Category: Population

Introduction

The issue of sexual dysfunction is very sensitive and not every individual will report his problem. The number of male individuals with sexual dysfunction may therefore be small. The best place to get this population is in a clinical setting due to the sensitivity of the condition. The sample population of this study therefore will include men with problems of erectile dysfunction and premature ejaculation.

Any patient with other co-morbidities other than sexual dysfunction will not be included in the study. Hospital records will help to determine that. In addition, any subject who is not a permanent resident in the city, where the hospital is located will not be recruited. All the subjects will be recruited in the study regardless of their socio-economic status. The sample will include male subjects of reproductive age: between 18 and 50 years.

This sample population will be recruited from a hospital setting, which will be selected purposively. Every subject will be given an equal chance of taking part in the study through use of random sampling. This kind of sampling is recommended because it is representative of the general population and decreases sampling error and sampling bias.

Unfortunately, since it is difficult to obtain a complete sampling frame for this kind of population, hospital records will be used to identify the population and use this population size to come up with a sample size using a sample size calculator. A 95% confidence interval will be selected while calculating the sample size.

Since the sample includes two sub-groups (male subjects with erectile dysfunction and those with premature ejaculation), proportional stratified kind of random sampling will be used to draw subjects with reference to the determined sample size. Scientifically choosing a sample population for this study will increase its chances of achieving external validity.

Research Design

The chosen method of research design is an analytical case study. This kind of methodology will attempt to analyze the consequences of treatment and the rationale behind its effectiveness, in accordance with the results of the study. A case study is useful in giving insight into a complicated issue and can augment what has already been established in previous research (Krupp, et al. 2007).

This is the case in the present study since the case study that will be used can augment previous studies that have indicated pharmacotherapy treatment to be successful in treating males with erectile dysfunction and premature ejaculation. For the sake of achieving external validity, one type of pharmacotherapy treatment will be used for all subjects.

Each case will be thoroughly studied and analyzed. The case study research design helps a researcher to examine a condition in its real life context. Questionnaires will be used to collect data on the opinions of the subjects with regard to their condition. This will help to determine whether the condition is psychological or medical related.

It will also gather data on the outcome of sexual performance when pharmacotherapy treatment is used. In addition, interviews with the health workers will be conducted to get a deeper understanding into the sexual dysfunction conditions under study. Observation will also be used because it mainly helps to understand the unspoken language, that is, the perceptions and attitudes while filling in questionnaires and conducting interviews.

According to Yin (2003), a case study excels when answering the questions why and how, and when contextual information needs to be unveiled. In this study of pharmacotherapy treatment, not every sexual dysfunction is as a result of medical misfit, but, other psychological factors are concerned. Therefore, since a case study helps to understand the many facets revolving a complex issue, it will help to draw out clear cut lines into the determinants of sexual dysfunction and under which circumstances it works best.

Expected Outcome

A lot of literature is available on how pharmacotherapy treatment counteracts erectile dysfunction as opposed to premature ejaculation. According to a critical review of literature by Eardley, et al. (2010), different types of pharmacotherapy treatment are used in the treatment of sexual dysfunction. Phosphodiesterase type 5 (PDE5) inhibitors have been shown to be effective, safe and well-tolerated by patients.

The same is the case for Apormorphine, intraurethral alpostadil and intracavernosal injection therapy with alpostadil. Pharmacotherapy is usually the preferred initial treatment for sexual dysfunction and specifically, erectile dysfunction. The field of pharmacotherapy in treating erectile dysfunction has evolved over time and more development in the field is ongoing.

This study however has concentrated on erectile dysfunction alone. Various pharmacotherapy treatments for premature ejaculation are available but none of them has been approved according to Avasthi & Biswas (2004). Phosphodiesterase type 5 has been found to be the most beneficial accepted pharmacotherapy treatment in addressing premature ejaculation.

In this study therefore based on these previous literatures among others, there is a high probability that pharmacotherapy treatment will yield in positive results in the treatment of sexual dysfunction. Unfortunately, literature is available on only the use of sildenafil, as an acceptable mode of treatment, in treating premature ejaculation. The difference in the level of effectiveness of the mode of treatment used for this study when compared with and other studies may vary for erectile dysfunction since only one type of pharmacotherapy treatment will be used.

References

Avasthi, A., & Biswas, P. (2004). Pharmacotherapy of Sexual Dysfunctions: Current Status. Indian Journal of Psychiatry, 46 (3), 213-220.

Eardley, I., Donatucci, C., Corbin, J, El-Meliegy, A., Hatzimouratidis, K., McVary, K.,…Lee, S. (2010). Pharmacotherapy for Erectile Dysfunction. The Journal of Sexual Medicine, 7, 524-540.

Krupp, K., Madhivanan, P., Karat, C., Chandrasekaran, V., Sarvode, M., Klausner, J., & Reingold, A. (2007). Novel recruitment strategies to increase participation of women in reproductive health research in India. Global Public Health. 2 (4), 395-403.doi: 10.1080/17441690701238031.

Yin, R. K. (2003). Case study research: Design and methods (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Introduction

Among the developed countries, the United States is one of the countries that have the highest number of old people. This population is growing at a pace that is higher compared to the other nations in the world. This paper uses the phrase ‘old population’ to mean persons whose age is 65 years or more.

The number of such persons was roughly 40 million a decade ago. However, this figure is expected to rise to hit 90 million in the course of 2050s, owing to the current situation where the rate of birth and death are low in the US. When this huge and young generation attains the age of 65 years and more, there will be a dramatic rise in the number of people in the need of extensive attention.

This phenomenon of an aging population is fast becoming a global trend, especially with the great improvement of healthcare systems around the globe. An aging population in the US is bound to have some negative effects on the country’s economy. For this reason, an analysis of the trend in the American aging population and its economic impact is paramount to have a sense of what is to be expected in the future in a bid to establish better planning policies. This paper intends to explore the issue of the ageing population and its implications on the US economy.

Economic Impact on the Healthcare System

Traditionally, people followed some set guidelines concerning what to eat, dress, say, and/or present before other people. Such norms had a significant impact of people’s health and moral standards. People could live and die because of their old age and not because of any complications.

However, in the contemporary times, individuals have shifted their lifestyles into eating and/or doing as they please. Such liberty has been associated with the rising health complications where people are dying because of diseases that are solely related to their eating habits or behavior. Hence, it is expected that there will be a drastic rise in the demand for medical services in the year in the near future. Most of the current resources will be stretched to the healthcare industry.

According to projections, the drastic increase in the demand for health care services will be accompanied by need for millions of medical professionals to handle the aging population. Such a rise in the ageing population will strain the healthcare system financially, thus making it unable to handle it (Hashimoto and Tabata 582). The government will be unable to hire more healthcare workers to take care of them on a long-standing basis.

Moreover, the available medical professionals will not have the required energy to handle the increased demand. In fact, many among them will be retiring and probably in need of the same kind of care that they had been offering. Others will be old and weak to the extent that they will be unable to perform effectively in relation to their younger counterparts in the same career.

The rise in the requirement for more healthcare professionals will hurt the economy since it will not be able to sustain the increased demand for the medical employees. The amount of the available resources for hiring of new healthcare workforce will also be limited, thus leading to an economic crisis. The government will be straining to sustain the ageing population.

High Costs of Training Medical Professionals

The expected demand for medical staff will be accompanied by increased costs of training health professionals to manage the anticipated old-age complications. A greater need will specifically be for health workers who can work on a long-term basis specializing with the elderly group (Jeannie 226).

Such workers are better placed to handle the ageing population whose health demands differ from those of ordinary patients. For instance, the ageing population is often susceptible to many of the chronic illnesses. Old people have a weaker immune system compared to their younger counterparts. As such, they tend to be immensely affected by many of the unceasing illnesses. The situation will call for more financial resources to be allocated to the preparation of more specialized healthcare practitioners to handle the elderly patients.

Such physicians understand the need to exercise a lot of patience when dealing with old people. They may need to take more time on their patients as some of these patients may show varied reactions to certain treatment, thus calling for a specialized approach to each patient (Jeannie 226).

This situation requires the availability of a large pool of such caregivers. In the case of the US, this demand will not be feasible since the economy will be unable to handle the upsurge in the numbers of unproductive, sick, and ageing population that will be unable to access proper healthcare. Importation of human personnel to handle the crisis will prove an expensive affair for the American economy, only serving to water down the economic milestones that have been achieved through sheer hard work.

Further, it is unfortunate that the number of medical students who are willing to take a course that deals with old-age complications is falling, thus putting the future of the care of the ageing population at risk (Jeannie 226). 3 percent of all students who are taking medical courses in the United States study geriatrics. There is bound to be a mismatch between the number of patients and the right number of healthcare personnel to attend to their needs.

