local investment into business and infrastructure development which further exacerbates the economic problems of the district. It should be noted though that in stark contrast to the problems of Ladywood, Brindleyplace has experienced an upsurge in economic development.

This is primarily due to the placement of various office buildings, apartments, and service centers that serve the various office workers in the district. Further analysis of the history behind Brindleyplace and the sheer difference between it and the rest of Ladywood reveals that the area used to house a variety of factories and supply depots yet over the years these businesses were shut down.

It was only when significant outside investment in the form of property developers came in that the economic activity of the area was rejuvenated. From a peaks and troughs standpoint, the rejuvenation of Brindleyplace and its effect on the local economy showcases the positive effects of real estate development on local economies. It is based on this that when it comes to the rest of Ladywood, this paper advocates further development in the form of real estate rejuvenation projects as well as the creation of various new office buildings to offset cramped city centers (Sawyer 1972).

Financing Construction projects

Bank Financing

Bank financing is one of the common ways in which construction firms pay for their projects. Construction firms take out a loan from a major bank which they use to pay for construction materials, employee salaries, and other related expenses that they may be needed when it comes to a variety of construction projects (Young 2014). While a bank loan is one of the most effective methods of getting the necessary funding for a project, it does come with some disadvantages in the form of interest rates (Young 2014).

Do note that in the case of some condominium projects it takes a considerable amount of time for all the units to be sold, during this period the interest rate of the loan continues to mature. The result is the construction company paying higher rates the longer some units go unsold (Warszawski 2003).

Such a situation is further exacerbated in cases where an economic downturn occurs (as seen in 2007) resulting in lower consumer spending (Chen & Chen 2012). This would be a potentially catastrophic case for a construction company that has just finished a project and is looking to sell its units to pay for the loan yet no one is buying due to the environment of economic uncertainty (Chen & Chen 2012).

Pre-selling

Another strategy often utilized by construction companies when it comes to private sector development projects is the use of pre-selling tactics to get money from clients while a construction project is still being built. Pre-selling works by selling flats, apartments, or other types of real estate before the infrastructure being built (Kraus & Cressman 2009). Potential buyers get a range of discounts depending on how far along the construction period a company is. For instance, if there is merely a vacant lot in a construction site then potential buyers could get as much as 40% off, if the initial foundations have been built then 30% and so forth until the project is completed and the discount no longer applies (Shingler 2013).

While this is an effective method of gaining liquidity to complete the project, it does have the disadvantage of lowering the total amount of profit that the company can derive from the project (McKee 2013). It should also be noted that this method of financing is directly related to the level of demand associated with the project. If the economy is experiencing a downturn, then the likely demand for real estate units would below, this results in fewer clients that would be willing to buy a pre-selling contract (McKee 2013). This would of course hamper the availability of funds resulting in issues when it comes to the viability of the project.

Partnerships

Another of the most commonly utilized methods for financing public sector development projects is through the use of partnerships (Tang, Shen & Cheng 2010). This can often involve an agreement between two companies or between a company and a bank wherein in exchange for a share of ownership of the project the partners combine funds to finance its completion. One of the inherent problems though with this method of financing is the potential for one of the partners to simply run out of money (Gransberg & Dillon 1999).

Reflection

Based on everything that I have learned thus far in this activity, I have come to develop an understanding that economic development, real estate trends, and private sector projects are often intertwined with changes in local populations. Not only that, based on the section involving Ladywood and its inhabitants, I have learned that it is often necessary to invest in social projects that create opportunities for employment rather than merely focusing on charity work.

The reasoning behind this is related to my observations regarding the interrelation between job growth and how it creates beneficial effects for local communities. As seen in the case of the UKs population as a whole, its subsequent increase has led to numerous economic boons for the region, this has helped in improving the lives of many of the regions residents. However, as seen in the case of Ladywood, there is unequal development in the UK which is often the result of particular trends in real estate and industrial development (Khashan 2008).

Particular regions within the UK become the preferred destination for factories and housing development simply due to the presence of other similar projects that have already laid the groundwork for similar types of infrastructure (i.e. energy infrastructure in the case of factories and the presence of communities and shopping centers in the case of housing developments). It is based on this observation that when it comes to my analysis of Ladywood and other similar locations, I have developed the notion that to improve the status of residents it is necessary to lay the groundwork for future infrastructure projects that would make the location attractive enough for business and developers.

Reference List

Almor, T 2013, Conceptualizing Paths of Growth for Technology-Based Born-Global Firms Originating in a Small-Population Advanced Economy, International Studies Of Management & Organization, vol. 43, no. 2, pp. 56-78.

Carassus, J, Andersson, N, Kaklauskas, A, Lopes, J, Manseau, A, Ruddock, L, & de Valence, G 2006, Moving from production to services: A built environment cluster framework, International Journal Of Strategic Property Management, vol.10, no. 3, pp. 169-184.

Chen, J, & Chen, W 2012, Contractor Costs of Factoring Account Receivables for a Construction Project, Journal Of Civil Engineering & Management, vol. 18, no. 2, pp. 227-234.

Country Intelligence: Report: United Kingdom 2012, United Kingdom Country Monitor, pp. 1-30.

Gransberg, D, & Dillon, W 1999, Quantitative analysis of partnered project performance, Journal Of Construction Engineering & Management, vol. 125, no. 3, p. 161.

Khashan, A 2008, Successful Launch, Civil Engineering (08857024), vol. 78, no. 8, p. 70.

Kraus, W, & Cressman, K 2009, Selling Recognition and Acceptance of AACE International Recommended Practices, AACE International Transactions, pp. EST.S03.1-EST.S03.8.

McKee, R 2013, Story Works. Use It, Sales & Service Excellence, 13, 10, p. 25.

Sawyer, GC 1972, Forces for social change vs. near-term strategic decisions, Academy Of Management Proceedings (00650668), p. 254.

Shingler, D 2013, Housing market constructs hope here, Crains Cleveland Business, vol. 34, no. 13, p. 1.

Tang, L, Shen, Q, & Cheng, E 2010, A review of studies on PublicPrivate Partnership projects in the construction industry, International Journal Of Project Management, vol. 28, no. 7, pp. 683-694.

Warszawski, AA 2003, Parametric analysis of the financing cost in a building project, Construction Management & Economics, vol. 21, no. 5, pp. 447-459.

Young, T 2014, DEAL: UK project bond solves negative carry, International Financial Law Review, vol. 33, no. 4, p. 65.

The product developed by our company can have a market in any country which has a substantial population. The task at hand is to choose the countries where the population is high and so is the growth rate. Further, the countrys return on the FDI confidence index must also be considered to understand the confidence these countries hold as a potential market for investment.

For this, we compile all the relevant information regarding the countries that have the ten largest populations. The countries we come across that have the highest population in the world are China, India, the United States, Indonesia, Brazil, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Russia, Nigeria, and Japan. The strongest population growth rate which is shown by the natural growth rate of the population, calculated by the difference of the mortality and death rate, is highest in Pakistan and Nigeria (among the 10 countries, see figure 1) followed by Bangladesh, India, and Indonesia. According to these estimates, the population of India will exceed that of China by 2050 (Population Reference Bureau, 2005).

So, our consideration is not only the largest market i.e. market with the largest population but also the largest market where the population is expected to grow in the future. For instance, Russia is one of the top 10 populated countries, but it has a negative natural increase rate of population, which means that the population is expected to decline over the years. So keeping in mind the present population and the natural rate of increase in population, the countries which hold lucrative business are China, the USA, and India. These countries have the largest population with positive growth in population. They will be the top three countries in terms of population in 2050 (Population Reference Bureau, 2005). So these markets are the best option to be tapped for our product.

Figure 1: 10 countries with largest popualtion in 2005.

Now given this background of the population and growth, we need to understand how viable the markets are. For this, we need to ascertain what returns the country has given to FDI previously, the stability of the currency, and volatility of interest rates in the country are key issues which need to be understood. A countrys currency shows how the fundamentals of the country are and how strong the economy is. In order to invest in the market, the first concern that arises is if the economy is strong enough to sustain a growth and if it holds a profitable market for the product. For this reason, we take a look at the FDI Confidence Index.

The FDI Index provides the attractiveness of the emerging market in terms of the FDI flow from foreign based corporate. With the shift of the risk perception of most global investors, the attractiveness index mostly shows that profitability of the market (Global Business Policy Council, 2004). Using this tool as a benchmark, most corporate draw their action plan for entering into new global investment ventures. This index shows the attractiveness of the market, and shows the potential these offshore markets hold.

China, India, and the Unites States appear to be the most trusted markets for FDI investment ranking the top three choices of foreign corporate investors according to the FDI Confidence Index. The indexes are 2.03 for China, 1.4 for India and 1.45 for the USA (see figure 1). Clearly, in the emerging markets, China and India dominate the top two positions as the most preferred investment markets. The foreign investors are mostly likely to invest in either of the two markets as their first venture into a foreign country. They have been the most preferred offshore business processing functions and IT services. But these two markets are not very similar in character.

China is the worlds leading manufacturer and the fasted growing consumer market, whereas India is the leading business processing and IT services hub of the world. United States remained behind China, as the most attractive destination for FDI. The FDI flow in China was $54 billion in 2004 while that of India is $4.3 billion and that of United States is $30 billion (Global Business Policy Council, 2004). Financial investors think that United States as an FDI destination provides less profitability than China while insurance holders believe that the former is a safer market than the latter. The regulatory situation in the United States may act as a potential risk for foreign investors as it cuts into the profit of the foreign companies.

While considering the short-term attractiveness of the markets for FDI flow, China and India beat Poland, Brazil, and Mexico in both the categories. Though Mexico has been attaining profit for foreign investors, but the profits of FDIs in China, India, Brazil, and Poland surpassed that of Mexico. Further, more investors consider Brazil to be a High risk FDI location than China, India, Poland, and Mexico. In terms of meeting profitability targets, China ranks highest followed by Poland, Brazil, and India, with Mexico coming to the end. The risks that are related to China are legal and regulatory environment, intellectual property right risk, and lack of transparency, while the barriers in India are bureaucracy, political stability, and cost-advantage.

Given this background, it is evident that China, United States, and India are the three options which can be considered the best locations for an FDI investment.

Works Cited

Global Business Policy Council. (2004). FDI Confidence Index. Alexandria, Virginia: The Global Business Policy Council vol. 7.

Population Reference Bureau. (2005). World Population Datasheet. Washington DC: Population Reference Bureau.

Commentary

The youthful population in Saudi Arabia is still being faced with a growing rate of unemployment. This may appear as a paradox bearing in mind that this country is one of the leading producers of crude oil. There are several fundamental and systematic limitations that have significantly contributed to unemployment in Saudi Arabia. Unless the Kingdom addresses these shortcomings, the rate of unemployment will continue to rise over the coming years.

One of the core causes of unemployment is the religious conservative nature of the Arabian Society. The latter has made it quite difficult for the Saudi Arabian government to fully incorporate female employees into the workforce. In other words, there are quite a number of jobs that cannot be done by the female gender.

As a matter of fact, there are more unemployed females than males. Education has also been cited as a major reason why the young population in Saudi Arabia can hardly secure employment. Proper education standards are not in place. This has resulted into a massive influx of expatriates in Saudi Arabia to supplement the dwindling workforce. There is urgent need to improve the current standard of education in order to boost the employability of the youthful generation.