For instance, the number of medical practitioners who are trained to handle the average patient may be far more than then recommended number for a given patient population while that of geriatrics professionals may be far too low. Such a scenario will present a strain on part of handling the elderly patients.

The government will have to pay more to increase the pool. It might even be required to outsource workforce. All these strategies have an implication of the US economy. Besides, it will be a waste on part of the ordinary medical practitioners since they will be expensive to the economy since they will be paid for doing less work. This financial strain is bound to slow down the economy.

Deaths because of Compromised Quality of Healthcare and Reliance on Family Members

With the immense pressure on the healthcare system, the quality of care for the ageing population is bound to fall. Due to the advanced age of the patients in this case and the complexity of the care they require, the available caregivers will be forced to compromise the health of their patients in an attempt to serve as many patients as possible (Kortebein and Means 113).

Since people are the most valuable resources that any government can boast of, the compromised health situation will imply heightened number of dormant resources in the US. The situation also implies a reduced workforce in other sectors and hence an ultimate decline in the economic rank of the US.

The available caregivers, including untrained family members, will choose to serve each patient to some a certain extent after which they will move to the next patient who will be in greater need of their attention, time, and services. The result will be the worsening of the US population’s conditions, which will also lead to early death in some cases.

This situation will have some devastating effects on the family members who will have to slow down their economic activities as they grieve the loss of their old parents (Kortebein and Means 113). The slowed economy will affect the gross domestic product negatively.

Further, the use of family members into providing care for their old parents implies that they will be forced to sacrifice some part of their work time to provide care for their parents.

This situation will lower their productivity and their output levels. It will not be desirable given the fact that good performance of the economy is what can guarantee both the family members and their parents a better life. Moreover, due to the low skill level on part of the family members with respect to the kind of care that their parents need, they may turn out to be inefficient.

Unpreparedness on Part of the Elders

The rapid upsurge in the ageing population is in part due to unpreparedness on the ageing population (Eiichi 36). Old people lie in the category of dependants. The US economy will have to increase its share of financial resources that it sets for this class. Many of the old people have not taken up medical insurance that can guarantee them proper care in their old age.

Some of them are currently in legislative and other influential positions that can enable them influence policies in a direction that suits their general future needs. However, they do not seem to take any solid steps in the preparation for the effects of the upsurge in population.

Further, elders tend to visualize a scenario where their own children will take care of them in their old age. They tend to assume that their children will have the time and resources to handle them. For this reason, they worry less about the impact of the rapid increase in ageing population that they will have on their families and the economy (Eiichi 41).

They fail to understand that their care will negatively affect the economy by straining the available resources while making their children miss important economic activities that help in developing a better economy. Hence, understanding factors that have or are bound to increase the population of the old people in the US will be crucial so that the US government can prepare economically to handle the situation.

Why the Rising Old-age Population

The witnessed rising of the aged population can be traced back to the Second World War when people chose to shift their way of doing things that had been set by the society. They considered the issue of giving birth to many kids a traditional affair. In fact, in 1950s, a mature woman was expected to bear a minimum of four children, as opposed to the situation as from 2000 when a woman is expected to bear at most two kids.

Statistical findings confirm that the population of this class of people was already high and that the financial pressure that they had experienced was linkable to the already established traditional principles (Wiederhold, Riva, and Graffigna 411). The situation was further reinforced by technological advancements in field of medicine that allowed the treatment of certain illnesses that were initially problematic.

Development of vaccines also meant that the certain diseases could be managed. This situation has seen the lifespan of this age bracket rise beyond the initial average where many of the people in this category live to their old age. In the US, they currently represent roughly 30 percent of the total population. The existence of the baby boomer generation has contributed immensely to the problem of an extremely large aged population that strains caregivers within the health care system (Wiederhold, Riva, and Graffigna 411).

Many health caregivers will stop working in the coming years. This situation will certainly contribute to the challenge of handling a rapidly increasing ageing population (Tacchino 45). Even though such retirees may be able to take care of themselves to some extent, they will be economically insignificant since they will not be in a position to help in serving the large population of the elderly.

In addition, their withdrawal from active service represents some form of loss to the economy since their services remain dormant, despite the many elderly people who are in need of them. However, considering the US situation, retirement is below old age meaning that the retirees will still have some energy.

If their services will be put to use, they will reduce the magnitude of the problem of ageing, especially the economic effects. Their contribution will avert a situation where the government has to outsource services that they offer. However, their impact will be insignificant since they will participate for a short while and then run short of energy because of their age. Hence, their withdrawal from work will have significant economic implications (Tacchino 46).

The natural life has increased significantly over the years since 1950. This observation means that more people are living longer. The situation contributes immensely to the issue of a rapid rise in the size of the ageing population (Tacchino 45).

The increase in the life span has followed a combination of factors that include, but are not limited to, medical breakthroughs, reduced cases of war, institution of workplace policies that promote safer working conditions, and the leading of healthier lives through physical exercise and eating a balanced diet.

With an increased life span, many countries are forced to grapple with large populations of the elderly who depend highly on taxpayers and other entities for their survival. Their unproductive nature puts a heavy burden on other taxpayers. The overall effect is the reduction of the income per person in the affected countries. In fact, using the 2009 census results, the US has 39.6 million elderly people. This high number has limited the country’s ability to compete with other economic powerhouses internationally.

Lack of proper training for students in medical courses contributes to the problems of an ageing population. Due to the complexity of the medical complications that are associated with the ageing populace, it is paramount for the US government to invest in healthcare givers by providing adequate geriatric training for them to be in a better position to handle the elderly in the society.

The witnessed inefficient levels of training have left a good number medical school graduate with low assurance levels with respect to their abilities to take care of the aged populace.

It is a waste of valuable resources to train such persons only for them to perform their duties inefficiently. This finding also shows some incompetence on part of the educational system in terms of imparting the right skills to students to enable them perform their duties diligently, especially when it comes to issues relating to the care of their elderly people in the society.

The lack of self-assurance on part of the medical students brings about greater anxiety on the effect that the rapid rising size of the ageing population is bound to have on the economy. It adds to the unpreparedness that puts the future of various economies in the world at risk of collapse due to an extremely large and overly unexpected population of dependants.

The evident lackadaisical attitude among medical students to take up geriatrics courses is attributed to their small salaries. Despite policies that have been designed to handle the issue of salaries, less efforts have been put to address health professionals’ pay issues. It seems like the importance of the geriatrics physicians to the health care industry and the US economy at large has been underestimated (Kortebein and Means 167).

Lack of incentives on part of students to take up courses relating to long-term care is well manifested in the decline in the number of new enrolments by students in such courses. The result of low enrolments in geriatrics courses will definitely serve to cripple government’s efforts to handle the upsurge in the elderly population.

It is quite demeaning for a geriatric physician to receive a salary that is lower than what is received by health trainees who join the medical field to gain practical skills to complement the knowledge that they have acquired in class. It is quite unacceptable to have such a pay disparity between a medical professional and a health trainee.

Failure on part of the healthcare industry to prepare efficiently for an increase in the size of the ageing population has been influenced largely by ignorance on the part of players in the healthcare industry concerning the need for greater investment in care giving that satisfactorily handles health issues that elderly face (Kortebein and Means 162).

For this reason, it is paramount for the US government to understand how diseases vary in terms of complication for the elderly in comparison with the average patient so that it can allocate the necessary financial resources that will help in managing health issues of the aging populace.

America’s healthcare system bases its care on persistent and long-term care. The acute care entails the treatment of diseases that last for a short time. The main types of illnesses that lie in the category of acute care revolve around short-term injury, possible rehabilitation following an injury, and short-term illnesses. Examples of such care may include treatment for a wrench, common cold, and appendicitis among others (Kortebein and Means 160).

It may also include recovery by mothers from the delivery of their babies. On the other hand, chronic care encompasses monitoring and treatment of diseases or disorders that are ongoing in nature on a long-term basis. Worse, such conditions are associated with the aged population.

Examples of these cases may include cerebral palsy, high blood pressure, sickle cell anemia, heart disease, rheumatic arthritis, and Alzheimer disease. The family physician or primary caregiver usually spearheads the management of chronic care (Kortebein and Means 173). Even though no definite cure is usually available chronic conditions, the care managers’ objective is to stop the disease or slow down its progress to optimize the health of the patient.

Long-term care involves an extension to the medical and social services that patients with chronic illnesses require to enable them lead an independent life as much as possible amid the various challenges that they face. The ageing population requires such a care. However, the US government has to dig deep into its financial basket to reach the better part of the significantly high population of the aged.

A good comprehension of this fact by the government and other stakeholders such as medical practitioners is crucial in availing proper health care to the elderly population (Kortebein and Means 165). The health industry needs to realize how the need for both acute and chronic care varies for it to be in a better position to handle the ageing population.