Reliance on foreign workers by the private sector has even worsened the current state of unemployment in Saudi Arabia. The local young population cannot secure the high-end jobs that are being taken by the professional workers from other countries. From the figure below, the Saudi Arabian youths who range between the ages of 20 to 24 years face the worst brunt of unemployment compared to the other Saudi nationals.

As it stands now, there are close to100, 000 new graduates in Saudi Arabia who seek employment each year. The young people who are below the age of 30 yeas comprise of about 60% of the total population (Hoetjes par. 3). Tough employment measures should be put in place because these are alarming figures.

For example, the Saudi government should decease from relying on the private sector. The higher education should also be structured in such a way that it can offer vocational training to the young population. In addition, the cultural restrictions should be eased down so that women can also access gainful employment in both the private and public sectors. If such measures are not put in place, the economic stability of Saudi Arabia may be weakened.

Needles to say, the Saudi economy has greatly benefited from the increased production of oil as well as the high oil prices. Oil production in Saudi Arabia has always been on the increase. In any case, Saudi Arabia still produces a large amount of crude oil compared to the individual Middle East countries as shown in the chart below.

It is surprising that the oil bloom has not benefitted the Saudi nationals as expected. The employed foreign workers are the main beneficiaries of the oil industry. Worse still, the jobs created by the oil industry are mainly tailored to match the foreign workers with specialized skills. The non-Saudis immensely benefitted from 1.5 million employment opportunities that were created since 2010 while the Saudis were allocated the remaining 500,000 jobs (Hoetjes par.4).

Perhaps, it may not be appropriate to blame the private sector on this issue. Whereas unemployment in Saudi Arabia has been contributed by quite a number of factors, the individual Saudi nationals should also be held responsible for the mess. For example, it is not possible for the oil and gas industries in Saudi Arabia to hire people who are not well trained for specialized jobs.

It is common knowledge that experts are required to run the industry except for a few non-skilled jobs. As much as an individual may be a Saudi national, it does not guarantee full employment in the oil industry. Background skills, knowledge and working competencies are prerequisites that cannot be ignored at all.

The private sector in Saudi Arabia has heavily employed foreign workers. In other words, a small number of Saudi nationals have been absorbed by this sector. The Ministry of Labor released a labor report in 2011 which revealed that close to 90% of the workforce in the private sector were foreigners.

Such a trend is expected because the private sector is mostly run on the basis of optimizing profits. The input of workers is directly proportional to the net production. The jobs offered by the private sector are highly competitive. The local Saudi population faces intense competition from the expatriates.

Works Cited

Hoetjes, Gertjan. Unemployment in Saudi Arabia: a Ticking Time Bomb? 2013. Web.

There is no denying the problematic truth of climate change. The effects of climate change can be seen through the global temperatures rising, the oceans warming, the ice sheets melting, retreating glaciers, rising sea levels, ocean acidification, and extreme events (Government of Canada, 2015). As the temperature continues to increase, it is changing the structure of the surrounding areas that people live in, thereby affecting crops and farming and making construction more difficult. The increased pollution is also directly having negative health repercussions as it affects the food security in many areas. Food security refers to the finding of food that is accessible, available, nutritious, and safe to eat (Hunter, 2019). While the effects of climate change can be seen globally, it affects certain groups more than others given the cultural differences present within the Indigenous and non-Aboriginal populations.

The Indigenous population is more dependent on the environment and country food to meet their needs thereby making the effects of climate change more visible. Aboriginal people tend to be marginalized and impoverished which worsens the impact that climate change can have on them (Smith, n.d.). This paper attempts to dissect the generational impact that climate change can have on food security for the Indigenous population within Northern Canada. Climate change is affecting the physical environment, culture, and access to health services in relation to income and social status. This is because of the Westernization of their culture and values since colonization. Income and social status are also factors that worsen the impact of climate change for the Indigenous population as food tends to be more expensive on reserves and in Northern provinces compared to heavily populated cities (Martens, 2015). Education and literacy tend to impact the social determinant of income and social status as it can impact how much money one is making and the types of foods that are affordable. The lack of access to health services and the effect of cultural differences can also further worsen the consequences of climate change and food insecurity.

Culture and Physical Environment

Everyone is affected by climate change at different rates. While all people in Canada are affected to a certain extent, First Nations people experience the impact of climate change in ways that non-Aboriginal Canadians do not due to their heavy reliance and connectedness to the environment. Treaties were negotiated between the Crown and the local Aboriginal populations during colonization. These were guided by the Royal Proclamation of 1763 which is a document that acknowledged that the new British settlers would have to address existing Aboriginal rights and that the Crown would have to guarantee certain rights to local First Nations. The Royal Proclamation emphasizes that all land would be considered Aboriginal land until ceded by treaty. It also forbade the new settlers from claiming land from the original occupants and states that only the Crown can buy land from First Nations (Burnett & Read, 2016). These factors, collectively, reemphasize the fact that Aboriginal people had their own practices and way of life long before the new European settlers entered their land.. Throughout history, First Nations people have culturally depended on the natural environment for physical, social, economic, cultural and spiritual ways of life thus making them highly vulnerable to any change (Centre for Indigenous Environmental Resources, 2006). The Indigenous population heavily relies on traditional or country food to sustain themselves. This is food acquired from the land including food that is trapped, harvested, collected, hunted and fished (Hunter, 2019). This is done in order to help keep people connected with nature whilst promoting sharing within the community. According to the Canadian Community Health Survey (2011), Nunavut has the highest percentage of food insecurity within Canada at more than 35%, followed by the Northwest Territories at 14%. Nearly 86% and 51% of the population within Nunavut and the Northwest Territories, respectively, self-identify as Aboriginal (Statistics Canada, 2019). This reemphasizes the underlying factors that include high prices for fruits and vegetables in local stores, changes in the availability of traditional foods due to access issues, landscape changes, and concerns about the health of the soil, plants, and wildlife (Martens, 2015).