With the rapid increase in the elderly population, the requirement for acute health care is fast decreasing as the aged population’s need for chronic long-term care increases. If not well checked, the effect of this situation will be a mismatch in the focus between the availability of services and the requirements by the population that is in need of health care (Overcash 142). With the high number of elderly persons, the demand for chronic long-term care will be high while the health care system’s ability to handle them will be limited, owing to the depletion of healthcare funds from the US government.

On the other hand, the demand for acute health care will have fallen significantly with the capacity of the health system to handle health matters remaining high. In turn, this situation will represent a loss to the economy in terms of the idle capacity in acute care and a strain on the part of resources that will be available for chronic long-term care. Such a scenario serves to emphasize the crucial need for the US government to be keen on the trends in the demand for the two categories of health care services.

Demand for Chronic Disability or Disease Care in the US

Figures relating to the need for chronic care show a worrying trend given the preparedness of the health system to handle the patients with chronic illnesses. A long-term care survey conducted nationally in 1999 showed that there were about 7 million American citizens with chronic diseases or disability.

The above findings show a positive correlation between age and chronic diseases. Therefore, the US has to use these results to determine the amount of resources and strategies that it has to set aside for the aging population. One million aged Americans out of the seven million are in dire need of assistance in carrying out their routine activities. Such figures show a high level of dependency in the American economy.

This situation has serious implications based on the unproductive nature of the aged people who have to be supported. Failure by the health system to recognize the impact of the increased dependency and needs of the elderly on the demand for health care services threatens to magnify the effects of the ageing population on the health care system and other stakeholders in the economy. Such stakeholders include taxpayers who will be forced to spend time and resources more in maintaining the ageing population (Overcash 139).

Strategies to adopt to handle the Ageing Population

Despite the worsening health situation of the aged population, the US government has a room to adopt various strategies whose implementation will end up saving its declining economy.

The ageing population is bound to bring with it certain big problems. Averting such problems is the best approach as opposed to waiting for them to occur before attempting to solve them (Madison and Bockanic 58). This section presents the key plan that the US needs to implement to avert a full-blown crisis that may accompany an unprecedented sharp increase in the ageing population.

Serious improvement is needed in the healthcare system to enable it be better prepared for a rapid upsurge in the population of the elderly. The US government needs to avail funds to help in improving the available facilities to handle the increase in the elderly population that has been influenced mainly by the baby boomer generation (Madison and Bockanic 58). This plan will help in reducing pressure on the available healthcare facilities.

Handling patients on a long-term basis requires greater use of hospital facilities for a long time, a factor that may disadvantage other patients who have acute illnesses that require short-lived contact with the health service providers.

There is also a need for the recruitment of geriatric staff that has the appropriate skills that are necessary in handling medical complications that are associated with the ageing population. This strategy will reduce pressure on the available geriatric physicians, thus enabling them to deliver quality services to their patients (Jill et al. 228).

Due to the shortage in the number of local geriatric physicians, some countries have resorted to hiring them from other countries to meet the local demands of the ageing population on the healthcare system. This trend is fast catching up in various countries such as Germany (Eiichi 34).

The US may also need to employ the same strategy if local solutions turn out to be inefficient in handling the rapid increase in the size of the ageing population. Even though this strategy may be expensive, it is better compared to a case of shortage in staff members due to the value of human life that cannot be determined in monetary terms (Overcash 144).

The importation of such workers by Germany and its counterparts has helped in filling a crucial gap in the healthcare system, thus enabling the countries to meet the needs of their ageing population. Low numbers of geriatric specialists in the United States contributes immensely to the predicament that threatens the capacity of America’s healthcare system to handle the rapid increase in the number of elderly people.

A big portion of medical graduates lacks the confidence to handle the elderly patients (Madison and Bockanic 56). The situation can be reversed if more of them are encouraged to specialize in geriatrics. Besides, for health care workers to be certified, they need to have the ability to perform some of the basic geriatric care (Madison and Bockanic 57).

The US needs to invest heavily in training more medical professionals to revert the issue of inadequate personnel who can handle old-age-related complications. Standards of care that relate to the handling of elderly patients are bound to increase if more students are encouraged to become geriatric specialists (Overcash 142). With specialized practitioners who are available to handle the increased number of elderly patients, a crisis that is imminent in the healthcare system can be averted.

Conclusion

Clearly, the rapid rise in the ageing population presents an immense challenge to America’s healthcare system. It has serious implications on its economy. The rapid increase has been occasioned by the aftermaths of the Second World War when then US high population utilized the technology to boost then worse state of health facilities. Improved health care reduced the levels of deaths and births. Initially, the US healthcare system handled a smaller number of elderly patients.

However, the current rate of increase in the elderly patient numbers has presented a huge economic challenge. Issues surrounding geriatric specialists such as low salaries and low interest in the specialty have served to worsen the problem by contributing to human resource shortage.

Some countries have resorted to importation of labor to cover up the shortfall in personnel to handle the elderly patients. Encouraging more students to specialize in geriatrics and improving the available facilities in the US healthcare system can also help in improving the status quo and hence stand a better chance to handle the rapidly increasing elderly population.

Works Cited

Eiichi, Oki. “Japan’s Aging Population and Its Silver Care Industry.” SERI Quarterly 4.4 (2011): 34-45. Print.

Hashimoto, Ken-Ichi, and Ken Tabata. “Population Aging, Health Care, and Growth.” Journal of Population Economics 23.2 (2010): 571-593. Print.

Jill, Augustine, Amit Shah, Nirav Makadia, Ankar Shah, and Jeannie Lee. “Research: Knowledge and Attitudes regarding Geriatric Care and Training among Student Pharmacists.” Currents in Pharmacy Teaching and Learning 6.2 (2014): 226-232. Print.

Kortebein, Patrick, and Kevin Means. Geriatrics. New York, NY: Demos Medical Pub, 2013. Print.

Madison, Roland, and William Bockanic. “Retirement: Don’t Slow Down, Speed Up!” Strategic Finance 96.6 (2014): 56-59. Print.

Overcash, Janine. “Geriatric Oncology Nursing: Beyond Standard Care.” Interdisciplinary Topics in Gerontology 38.1 (2013): 139-45. Print.

Tacchino, Julie. “Will Baby Boomers Phase into Retirement?” Journal of Financial Service Professionals 67.3 (2013): 41-48. Print.

Wiederhold, Brenda, Giuseppe Riva, and Guendalina Graffigna. “Ensuring the Best Care for Our Increasing Aging Population: Health Engagement and Positive Technology Can Help Patients Achieve a More Active Role in Future Healthcare.” Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking 16.6 (2013): 411-12. Print.

In many ways a person’s health is in his or her hands, while experts tirelessly insist on this, urging people to lead a healthy lifestyle. It would seem that the prescription is rather uncomplicated, yet the number of cardiovascular diseases and diabetes is growing worldwide, which, as a rule, is primarily caused by a sedentary lifestyle, excessive weight, and alcohol abuse. The role of education in one’s health is one of the factors that determine further health outcomes and life duration expectancy. The problem is that limited access of people with low or no education to health care services and a lack of awareness regarding their own health lead to the development of chronic diseases as well as higher morbidity and mortality rates.

In this regard, the purpose of this paper is to examine the role of education in the population’s health in the US, focusing on both positive and negative aspects and considering various links between the mentioned issues. Beginning with the definition of education as an integral part of health, the paper proceeds with the evidence of causal associations between education and population health, including such consequences as stress, morbidity, asthma, hypertension, etc. Furthermore, academic and health equity are discussed to reflect the role of these issues on the population’s health in the US. Ultimately, this paper provides evidence-based recommendations on how to address the identified problem and conclusion, which summarizes the key points considered.

Education as an Element of Health

According to the definition of the World Health Organization (WHO), health is determined as both the “absence of injury or disease and a person’s full psychological, physical, and social well-being” (“Constitution of WHO: Principles,” n.d., para. 1). In the conditions of complicated social and economic relations and the transformation of the modern society, physiological and psychological problems arise, changing internal feelings and affecting health and behaviors of the younger generation. Therefore, in recent years, specialists have been paying attention to the development of a culture of health as an integral component of the system of education.

A low social status in society affects a person with time, exacerbating his or her health issues and facilitating the process of aging. People who received only a high school diploma and those who did not even graduate from it are more prone to develop chronic diseases. Specialists emphasize that modern education systems are not perfect enough as they are aimed at mere transfer of a person further, giving as much knowledge as possible in different areas, but there is no concern for the psyche of students (Embrett & Randall, 2014). The consequences are not noticeable at first, but then they develop quite quickly, harming the health of students. Socio-economic differences are significant factors of inequality in education and health. This assumption is based on the concepts of the mechanisms of the connection between health and inequality in the economic situation.