The ever increasing climate change is drastically affecting First Nations communities. This is largely because it is making it more difficult for them to inhabit their original lands given the alterations to the physical environment. The primary concerns include aggravated water and food insecurity, natural disasters, and population displacement (Ford, 2012). There have been a number of physical changes including increased levels of extreme temperatures, changes in snow and ice composition, increased permafrost melting, rising sea-levels, changes in air pollution, and decreased structural stability (Furgan & Sequin, 2006). The lowered snow and ice composition along with the melting permafrost are having a substantial impact on the Indigenous population who rely on traditional ecological knowledge. This is essentially a body of knowledge, practice, and beliefs that are passed down throughout generations and include certain methods of food acquisition that meets the needs of an Indigenous person or group (Hunter, 2019). There have also been changes in animal behavior which is typically due to signs of stress. These changes include the migration patterns of the polar bear and caribou populations which has increased the difficulty of hunting.(Alexander et al., 2011). As mentioned earlier, permafrost melting is becoming problematic for food security amongst the Indigenous population and this has lead to a loss of housing as it damages the infrastructure of older buildings (Burnett & Read, 2016). Previously, underground cellars dug into the permafrost provided food storage and were convenient, provided ample space, and were an economically viable method for refrigeration. Global warming is resulting in higher than normal temperatures which are rendering these cellars useless (Brubaker, Bell & Rolin, 2009). These higher temperatures are decreasing the periods of time where the temperature is cold enough for preserving food and it can lead to flooding of the cellars. This ultimately causes a loss of traditional food sources for the sum of the colder season (Brubaker et al., 2009). Hence, Indigenous population are pushed towards purchasing more imported, processed foods of low nutritional value, such as white rice, white flour products, sugar-rich foods and fatty meat which adds to loss of traditional culture and diminishes health amongst the Aboriginal population (Kuhnlein et al., 2013). Due to the drastic changes in climate, the North is becoming less isolated thereby making it easier for developers and industries to attempt to find and tap resources in the previously untouched areas. Some traditional routes are also now unreachable as the early melt of lakes, rivers, and sea ice makes travel routes unsafe during the spring. Increased evaporation is leading to decreasing water levels that are unsuitable for boat travel and there is health inequity as there is less cost-effective nutritious food available in the heavily Indigenous Northern provinces (Burnett & Read, 2016). All of these factors are cumulatively leading to the Aboriginal population being increasingly Westernized and there is an attempt to push out Indigenous culture, all for a more commercialized society.

Access to Health Services in Relation to Income and Social Status 1

Education is typically associated with higher earnings which should imply that all groups derive an economic benefit from education yet studies show that Aboriginal people who complete a Bachelor’s degree still face substantial income disparity (Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada, 2013). This shows that self-identified Aboriginal men and women face significant income and earning disparities in relation to non-Aboriginal Canadians. Income and earning gaps ranged from 10 to 20% and 20 to 50%, respectively, for women and men. Data also shows that the largest income gap occurs between Registered Indian men and non-Aboriginal men at around 50%. Registered Indian Women have an average earning gap of 11%, followed by non-status Indian women at 9%, and Metís women at 8% (Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada, 2013). There has also been an overall declining earning gap for all Indigenous groups between 1995 and 2005. In specifics, the gap was reduced by 5%, 12%, 33%, and 50% for Registered Indians living on reserves, Registered Indians living off-reserves, non-status Indians, and Métis respectively (Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada, 2013). All of these statistics reemphasize that there is an evident link between social status and income disparity amongst the Aboriginal population. With climate change reducing the amount of traditional ecological knowledge they can use to acquire food, this is leading to a shift towards more processed and unhealthy foods, as mentioned earlier. In the Northwest Territories and Yukon, mammals such as the moose, whitetail deer, coyotes, and cougars, are already being observed further north than usual (Ogden, 2002). A study done at University of Alberta found that more than 34% of food budgets in Nunavut and the Northwest Territories were for sweets and snacks (i.e. cheaper foods that lack nutritional value) (Rosen, 2016). This contributes to health issues such as high infant mortality rates, high rates of tuberculosis, higher rates of diabetes, and overall widespread food insecurity (Webster, 2016).

The social status of being Aboriginal predisposes the Indigenous population to a variety of health conditions due to the push towards less country or traditional food. Having more health issues whilst also losing traditional cultural practices increases the suicide rate amongst the Indigenous population: “A 2015 report commissioned by the Inuit found that 27% of the deaths deemed in a coroners reports to have been suicides by Inuit people between 2005 and 2011 are missing from the figures” (Webster, 2016). Thus, this implies that the suicide rate is 11 times the Canadian average or 55% higher than the Canadian government acknowledges. It also accounts for approximately 40% of Indigenous youth deaths comparatively to 8% of the non-Aboriginal Canadian population. These physical and mental conditions accentuate the need for better access to both physical, social, and mental health services present for the Indigenous population especially in the Northern Territories of Canada. Lack of transportation and barriers to health service professionals due to Canada’s geographic remoteness exacerbate these symptoms. There are 52 communities across Inuit Nunaat that do not have year-round road access and only have a few hospitals (National Collaborating Centre for Aboriginal Health, 2011). The Indigenous populations in Northern Canada are also less likely to have access to specialized health care professionals and a lack of permanent health professionals with low levels of continuous care and this tends to reduce the effectiveness of the care given. The lack of access to health services in the North means that either they are forced to leave home in order to receive treatment or have so much difficulty accessing appropriate mainstream primary health care services that they do not attempt to get the help that they need (Davy et al., 2016).