Embrett and Randall (2014) note that in some cases, these mechanisms are fairly obvious, in others, they are complex and do not lie on the surface. Thus, the level of income determines the differences in life standards – the quantity and quality of the required goods and services. In turn, calorie, the variety and balance of nutrition, the protective and sanitary-hygienic issues, convenience requirements tend to change with education levels. Differences in living conditions form unequal opportunities for adaptation along with the ability to cope with physical and emotional stress. Inequality in life standards determines the inequality of opportunities in using effective measures and methods in combating emerging health problems. With similar mechanisms of transferring the impact of educational inequality on health, one may state that the relationships between health indicators and an educational status have a form of dependence – the better the economic situation, the better health.

Evidence of Causal Associations Between Education and Population Health

The level of education directly affects the life expectancy of a person, as noted by the American scientists. An estimate of the number of annual deaths attributable to lack of high school education among persons 25–64 years of age in the United States (237,410) exceeds the number of deaths attributed to cigarette smoking among persons 35–64 years of age (163,500)” (Hahn & Truman, 2015, p. 662). The authors analyzed the life expectancy of people born in different decades as well as the death rate them. It turned out that people with a high scientific degree had an average life expectancy higher compared to their contemporaries with low education or a complete lack thereof.

The authors estimated that getting a full school education could save the lives of people born in the middle of the twentieth century and died in 2010, and higher education could prevent even more deaths. Experts explain this trend by the fact that people who have higher education have more developed cognitive abilities, their work is paid higher, they eat better products, and live in more appropriate conditions. It turns out that those people who have finished studying in universities live longer. To find this out, scientists compared the differences in DNA and the lifestyle features of 600 people (Hummer & Hernandez, 2013). As a result, researchers assured that every year held in a higher educational institution extends life approximately for a year. Studying at a university promotes the right way of life as it gives knowledge about the role of nutrition and bad habits on the state of health. At the same time, continuous mental activity suspends the aging process

As for morbidity, in people with higher education, chronic diseases were met only in 20 out of 100 cases, but people with secondary education experienced chronic illnesses in 44 cases (Clark, Gong, & Kaciroti, 2014). The risk blood pressure problems and cardiovascular disease is higher in people with low education (Williams, Priest, & Anderson, 2016). Since the role of the immune system in the development of asthma is significant, people living in dysfunctional regions is high. Recently, the significant impact of health inequalities have been discovered, in particular, it has been established that chronic stress related to dissatisfaction with the occupied socioeconomic situation can lead to a change in the neuroendocrinal and psychological functioning of the body and increase the risk of diseases (Clark et al., 2014). It is considered that a prolonged state of fear, insecurity, low self-esteem, social isolation, as well as the inability to make decisions and control the situation at work and home have a serious impact on health. It causes depression, increases predisposition to infectious diseases, diabetes, hypertension, and cardiovascular diseases.

Health Benefits Associated with Education

As a rule, people with lower levels of education or low professional qualifications tend to die at a younger age; in these population groups, the prevalence of many diseases and injuries is much higher, while life expectancy is decreased. There are several reasons that promote the increased life duration in people with higher education. For example, they lead a better lifestyle. Those with education tend to behave differently as they smoke less, drink alcohol adequately, have appropriate weight, and visit doctors regularly (Clark et al., 2014). More to the point, those with higher education receive better-paid jobs, requiring less physical exertion and giving more pleasure. As a result, they encounter less physical stress and tension at their workplaces.

Proper decision-making is another benefit of receiving education. People with education manage to achieve positive social and biological changes since education provides more opportunities for solving life problems, better employment, and better social status. Hummer and Hernandez (2013) note that they have better access to information and are more enthusiastic about learning scientific innovations and following medical recommendations. Such persons are more likely to understand information quicker, appreciate new tendencies, and change their behaviors as they strive to support their health and continue enjoying their lives by practicing active leisure and effective relationships with other people.

However, one should also pinpoint some disadvantages associated with education and health outcomes. For instance, people with higher education are more prone to sedentary lifestyles, which may cause problems with heart and the decreased immune system. Another negative issue related to education in terms of health outcomes is alcohol abuse that may be caused by workplace stress and mental tension, occurring due to the prevalence of mental activity over physical one. The above imbalance may be a serious threat to one’s health.

Academic Achievement and Health Issues

An educational status in the US is used as the key indicator of the position of people in the hierarchy of socio-economic inequality, while an economic status, in turn, is seen as a sign of the return on investment in cultural capital. In addition, education can be considered an indicator of an increased ability of a person to take and process information and make decisions, which allows intelligently, competently, and carefully approach the preservation and maintenance of one’s health (Zimmerman, Woolf, & Haley, 2015). The impact of educational inequality on the health of the new generation is contradictory: despite the fact that the indicators of physical and mental health decrease as we rise to a higher level of education, the educational resource gives us confidence in the future and the formation of basic values. At the same time, education and training can support habits, skills and values ​​that are essential for social interaction and participation. Highly developed institutions, skilled labor, domicile, development of norms and links that promote social co-operation predetermine a high level of investment in one’s own health.

Human capital theory regards education as a good option for investment in personal development as it improves the chances to enter the labor market, get promotion, receive adequate pay, and also retain a job. It also decreases the time to perform everyday tasks and enhances the process of making significant decisions, having an encouraging impact on one’s health (Williams et al., 2015). The link between education and health promotes their mutual strengthening. They are closely interrelated in their aspirations to pull people out of poverty and give them the opportunity to fully realize their inner potential. The apparent connection between psychological health and education of respondents was manifested in the following: the higher the level of education, the more confident young people are in success of their future life. Only one in five students of the university has concerns regarding his or her future, among the students of technical schools – every third. One can state that educational inequality is closely connected with the unequal sense of oneself in society, a higher level of professional education gives greater confidence in their life resources. The formation of basic values, the inner spiritual core is more inherent in students of higher educational institutions.

Health Equity

The low socioeconomic situation affects health directly through deprivation and subjective perception by people of their unequal position in society and related assessments, attitudes, and experiences. The fact is that people with higher education consider the main role of the state, first of all, in providing citizens with the opportunity to choose the desired lifestyle, and, perhaps, encouraging those who make rational decisions that contribute to strengthening their health (Hahn & Truman, 2015). This approach contrasts sharply with the position taken by people with lower social status. As noted, people with lower social status often assume that they have less control over many from the aspects of their everyday life, and, consequently, do not bear any responsibility for them (Williams et al., 2015). Moreover, many of these people also believe that their health has already been adversely affected by these aspects of life (Hahn & Truman, 2015). Some people say that their health has suffered as a result of low earnings, and one in three believes that the quality and variety of food and / or inadequate housing conditions are not enough for this.

Considering the situation with education and health from the different angle, one should note that there are significant economic costs. As outlined by Hahn and Truman (2015), “for a population of 138 million aged 25 years or older with less than a college education, the economic value of the life and health forgone is US$1.02 trillion per year – 7.7 percent of US gross domestic product” (p. 662). Paying attention to the fact that students graduated from the University have employment with higher remuneration and the subsequently reduced costs on health care, the government’s advantage is important that also impacts the populations in terms of Medicaid and other health care programs. As for the population with the high-income, they have the opportunity to purchase dietary products and make travel trips for health enhancement. Bauer (2014) emphasizes that such people are likely to have a coherent view on utilizing the possibilities of the health care system compared to those with low education or those having no education. In general, the problem of health inequality is associated not only with the availability of effective drugs, consultations, or a healthy lifestyle but also with employment opportunities and income criteria.

Solutions to the Identified Problem

In the view of the mentioned points, it seems essential to point out specific goals to be achieved as a result of new initiatives. First of all, the key goal is to boost the productivity of education and that of scientific development in order to provide social protection of the population and public health action. More to the point, it is crucial to make sure that educational institutions have proper conditions for improving health attitudes of their students (Kulhánová et al., 2014). It is possible to recommend introducing the consideration of policies, which would stimulate people with low education or those having no education to attend special courses or strive to have higher education (Embrett & Randall, 2014). It is also critical to arrange focused training to assist people in comprehending the advantages of education associated with health. This issue requires appropriate propaganda by experts, so that there is a specific time when people could listen to them.

Public health action is needed to increase awareness of population in the US. For example, the US Department of Health and Human Services may stimulate the local policymakers to strengthen policies and introduce new ones that would take into account the existing realities and the current evidence in the given field. Embrett and Randall (2014) state that job enrichment plans opportunity may be used by employers for their employees to encourage them by means of providing the opportunity to receive higher education for free or with less payment. Job enrichment is also advantageous for companies since education is associated with greater workplace productivity of employees. In general, the associations between education and population health should be improved, thus engaging more people in government programs and increasing awareness of their own health.