Intervention:

Climate change tends to exacerbate environmental, social, and economic challenges within the Indigenous population (Centre for Indigenous Environmental Resources, 2006). The issues that Northern Indigenous communities face are a lack of medical resources, a lack of medical professionals, proper health education, and an insufficient amount of healthy and traditional foods (Dickason & Newbigging, n.d.). The lack of these subjects means that Northern Indigenous communities are reliant on non-Indigenous Canadians to provide care. This could be detrimental though, as this could take away cultural norms, traditional medical practices, and healthy lifestyle choices. Westernized society entering these communities also negatively impacts the mental health of youth and adults. With Northern Canada being an isolated part of the nation, getting to these communities is a task all on its own. Climate change has not made gaining access to provide adequate health care providers and resources any easier. The flooding of lakes, rivers, and melting permafrost creates difficult travel thereby making access during the winter and spring months minimal (Baird, 2008).

Due to the trials and tribulations that Indigenous people face when intervention by non-Indigenous people occurs and the history of harm and discrimination, gaining access to provide supports in these communities could be difficult. One way to gain access to these communities is to create a multi-disciplinary team that includes Indigenous healers, elders, and Western doctors. It is important to have Indigenous people or people trusted by these communities on teams with non-Indigenous health care providers because it helps create a sense of understanding and trust. In an applied clinical setting, the cultural differences that arise in language, expectations, traditional indigenous knowledge, beliefs, and skills may not correspond with non-Aboriginal lifestyles. Indigenous healers and elders are able to contribute something that a non-Indigenous person cannot and they include culture, tradition, and spiritual entities that would be lacking without these Indigenous persons involved (Hewson, 2015). It is always important for Indigenous people to have their traditions and beliefs recognized and implemented when entering into their communities. Gaining trust within the communities is the first step to providing effective and positive health care to those in Northern Canada. Step two would be to ensure that the Indigenous communities in the North are receiving the same level of health care as those living in Southern Canada. This could be difficult as there are less resources in the North due to inaccessibility and lack of collaboration between Western medicine and Indigenous persons (Davy et al., 2016). Organizing the people would include having Indigenous healers and trusted allies working together to promote these changes. Organizing people in Indigenous culture typically means having elders or respected persons within the community to promote and relay the information (Hewson, 2015).

In order to assess the community, there would need to be research done in order to provide accurate needs of the people within the communities. The current information on health status for Northern Indigenous is minimal, but factual, and reflects the current needs of these communities (Kuhnlein et. al.,2013). Information gathered by new research would help determine what the cause and effects are in respect to the health and health care system in Northern Canada. By doing the research to assess the communities in Northern Indigenous lands will help determine the priorities that need to be addressed immediately. With the help of researchers, community members, and medical professionals the priorities that are sought to intervene through will help to create adequate health care.

The goals of this intervention would be to create a team of professionals that are available within multiple areas of each northern province. Ideally these teams would be incentivized to be present all year-round. The team members would be able to provide western medicine to the Indigenous population within all of the Northern provinces whilst prioritising and upholding the values that Aboriginal people have. Supplies would have to be flown into the hospitals where these teams are in mass quantities to ensure that all of the medicinal needs can be met within a timely manner as well as in areas that are inaccessible by road (Northwest Territories Lands, n.d.). Ideally this would result in a greater percentage of the Aboriginal population feeling comfortable with asking for help and would ultimately reduce the severe physical symptoms that are occuring due to the loss of traditional ecological knowledge and food severity. Managing physical symptoms of diabetes, tuberculosis, as well as nutritional deficiencies can lead to a positive overall impact within the population and help Aboriginal people with their mental health (Winnipeg Regional Health Authority, 2014). The outcomes of this intervention will be visible with reduced physical symptoms as well as a decreased suicide rate amongst the Aboriginal population. Maintaining this during all seasons will require a lot of planning, but doing constant check-in surveys within the Indigenous population would allow for adaptation and success within the program.

In short, climate change is having a detrimental effect on areas globally but is having the most severe impact on the Indigenous people in the north as they are more dependent on the environment for their basic survival needs. It is also having an detrimal impact on both the physical and mental health of Indigenous people. As Canadians, we all have a moral obligation to become more aware of how our actions are impacting not only ourselves but everyone around us. Progress has been made in developed nations in settling land claims and recognizing indigenous title, national governments have apologized for the colonial practices of history but our unfair treatment of them in the past will certainly never be forgotten (Burnett & Reader, 2016). Taking steps to potentially reduce climate change and its effects might help us get closer to achieving reconciliation. These challenges for Aboriginal people ultimately concerns all of us in many important ways. We are all living on and using the Earth’s precious resources and it is our job to protect it for as long as we can. Climate change is a problem for society and it is our responsibility to direct attention towards it in order to reduce the underlying root causes of vulnerability, not only for the Aboriginal population but for every living being on Earth.

Population policies are directly dealing with the rapid increase of nation population in order to control the state population density. With the increase of the population, consumption level of the natural resources is growing. Hence, natural ecosystems cannot produce their resources for the entire human being. Consequently, since 1950 to 2009, there has 4.6 billion population increase of entire world. Then, population policies have been introduced in many countries to control the population in order to manage the available resources for future generation. Accordingly, many developed countries are using population control methods and population policies are taking major role in many aspects of countries. Thus, this report mainly illustrates the what are the population control strategies that developed countries are using in current world.

India

Majority of the Indian people are not well educated, and they are not concerning about the country’s population. Because they are illiterate and fatalist. Still Indian population is growing in high level of 2 percent annually. Therefore, India has been implemented several population techniques over several periods since at past.

1. Pre–independence period – At past, Indian government didn’t consider about growth of the population. After they identified about the population increase in small amount, Indian government introduced small natural methods for publics such as self-controlling, abstinence and safe periods instead of using artificial birth control methods.
2. The period of Neutrality – In this time period, former president Jawaharlal Nehru established first family planning program in India.
3. The experimentation period – Under this phase, as a family planning strategy, they introduced clinical approach to provide awareness sessions for families. Main purpose was to motivate and educate the birth control rate.
4. The beginning of the population control policy – as a improvement of the third phase, Indian government decided to implement village development committees to enhance the attitudes, behaviors and knowledge of people for the better population control.

Furthermore, improvements of above phases, Indian government introduced national population policy in 1976 and following shows the major policies that they are using,

• Government introduced specific marriage age for entire people in India such as for girls to 18 years and for boys to 21 years.
• They introduced several devices for couples.
• Provided education about the population growth for entire states within the school environment.
• According to the number of children in family, Indian government gave incentives for the sterilization.
• Government promoted tax reduction campaigns for privet companies in order to birth control in families of employees.
• In 2001, Indian government was introduced women empowerment programs to give awareness education about the population control.

By imposing above policies, Indian government expected following future targets.

• In 2045, continue zero growth rate of population
• Expected to reduce infant mortality rete to below 30 per thousand live births.
• Reduce birth rate to 21 per 1000 by 2010.
• Reduce total fertility rate to 2.1 by 2010.

Policy impacts on society

• With the impose of policies regrading the abortion, Indian government had to facilitate for safe abortions in hospitals.
• Indian government authorities have been introduced vocational training programs for self-employment women.
• Indian healthcare authorities promoted funds for community health care facilities to regulate the social health.
• As an infrastructure development, health care ambulance services introduced for the clinical services of mothers as public service.
• Similarly, Indian authorities built district wise clinical and hospitals for social health care in order to reduce the mortality rate.

China

At present, China has been encompassed the highest population when compare with the world’s population. It has been ranked as twenty one percent of the entire world’s population. Hence, this overpopulation has been made many serious issues in economic and ecosystems of China. Unavailability of resources, pollution, poor living conditions are major issues in Chinese culture. In order to provide better solution Chinese government has been imposed several policies for the entire population.

• In 1979 the chines authorities have been imposed population policies to reduce the birth rate. Therefore, they imposed late marriage concept for citizens. They encouraged to men for 28 is the minimum age for marriage and 25 is the minimum age for women.
• Also, Chinese government promoted longer spacing between births for families.
• Fewer children concept introduced at past in chines culture by chines government.
• At past, Chinese government imposed one child per family concept to control the overpopulation. Hence, citizens need to inform before the birth of child. Also, citizens must take the birth certificate before the child birth in order to fulfill the government requirements. Chinese government promote the above concept by giving special benefits to the one child families. Artform that, if they not agree to have one child, families need to pay taxes and can have loss of employment.
• Similarly, unplanned pregnancies should terminate under the rules and regulation of Chinese government. Before terminating the pregnancies, citizens need to get authorization from the relevant government department.
• In order to monitor the population growth, chines government established birth quota system. By measuring population growth Chinese government has been set several targets and government imposed punished to state departments when there has mismatching targets.
• As other population control policies, chines government has been imposed sterilization targets such as tubal ligations, vasectomies and abortions under the authorization of government.

Policy impacts on society

• Above shows the strict policies imposed by Chinese government and many other countries has been disapproved these some of policies for the human freedom. Hence, Japanese government had to conflict with the many countries.
• With the imposing of one child for family concept, there were decrease of male children. Thus, Chinese government had to release some of policies for couples who are having a daughter first then only allowed to have a second child.
• According to the Chinese population policies, access to the natural resources has been increased in Chinese society such as tap water, natural gas.
• With the birth control policies, Chinese authorities had to extend medical coverage and birth insurances for mothers who is following policies.
• Also, by imposing those policies, Chinese government has been reduced infant mortality rate from 200 per one thousand to 33 per one thousand.

Japan

Compare with the above two countries, japan is diverse country in population. Because of at present japan is facing high death rate compare with the other countries. Similarly, in Japanese population, 23 percentage is elderly, and this is the highest rate when compare with the world’s population. According to the Japanese statistics, fertility rate is 1.57 and Japanese culture consists of workaholic habits. Those workaholic habits have been leaded to the low fertility of the country. In japan, average age of marriage woman is 28.3 years and immigrations are not accepting for higher number. Henceforward, Japanese government expect that future population will fail by 20 percentage in 2050.accordingly, Japanese government imposed several policies to keep optimum level of population within the country.

• First policy is Angel plan which was introduced by Japanese government. In this policy, Japanese authorities are expecting to provide counseling and mentoring programs for couples in order to give awareness about the childbearing. By undertaking these concepts, government supposes to increase the young population in country.
• Second one is new angel plan. Japanese authorities planned to give incentives for each child such as $4600 per year until the 10-fertility rate. By giving incentives, government is expecting to encourage the couples to have more children.
• Third one is plus one policy and under this concept, they planned to give incentives for couples who have more children. Encourage more children-based environment is one of key target in Japanese current culture. Also, Japanese authorities has been built new day cares in order to create parent friendly working conditions.
• Japanese government has been introduced specific population policy equation such as, economic benefits + well being people = ideal population policy

Policy impacts on society

• As an economic change, Japanese government had to expand employment facilities and economic opportunities for young working sector. Because of most of the labors are young mothers in current social policies.
• If one family has more than two children, Japanese government is reducing some rate of rent and taxations from particular family.
• Japanese authorities promoted privet companies to provide supporting facilities for working mothers who are a already part of workplace.
• By imposing above policies, abortion rate has been decreased in the Japanese population.