It seems appropriate to consider the intersectionality theory suggested by Bauer (2014) as a means of conducting quantitative research based on analysis, activism, and policy development, thus addressing different types of inequality simultaneously and contributing to understanding how various combinations of identities affect access to rights and opportunities. The above theory explains what a critical role it plays in the struggle for human rights and development and suggests approaches that health and education advocates can use. Even though the global economic integration over the past few decades has resulted in rapid enrichment for some, others do not belong to the representatives of privileged elite (Bauer, 2014). Complicated by colonial history and modern fundamentalism, new technologies and modern forms of discrimination, policies and processes of neo-liberal globalization encourage racism, intolerance and inequality in education and, consequently, in health. Therefore, the use of the above theory is likely to benefit in revealing the ways to address the problem of health inequality.

Conclusion

To conclude, it should be emphasized that the link between education and population health in the US is evident as there are various diseases that are more intrinsic to people with low education or a complete lack of thereof. In particular, stress, hypertension, obesity, asthma, etc. are the key characteristic diseases developing in the mentioned population. Various scholarly articles show the evidence of positive correlations between the educational level and health outcomes, while discussing such benefits as greater awareness along with better lifestyles, living conditions, and access to health care services. Inequality associated with education affects health equity as well. It was discovered that people with higher incomes tend to have better education and vice versa. Based on the existing body of the research, it was recommended to apply the intersectionality theory and create a comprehensive plan for enhancing the described problem. Further research should pay attention to the population’s awareness, the policymaking process, public health action, and job enrichment plans.

References

Bauer, G. R. (2014). Incorporating intersectionality theory into population health research methodology: Challenges and the potential to advance health equity. Social Science & Medicine, 110(1), 10-17.

Clark, N. M., Gong, M., & Kaciroti, N. (2014). A model of self-regulation for control of chronic disease. Health Education & Behavior, 41(5), 499-508.

Constitution of WHO: Principles. (n.d.). Web.

Embrett, M. G., & Randall, G. E. (2014). Social determinants of health and health equity policy research: Exploring the use, misuse, and nonuse of policy analysis theory. Social Science & Medicine, 108(1), 147-155.

Hahn, R. A., & Truman, B. I. (2015). Education improves public health and promotes health equity. International Journal of Health Services, 45(4), 657-678.

Hummer, R. A., & Hernandez, E. M. (2013). The effect of educational attainment on adult mortality in the United States. Population Bulletin, 68(1), 1-20.

Kulhánová, I., Hoffmann, R., Judge, K., Looman, C. W., Eikemo, T. A., Bopp, M.,… Wojtyniak, B. (2014). Assessing the potential impact of increased participation in higher education on mortality: Evidence from 21 European populations. Social Science & Medicine, 117(1), 142-149.

Williams, D. R., Priest, N., & Anderson, N. B. (2016). Understanding associations among race, socioeconomic status, and health: Patterns and prospects. Health Psychology, 35(4), 407-415.

Zimmerman, E. B., Woolf, S. H., & Haley, A. (2015). Understanding the relationship between education and health: A review of the evidence and an examination of community perspectives. Web.

Introduction

Laurel, Maryland is a home to the aged, who are vulnerable to disease outbreaks, emergencies, financial needs and disasters, among others. These people therefore need care giving services and standby resources that would assist in times of disasters and emergencies, given their vulnerability in responding to such situations.

The county assists these people in various ways. These include rental assistance, provision of subsidized rental houses and maintaining of the environment to befit them. This paper will explore Laurel, Maryland, the vulnerable group in the area as well as resources that Prince George’s County have put in place to assist them (Johnson, 2011, p. 1-48).

Laurel, Maryland

Laurel is a city in the United States, which is located in the Northern part of Prince George’s County, Maryland. It also lies in Howard and Anne Arundel Counties. It has a population of over 20000. Residents include the aged who are over 60 and vulnerable to various problems, such as health, abuse, finance as well as accommodation, among others.

The Vulnerable communities in Laurel face several challenges. Among these problems, include addiction to drugs, housing problems, as these groups of people are usually needy. Housing is a big problem in Laurel for the vulnerable. They are usually assisted by the state and non-governmental organizations by offering subsidized rental houses as well as rental assistance to some of them.

Special needs of this group in times of disaster

Price Georges’ County is also a home to the aging community who need assistance. These people need caregiving , maintained health as well as good social welfares that enable them to be independent. The aged also face other problems such as abuse, which may include physical, psychological or sexual. They need protection against such problems, among others (Madlyn, 2011, p. 1).

Community resources are currently available in Prince Georges’ County

Maryland to help this group

Prince George’s County is surrounded by primary emergency services that help the community in fire outbreaks as well as rescue squad. The companies are Laurel Volunteer Fire Department and Rescue squad. The county also offers several services with availed resources. These include Adult day care centers that provide programmed day care activities for adults to enhance their well-being. The services are run throughout the week except the weekends.

They are operated in secure, cheerful and supportive environment. Other services include trips and tours as well as nutritious meals for the aged. The County also provides disaster response services to the residents in Laurel.

The County also provides resources and information that assist in restraining elders’ abuse, through various agencies such as the department of family services, which include administration on aging elder abuse outreach. Other assistance provided is financial help to cover for health and food assistance for this group of people (Johnson, 2011, p. 1-48).

Conclusion

Laurel, Maryland is a home to the aged and serves them by providing almost all their needs. These people are vulnerable to disasters and emergencies. They also have numerous health problems, which require caregiving. Their mobility is also limited, and this means that they require transport assistance. This is because , they are weak and cannot undergo the tiresome activities of the day such as long drives. In response to this, several governmental and non-governmental organizations have put in place mechanisms to help them.

Among these organizations, include Madlyn and Leonard Abramson Center for Jewish life, which provides care giving services as well as rental care to the vulnerable in Laurel, Maryland. Others include the federal government through Prince George’s County, which is availed with several resources aimed at providing assistance whenever required by the vulnerable group (Madlyn, 2011, p. 1).

Reference List

Johnson, J. (2011). Family services. The Prince George’s County Government. Web.

Madlyn, A. & Leonard, A. (2011). Care Giving Services. Madlyn and Leonard Abramson Center for Jewish Life. Web.

According to my research, so many business articles and trade publications cover the issue of poor children as a vulnerable population, but the three that I selected include Journal of Dental Education, International Journal for Equity in Health and Journal of Public Health Management & Practice.

The Journal of Dental Education covers critical issues that are related to the dental health and education of children, especially those who come from poor backgrounds. The source is credible since the author’s name is given, and the credentials of the author are given on the first page. I do not think there are any hidden agendas that drive to the author’s point of view. This is so because the author has given the information needed in the correct way, and he has done enough research that relates to the subject under discussion.

Other factors that show the source is credible include the year of publication, which is dated as 2001,thus showing the information is reliable; the location and contacts of the source; no citations, indicating that the author is the original idea bearer; and, lastly, the information is given on a general view, and not on a personal view, thus showing no bias.

The International Journal for Equity in Health covers the problems associated with healthcare access relative to socioeconomic status of children. The source is credible since the names of the authors are given together with their credentials, including contacts and affiliations. According to me, the authors have no hidden agendas in presenting their points of view since they are presenting their information according to the research they carried out, as well as their experience in the field.

There are also other factors that show the credibility of the source: the year of publication is dated as 2011, thus making the information to be reliable; the website is published under Bio Med Central Ltd, a part of Business Media and Springer Science; and the authors are the original sources of information since there are no citations. These sources do not show any form of biasness as they present their cases on a daily basis encounter, as well as through research findings.

The Journal of Public Health Management & Practice enhances the vulnerable populations’ health disparities measurement. I think the source is credible since the authors’ names are given. Their credentials are also given, as their respective affiliations are indicated. I do not think the authors have any hidden agendas while presenting their points of view. This is because they have done research, and they have presented their information according to that research.

There are no citations, an indication that they are the original sources of information. For more verification of the source credibility, the year of publication is updated as 2010, hence it is reliable; the article is published under the Lippincott’s Nursing Center. Com Website; and the authors are not biased since they have given a general view of the whole idea.

Summary

Poor children are one of the vulnerable populations that exist. When poor health is experienced in the early years, the early development of the child is affected, as well as the wellbeing and the health of the child in future (Kristiansson et al, 2009). Despite health being a fundamental right, there is less to enjoy about children born in less privileged families.

Health disparities exist between the rich and the poor children in several domains such as health insurance coverage, environmental health, behavior, healthcare services access, and health outcomes (Shi et al, 2008).

This is due to the relationship that exists between health and socioeconomic status, which tends to be reciprocal. It is reciprocal because poverty tends to detract itself from the resources that encourage health maintenance, which, in turn, detract from the paths of employment and education to the mobility of income (Kristiansson et al., 2009).