References

1. Cook, J. (1999, 12 5). Population Control and Consequences in China. Retrieved from http://maps.unomaha.edu/peterson/funda/sidebar/chinapop.html
2. Mondal, P. (2018, 5 5). Population Policy of India (With Statistics). Retrieved from Your Article Library: http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/essay/population-policy-of-india-with-statistics/39572
3. Prezi. (2012, 12 3). Prezi. Retrieved from https://prezi.com/crflq0yzusrl/japan-population-policies/
4. Slide share. (2008, 3 25). China population policies. Retrieved from https://www.slideshare.net/isc/china-population-policies
5. Speidel, J. J. (2009, 11 27). NCBI. Retrieved from Population policies, programmes and the environment: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2781834/

Mitosis is a type of cell division which produces two new cells genetically identical to its ‘mother cell’. In terms of the cell cycle, mitosis is the part of the division process where DNA in the cell’s nucleus is divided into two equal sets of chromosomes. Mitosis is broken down into four phases: prophase (sometimes separated again into early & late prophase), metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.

Mitosis is a process used for most of our body’s cell division requirements. Mitosis generates fresh cells during development and replaces our timeworn cells till death. Mitosis creates daughter cells that are genetically identical to their mothers, with not a single chromosome more or less.

Meiosis

Whilst mitosis is used to generate identical cells for growth and repair, meiosis is used to for only one process. The production of gametes (sex cells, sperm, egg cells). Mitosis creates daughter cells with the exact same number of chromosomes as the mother cell, meiosis creates daughter cells with exactly half the number of chromosomes. Meiosis goes though similar stages to Mitosis and implements similar strategies to complete and organise the separation of chromosomes. However, meiosis has a much more complicated task: separating sister chromatids (two halves of duplicated chromosome) these are homologous chromosomes, the similar but not identical chromosome pairs an organism obtains from its parent cells. Meiosis uses a two-step division process. Homologue pairs divide during the first round of cell division, this is Meiosis 1. Then, Sister chromatids separate during the second round, Meiosis 2. During both rounds of division, the cells go through the same four stages as Mitosis: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.

Meiosis is the division process that transforms a diploid cell (with two sets of chromosomes) into haploid cells (a single set of chromosomes). In humans, the haploid cells which are made in meiosis are the sperm and egg cells. The reason the diploid cell is halved is so that when the sperm and an egg combine in fertilization, the two haploid sets of chromosomes can form a complete diploid set (a new genome).

Formation of Gametes

Gametes are the reproductive cells which join during sexual reproduction. These form a new cell called a zygote. Gamete’s are formed through the cell division process called meiosis. Meiosis forms 4 haploid daughter cells. As mentioned before haploid cells contain one pair of chromosomes, when these haploid cells unite in fertilisation, they form a zygote which is a diploid cell (containing 2 sets of chromosomes)

Variation

Variation by definition is a different or distinct form or version of something. Genetic variation is used to describe the variation in the DNA. Genetic variation is a significant force in evolution, Genetic variation can be caused by mutation (which creates entirely new alleles in a population), random mating, random fertilization, and recombination between homologous chromosomes during meiosis (which reorganises alleles in an organism’s offspring). Genetic variation is beneficial to a population, as it allows for individuals to adapt to the changing environment whilst also sustaining the survival of the population.

Mutations/ Errors in crossing over

Chromosome mutations or ‘block’ mutations occur as a result of errors in crossing over during meiosis. Chromosome mutations affect significant segments of DNA which contain many genes. Mutations can be separated into four different types of: Deletions, Translocations, Duplications, missense, nonsense and Inversion.

Certain mutagens such as radiation or a chemical substance, which induces genetic mutation can also encourage Chromosomal mutations.

DNA Replication

DNA replication is the process by which DNA copies itself during cell division. DNA replication occurs before a cell is duplicated and divided into daughter cells during either mitosis or meiosis, Replication of DNA is necessary to ensure that each new cell receives the correct number of chromosomes. DNA Replication follows several steps that involve various proteins called replication enzymes and RNA. In eukaryotic cells, this process occurs in the S phase of interphase during the cell cycle. This process of DNA replication is a necessity for cell growth, repair, and reproduction in organisms.

Protein synthesis

Protein synthesis is the process in which cells (DNA specifically) make proteins. This occurs in two steps: Translation and Transcription.

Transcription: Transcription is the first step in gene expression. Transcription starts by copying a gene’s DNA sequence in order to create an RNA molecule. Transcription is performed by specific enzymes called RNA polymerases; their job is to join nucleotides to form an RNA strand using the DNA strand as a template. Transcription can be broken into three parts; Initiation, Elongation and Termination.

1. Transcription is the first step of transcription. It occurs as the enzyme RNA polymerase attaches to the area of a gene known as the promoter. This then signals the DNA to unravel in order for the enzyme to “read” the bases on one side of the DNA strands. The enzyme is prepared to make a strand of mRNA (messenger RNA) with a matching sequence of bases.
2. Elongation is the process of adding of nucleotides to the mRNA strand.
3. Termination is the end of transcription. The mRNA strand is finalised, and it detaches itself from the DNA.
4. Translation: Translation is the second part of gene expression. It is the method where ribosomes found in the cytoplasm or ER synthesize proteins after the process of transcription of DNA to RNA in the cell’s nucleus. In simple form translation is the decoding of mRNA in order to develop a polypeptide (a chain of amino acids). The mRNA contains the blueprints for the construction of polypeptides. These instructions come in the form of groups of three nucleotides called codons. In translation, the codons of an mRNA are read by molecules called tRNAs (transfer RNAs). Each tRNA has an anticodon, an anticodon is a set of three nucleotides that binds to a complementary mRNA codon through a process called base pairing. The other end of the tRNA transports the specified amino acid. Much like Transcription, Translation can also be broken into three parts. Initiation, Elongation and Termination.
5. Initiation: During this stage, ribosomes get together with the mRNA and the first tRNA so the process can begin.
6. Elongation: in this stage, the amino acids are carried to the ribosome by tRNAs and fixed together to create a chain.
7. Termination: this is the last stage; the finalised polypeptide is freed to go and complete its various jobs in the cell.