Healthcare access is the right of every individual. The relationship that exists between health and income, however, has created inequality dimensions that are longstanding and well documented (Kristiansson et al, 2009).

History has shown that the poor have been more vulnerable to the health prevailing threats, which include contagious diseases in the contagious era, famines during the agricultural era, and in our own era, degenerative diseases (Mouradian, 2001). The poor have been vulnerable as opposed to the rich in accessing environmental health, accessing healthcare services, health insurance coverage, health outcomes and healthy behaviors (Kristiansson et al, 2009).

To decrease the health disparities in children, the health of children from poor backgrounds should be improved. This can be achieved by ensuring that proper investments are made in order to reduce the children’s exposure to the well known toxins, to enable families to access high quality as well as responsive care, for healthy behaviors to be promoted, and, lastly, to get rid of illnesses.

References

Kristiansson, C., Gotuzzo, E., Rodriguez, H., Bartoloni, A., Strohmeyer, M., Tom son, G., & Hartvig, P. (2009). Access to healthcare in relation to socioeconomic status in Amazonian area of Peru. International Journal for Equity in Health 8(11).

Mouradian, W. E. (2001). The Face of a Child: Children’s Oral Health and Dental Education. Journal of Dental Education. 65(9).

Shi, L., Stevens, G. D., Lebrun, L. A., Faed, P., & Tsai, J. (2008). Enhancing the Measurement of Health Disparities for Vulnerable Populations. Journal of Public Health Management & Practice. 14(6), 45-52.

Introduction

The population of aging Americans has been on the rise consistently over the past several decades. Improved healthcare, increasing levels of income, and other human development index (HDI) factors have improved life expectancy in most developed economies such as the United States. In a study by Poo (2015), the increasing population of elderly people in the United States is an indication that more focus needs to be placed on their wellness. Seniors, especially those who are over 75 years of age, need close attention from family members and medical practitioners. Physical therapy assistants (PTAs) are critical in the care of these individuals, especially those who are already in homes for the elderly. Rubin (2015) argues that the best way to improve the health of the elderly is to ensure that they remain physically active. In this study, the researcher will use quantitative research methods to analyze population trends in the United States and the impact of an aging population on American society.

Discussion

The United States of America has one of the highest life expectancies in the world for both men and women. The improved healthcare sector and the high living standards are some of the factors that have led to an improved life expectancy in the country. Emerging technologies in the field of medicine have also helped with eradicating or managing some of the dangerous diseases that claimed many lives in the past. It is important to look at American population trends and the principal consequences they have on society, especially in the health sector.

Rate of Increase of the Elderly Population in America

According to a report by Samuel (2017), the number of the elderly in the United States has been on the rise since the country gained independence. There was a sharp increase in the country’s general population after the Second World War. Although the country participated in the war and emerged as one of the two world superpowers, the battlefields were in Europe. This means that the economy of the country was not adversely affected by the war. The economic boom after the war made the United States the most highly desired destination for economic immigrants from Europe, the Asia-Pacific region, and Africa. Soon after the war, many people immigrated to the United States because of socio-political reasons. The country is still the most sought-after destination for migrants from all over the world. According to Moody and Sasser (2015), most of those who move to the United States, especially from developing countries, rarely go back to their country of birth. This means that they end up aging in the United States. Figure 1 below shows the changing population of the elderly from 1900 to 2018. It also shows a projected trend that will be witnessed from 2019 to 2060.

As shown in the figure above, the population of the elderly in the United States almost tripled (from 3.1 million to 9 million) between 1900 and 1940. From 1940 to the year 2000, it rose from 9 million to 35 million, which is almost a 300% increase. The statistics show that the population of the elderly will be about twice its current number. It is important to analyze the demographic factors of the elderly population in the country. Figure 2 below shows the population of elderly people based on their marital status.

The statistics above show that married couples are the majority among the elderly population. 70% of women who are over 65 years are in a marriage, and so are 45% of men in that age bracket. The widowed form another significant population, followed by the divorced, the separated, or those with absent spouses. Those who have never been married form the smallest fraction of seniors above 65 years in age. According to Wong (2014), the earnings of a family also determine people’s longevity. Members of well off families are likely to have longer lives than those from impoverished families. Figure 3 below shows the classification based on family income.

The statistics in the figure above show that poverty is inversely proportional to life span. The rich in American society tend to live longer than the poor. The cost of healthcare services remains high despite the effort put in place by the current and previous administrations to make them more affordable. The rich can afford expensive heath insurance coverage that enables them to visit hospitals regularly for check-ups. It makes it easy to detect diseases early enough so that they can be managed in the country’s top hospitals. On the other hand, the poor lack the privilege of receiving the best healthcare services the country has to offer. Their limited financial capacity forces them to visit hospitals only when it is necessary. This means that in most of the cases, the diseases that affect them are diagnosed at very late stages, making the treatment process complex and costly. A significant number of them do not survive after such late diagnosis. That is why they form the smallest percentage of the elderly.

Impact of the Aging Population

The increasing population of aging citizens has had a significant impact on the socio-economic environment in the United States. According to Wong (2014), not all of the aging people in the country have families who can support them during the late stages of their lives. As such, some of them are forced to go to homes for the elderly where they can get the support they need. Others opt to look for gainful employment as a way of remaining physically active and meeting their socio-economic needs. The figure below shows a declining rate of unemployment among adults aged over 65 years.

It is clear from the above statistics that more senior Americans are considering formal employment as an option even after they retire. There was a sharp decrease in the rate of unemployment among Americans aged over 65 years. Although some of these adults cite the need to remain physically active as one of the reasons why they prefer working even after their formal retirement, Rubin (2015) observes that many do so as a way of gaining economic freedom. Improved medical services allow them to be physically active and as such, they prefer continuing to work to meet their basic expenses. The social benefit of remaining at work is another major determinant of why these seniors prefer regular employment. Unlike staying at home, where they are left in solitude when their children are at work, going to work allows them to interact with other people. They end up remaining physically and mentally strong.

How to Manage the Changes

It is evident that that the number of aging Americans is increasing consistently because of various socio-economic and technological factors. Other than the socio-economic factors discussed above, the increasing elderly population will have significant implications for the healthcare sector. These individuals are more likely to fall sick that younger people. According to Wong (2014), it is important to find a way of managing the change in a way that will be beneficial to the elderly. The following are some of the factors that should be considered:

Promote physical exercise among the elderly

According to Moody and Sasser (2015), one of the main issues that often lead to poor health among the elderly is limited physical exercise. Most of the elderly spend most of their time indoors watching television or reading newspapers if they do not have gainful employment. Many do not travel a lot (Poo, 2015). Reduced physical activity speeds up the aging process. It makes them prone to numerous opportunistic diseases. Those who are obese may face more serious challenges if they remain inactive. Samuel (2017) advises that they should always find ways of remaining active. Having a regular walk and visiting the gym are some of the best options for staying physically fit. One hour at the gym three or four times a week and a daily stroll, either in the morning or evening, have numerous health benefits. These senior citizens will remain healthy and the need to provide them with constant medical services will be reduced. This strategy helps in reducing the demand for healthcare services in the country. Doctors, nurses, and clinicians will have more time to attend to other urgent needs within their workplaces.

Improve facilities in the nursing homes

Some of the senior citizens who are over 80 years old may not find it possible to continue going to work. Some of them may have physical complications that limit their ability to engage in physical exercise regularly or vigorously. In such cases, they may need the close attention of nurses to help in improving their wellness at this delicate stage of life. It may be necessary to equip nursing homes with state-of-the-art facilities that will improve their experience while in the hospital. The facilities should help in early detection and management of health problems that these clients may have. The facilities should also help them maintain some form of physical activity even when they feel weak. It is also important to protect them from injuries that may be caused by a fall or dangerous objects within the facility. Whenever necessary, these individuals should be enabled to communicate easily with nurses and other stakeholders as a way of improving their experience.

Increase the number of PTAs in nursing homes

Physical therapy assistants play a critical role in nursing homes and in other areas where they have to care for the elderly. Rubin (2015) laments that some Americans abandond their aging parents in nursing homes and do not bother to visit them regularly to ensure that they remain comfortable. The role of caring for them falls on the shoulders of the nurses. They have to ensure that the attention that they give to these patients is as personal as possible. Samuel (2017) states that nurses should strive to create a personal relationship with their clients. Their unique needs, likes and dislikes, and any other relevant issue that may improve their experience when they are in the nursing home should be understood.

Some of them may be terminally ill and need constant assistance with almost everything. The demand for the attention of the nurses can become even greater when handling patients who have been abandoned or those who do not have family members who visit them regularly. It is sometimes necessary to increase the number of PTAs in the nursing home to ensure that they can give personalized quality care to the patients. According to Poo (2015), a nurse to patient ratio of 1:5 is recommended. A nurse who handles more than 5 patients in a day may not deliver quality care. Nursing homes should be adequately staffed to ensure that these individuals are offered the best services available. With the right facilities and adequate staff, the senior citizens in nursing home will feel comfortable away from their homes.

Conclusion

The population of elderly citizens is consistently rising in the United States. Factors such as improved healthcare services, improved standards of living, awareness about avoidance or management of major diseases, and advanced technologies have contributed to a life expectancy that is longer than it was in the past. The study shows that the growing number of senior citizens may exert pressure on healthcare facilities. Promoting healthy lifestyles such as regular exercise and good diet may reduce the need for them to visit hospitals regularly. The study also suggests that nursing homes for the elderly should be properly equipped and staffed to meet the demand.

References

Department of Health & Human Services. (2016). A profile of older Americans: 2016. Web.

Moody, H., & Sasser, J. (2015). Aging: Concepts and controversies. New York, NY: Sage Publications.

Poo, A. (2015). The age of dignity: Preparing for the elder boom in a changing America. New York, NY: The New Press.

Rubin, L. (2015). 60 on up: The truth about aging in America. New York, NY: Beacon Press.

Samuel, R. (2017). Aging in America: A cultural history. Philadelphia, PA: Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania Press.

Wong, D. (2014). Counseling individuals through the lifespan. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.

Biophysical Considerations

The African Americans in Brooklyn comprise of 35 percent of the total population. The actual population of the blacks is 862, 864. The females are 50.2% of the population. On age distribution, persons below 6 years represent 6.8%, 6-19 years represent 14.5%, 20-64 years represent 69.6% and those above 64% represent 9.1% of the total population. The infant mortality rates stand at 4.5 deaths per a thousand live births.

This is a registered decrease from 6.4 deaths per a thousand live births in 2000 to the current 4.5 deaths per thousand live births. The death rate per 100,000 of the population stands at 18.27 as at 2010. The average life span of the population stands at 48 years (Brooklyn Center 2010).

In the last five years, the morbidity rates for cancer, HIV, and other chronic ailments have been on the rise. For instance, the incidence rate for cancer has risen from 22 per 1000 per year in 2004 to 28 per 1000 per year in 2010. However, the prevalence rate has decreased from 20 per 1000 per year in 2004 to the present 18 per 1000 per year in 2010.

The mortality rate for cancer has increased from 32 per 100,000 to 48 per 100,000 from 2004 to 2010. As indicated in the government data, 89.9 percent of the population had full immunization at the age of 9 months. Besides, 92.1% of the population that were eligible for immunization was immunized at the age of 12 months (Brooklyn Center 2010).

Psychological considerations

This community is characterized by a constant population growth rate of 4%. At present, almost the entire population is literate and this is projected to hit the 100% mark in the near future. The most significant event in the history of the black-Americans in Brooklyn is slavery before freedom as black revolution swept this city.

Most of the adults in the population had firsthand experience of discrimination, and unequal resource allocation. The most common mode of interaction within this community is the informal communication, politics, trade, and cultural events. The community network is comprised of the formal and informal educated persons that fall into different social classes within the population class (Brooklyn Center 2010).

The main sources of stress in this community are absolute poverty, unplanned settlement, and competition for limited social amenities such as piped water, gas, and electricity. Besides, poor sanitation and insecurity have also been blamed for the multiple stresses in this expansive community.

Physical environmental considerations

The Black American community within Brooklyn is spread evenly within New York boroughs. Brooklyn boasts of extensive settlement with each cultural group occupying different estates. Specifically, this community occupies Brownville neighborhood. The population density of Brooklyn is 34, 920 per square mile.

The average house unit density is 13,180 per square mile. There are 234,000 households occupied by the African American within this city. The average size of each household size is 2.8. The main safety hazards in Brooklyn community are the numerous chemical spills, contamination as a result of poor solid and liquid waste management, and water, soil, and air pollution from industries (Brooklyn Center 2010).

The main source of community water supply in this community is the Brooklyn Aquifer System runs from New York. Water originates from the East River and is piped to the community. Brooklyn community has well maintained solid and liquid waste disposal and management authority.

There are treatment plants for solid and liquid wastes besides recycling plants. Garbage is collected periodically for disposal by the authority. However, the nuisance factor is the unpredictability of garbage collection and repair of sewage systems. The main impending disaster in sewage management is the leaks from damaged pipes which sometimes take long to repair, thus exposing the residence to contagious diseases.

Socio-cultural considerations

The local authorities and the police represent the arm of the government in this community. For instance, the Eastern Brooklyn police post provides security to this expansive community. The unofficial leaders are community policing committees, business leaders, and religious leaders who offer leadership during crisis and cultural events.

This community is very active in politics and the majority of them are members of the Democratic Party. The minority group in this community is the Hispanics who represent 10% of the entire population. The main language spoken by this community is English. However, some members speak French, Spanish, and German besides English.

Due to poverty level of 20%, the average income is at $3000 per month. The household income is $32,135 while median income per family is $36,188. Per capita income is $16,775. On an average, the community literacy level is 80%. Besides, those with collage education account for 35% of the population.

Seventy percent of the members of this community are Christians while 20 percent Muslims. The other percent is distributed across other religions. The community boasts of different cultural skills in cinema, literature and theater. Among the notable renowned cultural centers include the Brooklyn Museum, BMA musical awards, several artists, and filmmakers (Brooklyn Center 2010).

The employment rate stands at 69 percent. Those informal sector accounts for 49 percent while those in private sector accounting for 51%. The main means of transportation are rail and road. There are bus and shuttle services that cover all the quarters of the community. The social services include affordable education, entertainment, and parks and recreation, centers. The major employers are the government, local authorities, and private businesses. Occupational hazards include workplace injuries, infections, and overwork, and possible death.

Behavioral considerations

Consumption patterns: Due to low income, the consumption patterns of this community align with basic needs. Despite this, the majority of this population is aware of healthy dietary and is at the forefront of promoting healthy eating habits. The alcoholic consumption rate stands at 32% with drug abuse more prevalent among the young adults. Tobacco smoking is prevalent among the young male adults and is associated with 10 deaths per 10,000 persons.

The main leisure activities include music, social sporting events, entertainment, and neighborhood talent shows. The main health hazards posed by these recreational facilities include injuries, cuts, infections, and deaths. Contraceptive use has been embraced by this community due to intensive campaigns on the need for family planning. On an average, 65 percent of the females have used contraceptives in their life (Brooklyn Center 2010).

Health system considerations

There are several community health programs run by members of this community. The community is conscious of their health, birth control, healthy eating and living habits, and adaptation of preventive health policies. The major health services offered are affordable hospital and clinical treatment, free TB and HIV centers, free post illness recovery support, and mobile clinics.

Most of the clinics within this community offer free prenatal care besides affordable emergency services such as ambulance, fire, and accident treatments. Reflectively, the government of the United States finances most of the healthcare services. These services have been subsidized and are currently afforded by the members this community.

Reference

Brooklyn Center. (2010). Quick Facts from the US Census Bureau. Web.

Introduction

This paper focuses on health status identification and health promotion in Spartanburg, SC. Taking into account that nurses play an integral part in improving the health status of the community, it is essential to explore the mentioned topic in detail.

Community Evaluation

The status of the public health of Spartanburg County is determined by a range of factors. According to Spartanburg (SP) Health Rankings (2016), the key health factors include obesity, smoking, physical inactivity, sexually-transmitted diseases, food environment index, and alcohol abuse – all these factors are behavioral. In turn, environmental ones involve air pollution, housing issues, and drinking water quality. Also, among social and economic factors, one might note unemployment, low income, and crime.

At that, considerable efforts to address the mentioned issues are conducted by Partners for Active Living (PAL), the Childhood Obesity Task Force (COTF), and the Mary Black Foundation. The City of Spartanburg has an elaborate network of public, private, and non-profit organizations that are open to communicating with each other and the public. In particular, the Road to Better Health (RTBH) coalition is one of the most prominent of them.

Specific Ways to Improve the Health Status of the Community

In this regard, it is essential to suggest appropriate preventive measures to improve health outcomes in Spartanburg County. According to Five Public Health Priority Areas & Goals for 2018 identified by RTBH, the community is in need to enhance access to care. Namely, it is expected to achieve a “30% reduction in the number of emergency room discharges for ambulatory care sensitive conditions and 30% reduction in the number of hospital readmissions within 30 days” (Public Health, 2016, para. 2).