How Population Genetic Patterns Change

Natural Selection

Pioneered by Charles Darwin, Natural selection, along with mutation, migration and genetic drift, is one of the basic mechanisms of evolution and changes population genetics. variation, differential reproduction, and inheritance, natural selection impact evolution. Natural selection by definition is a process by which organisms & species which are best adapted to their environment survive and in turn reproduce with the genotypes that are best suited. Natural selection means that the species organism with best suited adaptations survive to transfer their genes to the next generation.

Asexual Reproduction

Asexual Reproduction is a process of reproduction which only requires one parent. There are four main types of asexual reproduction, these include: Budding, binary fission, fragmentation and Parthenogenesis.

• Binary Fission: Single parent cell doubles its DNA, then splits into two identical cells. commonly occurs in bacteria.
• Budding: A small growth on surface of the parent breaks off, subsequently forming two genetically identical individuals. Occurs in yeast and some animals.
• Fragmentation: Organisms split into multiple fragments which then develop into a new organism. This process Occurs in many plants, as well as some animals (such as coral and starfish).
• Parthenogenesis: An embryo forms from an unfertilized cell. This occurs in invertebrates, as well as some fish, amphibians, and reptiles.

Sexual Reproduction

Sexual reproduction requires two parents, both contribute a gamete, when these combine in fertilisation they result in the creation of a zygote. The Zygote will develop into an embryo.

Techniques in Predicting Change

Examples of different techniques

There are multiple ways to predict change. These various techniques include: Pedigree chart, Polymerase chain reaction (PCR), Gel Electrophoresis and a punnet square. These techniques can all be used to predict Phenotypes transferred to offspring, create a DNA fingerprint, Separation of DNA fragments, genotypes, test for genes associated with a particular disease, evolutionary relationships among organisms, make copies of DNA, DNA cloning, medical diagnostics, and forensic analysis of DNA, heredity patterns and inheritance patterns.

Differences in outcome of Sexual and Asexual reproduction

Asexual reproduction results in genetically identical offspring. Whereas, Sexual reproduction results in unique offspring due to two parents contributing genetic information in the form of gametes which meet in fertilisation.

Influence of the environment

the environment, including the ecosystem the organism is located or develops in, as well as the organism’s internal world, which includes such factors as its hormones and metabolism, can have radical influences on the expression of genes in an organism. A major internal environmental influence that has major effects on gene expression is gender. Specifically, with sex-influenced and sex-limited traits. Drugs, chemicals, temperature, and light are the various external environmental factors that can control which genes are used and unneeded, thereby influencing the way an organism develops and functions.

Conclusion

A summary of findings

The genetics behind population change boil down to two main points; Mitosis and Meiosis. With those two terms in mind, they explain how cells replicate themselves for growth and repair through mitosis. Meiosis the more complicated of the two, which is the division process that transforms a diploid cell (with two sets of chromosomes) into haploid cells (a single set of chromosomes). Meiosis does this because they are tasked with the singular process of producing of gametes (sex cells, sperm, egg cells). When the two gametes meet in fertilisation, the chromosomes cross over which sometimes result in mutations due to errors in crossing over or some mutagens. Variation occurs when the genetic information carried in the two gametes combine. Genetic variation is a significant and beneficial force in evolution, as it allows for individuals to adapt to the changing environment whilst also sustaining the survival of the population.

Natural selection by definition is a process by which organisms & species which are best adapted to their environment survive and in turn reproduce with the genotypes that are best suited. Natural selection, as well as mutation, migration and genetic drift, contribute to evolution and changes population genetics. Asexual reproduction is the process by which a parent reproduces and births genetically identical offspring, the energy and time used in this method is unquestionably superior to sexual reproduction however the offspring produced are far less resistant to environmental Changes in environmental conditions due to the limited genetic variation. Sexual reproduction on the other hand involves the combination of two gametes which combine resulting in a genetically different offspring, with half the genetic input coming from one gamete and the other half from the other one. Sexual reproduction make take longer to fertilise the offspring however the offspring will be more resistant to changes in the environmental conditions.

There are multiple ways to predict and monitor genetic change. These various techniques include: Pedigree chart, Polymerase chain reaction (PCR), Gel Electrophoresis and a punnet square. These techniques can all be used to predict Phenotypes transferred to offspring, create a DNA fingerprint, Separate DNA fragments, identify genotypes, test for genes associated with a particular disease, evolutionary relationships among organisms, make copies of DNA, DNA cloning, medical diagnostics, and forensic analysis of DNA, heredity patterns and inheritance patterns.

Evaluation of answering question

Through the analysis of the genetics behind population change, as well as how population genetics may change and finally a look into some of the techniques which could be employed to predict changes in population genetics, one could gather an understanding of how population genetics change, how they may change and how scientists could possibly predict this change. However, the answer of whether population genetics patterns could be predicted? The answer is no. With radical changes constantly going on inside and outside our bodies including the extreme environmental change which regulate which genes are used and which are not, influencing the way a population develops and functions over time as well natural selection being the driving force for variation and change making it impossible to track the mutations and genetic variation which occurs. Punnet Squares, Pedigree charts, Gel electrophoresis and polymerase chain reaction are effective methods which can measure, monitor and predict genetic changes in short term and on a smaller scale. However, determining population genetics on a large scale and long term, for the time being at least. Is impossible or at least with some level of accuracy. Possibly as technology advances we will be able to predict these changes with high levels of accuracy.

References

1. https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/environmental-influences-on-gene-expression-536/