Another specific way to improve the current health status is to reduce tobacco use among the population that can be reached by the facilitation “of at least 150 SC Tobacco Quitline fax referrals from Access Health Spartanburg and changes through one new smoke-free ordinance” (Public Health, 2016, para. 2). It is also crucial to point out that other initiatives might be considered as well. For example, the reduction of childhood obesity, the improvement of birth outcomes, and the increase in health behaviors should be taken into account within the framework of a comprehensive approach.

Patients with Congestive Heart Failure

SC Office of Research and Statistics reports that Spartanburg County residents were registered as 129 patients and 219 visitors with congestive heart failure at South Carolina Emergency Departments in 2012 (Public Health, 2016). The data provided shows the necessity to improve this area.

Considering that congestive heart failure is sometimes a result of the obesity factor that was identified above, Harkness and DeMarco (2012) offer to implement the Weight Watchers program. Based on encouragement, the program also requires the active involvement of nurses in teaching and continuous surveillance of patient care. However, it is significant to provide primary (aimed at preventive measures before the disease appearance), secondary (used to reduce the impact of the existing disease), and tertiary prevention (used to soften the influence of the congestive heart failure).

Spartanburg Regional Healthcare agency provides education and special medical attention to patients with chronic heart failure. Striving to meet the expectations of every client, nurse practitioners can also assist with emergency visits and medical goals along with care plans as well as offer various medication assistance programs (Heart Failure Center: Helping You Take Control, 2016).

Spartanburg Regional Heart Center is another agency that is a hospital specializing in training, treatment, and rehabilitation of patients with congestive heart failure. The cost of the services at both health agencies is affordable and supplemented by discounts, cheer cards, and other bonuses. Medicaid services allow residents of South Carolina who are suffering from heart problems to receive services at both centers.

References

Harkness, G. A., & DeMarco, R. (2012). Community and public health nursing: Evidence for practice. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.

Heart Failure Center: Helping You Take Control. (2016). Web.

Public Health. (2016). Web.

Spartanburg (SP) Health Rankings. (2016). Web.

The elderly population is faced with a myriad of problems, not least because their bodies are frail, and as such, they are more susceptible to getting sick. In addition, because their income is reduced, they are likely to get access to proper nutrition and the right healthcare services (Tobin, 2009). As such, there is a need to devise practical solutions that, when implemented, will ensure that their health and welfare is improved significantly.

As people grow older, their children and loved ones become increasingly concerned about their safety and health, and more so when they are faced with complex non-medical and unfamiliar medical situations (Tobin, 2009). Although adult children may be willing to take care of their aging parents, nonetheless, the time dedication to their careers and taking care of their own children does not leave much room for them to take care of their parents as they ought to, which is why some of the parents prefer going to nursing homes or home for the aged where they can get personalized health care services by a professional at a fee.

One of the most practical solutions that can be implemented with a view to the health and welfare of the elderly is choosing a suitable nursing home that is well equipped to deal with the needs of this vulnerable group (Smith, 2007). Sometimes, it becomes a bit hard to locate the ideal facility within your locality, and if this happens, there is the need to identify someone who leaves near to the health care facility of choice which can be relied on as the contact person and possibly attend to the needs of the elderly.

At times, a nursing home may not actually be the best option, especially if the elderly person in need does not wish to be placed in a home for the elderly. A recent report indicates that an increasingly higher number of Americans now prefer home-based care for the elderly, as opposed to putting them in a nursing home (Tobin, 2009).

However, it is important to have a professional caregiver in place to assists with taking care of the elderly while at home. Sometimes, you can be lucky enough to get a professional caregiver who would not mind to moving in with the elderly persons in need of healthcare so that he/she can be able to offer care and support to the elderly person around-the-clock.

Another practical solution that can be implemented to help the elderly is to place them under the care of dependable family caregivers (Tobin, 2009). Research shows that elderly individuals who are receiving care from dependable family caregivers tend to be by and large, much happier in comparison with their counterparts who are being attended to at the nursing homes. Nonetheless, it is important to ensure that the home-living arrangement is convenient so that the caregivers may not break down as a result of burnout and stress. In this case, the family is not only spared the agony of having to contribute to the hefty healthcare bills if the elderly person in the family is receiving healthcare at a nursing home, but they will actually get time to bond with the elderly.

Families can also hire a care manager who would then advise them on how best to solve the dilemma facing them on the issue of taking care of their elderly members of the family.

It is important to ensure that the right mechanisms have been put in place in order to ensure that the elderly members of the family are taken care of. This is because they are frail physically, and they are also economically deprived.

Reference List

Smith, K. (2007). Caring for America’s aging population: a profile of the direct-care workforce. Web.

Tobin, D. (2009). Coordinating Your Aging Parents’ Needs. Web.

Introduction

South Africa is one of the strongest and fastest developing countries in Africa. A country that was heavily affected by racial segregation during the apartheid rule that ended in 1994, South Africa has experienced massive growth in its economy over the past two decades. This may be attributed to its rich mineral reserves, especially gold. It has the strongest economy in Africa.

Analysis of the Country

Historical Issues

South Africa is one of the countries that gained independence several years after other African states, and other states around the world had gained independence. The country was ruled by the Boers after the departure of British colonizers in 1910. Nelson Mandela, Walter Susuli among other leaders is lauded to have fought for the independence of this country. It is one of the African states with the best government structures.

Economic Issues

The economy of South Africa is one of the fastest developing economies in the world. This is due to good governance and rich oil reserves. The country has the best infrastructure in Africa, especially after hosting the 2010 FIFA World Cup. However, most of the South Africans, especially those living in the rural set-ups and in slums, live in object poverty.

Social Issues

For a long time, South Africa had experienced racial segregation where the whites and blacks had different status in the country. The blacks were considered subordinate to the whites. This came to an end when Mandela finally came to power. Other than the xenophobic movement that was slightly experienced in 2009, South Africans have come to appreciate cultural diversity.

Technological Issues

South Africa is not one of the giants in the field of technology. However, this country has come to embrace the importance of technology in running various sectors. The government has supported various initiatives meant to enhance technological developments. Institutions such as schools, hospitals, and business units among others have embraced the emerging technology.

Geographical and Climate Issues of South Africa

This African country generally has two seasons in a year. The country has winter and summer. During summer, the country experiences hot and wet climate, while in winter, the temperatures are rather cold. The country borders the Indian Ocean, making its beaches one of the most attractive beaches in the world.

Health Status and Healthcare System in South Africa

South African government has made concerted effort to ensure that its healthcare system reflects the needs of its populace. The population of South Africans has been on the rise over the past one decade, but the government has not been in a position to upgrade its health system to reflect this. According to Padayachee (118), although the government has made an effort to improve health facilities in major cities, people living in rural set-ups and slums lack proper medical facilities.

Relationship between South Africa and the World

Abstract

South Africa has had a very cordial relationship with its neighbors and the world. Following the end of apartheid rule in 1994, this country has been able to develop a cordial relationship with other states in Africa and the world at large.

South Africa and its Neighbors

South Africa has been a friendly nation to its neighbors. It has been a very resourceful neighbor to Swaziland and Lesotho which are landlocked countries within its borders. Its neighboring countries such as Namibia, Lesotho, Swaziland, Botswana, Zimbabwe, and Mozambique have registered satisfaction with the relationship they have had with this country.

South Africa and the World

South Africa has also had a positive relationship with other African states and the world in general. Being the only African country which is a member of the G-20, this country has been seen to champion the interests of African nations in the world forum. Its first president, Nelson Mandela, is known to have been a champion of peace around the world.

Demographic Data

Ethnic Composition

About 92 percent of those who live in South Africa are the black Africans who are the natives. The highest percentage out of this population lives in object poverty. About 2 percent of this population is the Dutch who never left the country after the curtain fell on their leadership. There are other ethnic groups like the Arabs, Chinese, and other ethnic groups from all over the world.

Religious Groupings

The main religion in South Africa is Christianity. This religion was spread during the colonization of this country. However, there are various other religions in this country. After Christianity, African religious groups are dominant, especially in the interiors of the country. Islam, Hinduism, and Buddhism are also practiced, especially among the non-natives.

Cultural Characteristics

South Africa is one of the countries with rich cultural heritage. Most of the native Africans have maintained their cultural practiced such as male circumcision. The culture that allows men to marry more than one wife is also cherished in various societies. In various national ceremonies, traditional dancers and artists would be called upon to perform before dignitaries.

Education Levels

Most of the young South Africans, especially those who were born after independence, have had the opportunity to go to school. However, a good number of the middle aged and the aging population also have basic education. This is because they were either too busy fighting for the liberation of this country from the Boers, or they could not withstand racial segregation witnessed in schools during their era.

Health Statistics

Health statistics of this country shows that South Africa is one of the countries at risk of experiencing massive health problem. According to Padayachee (56), South Africa is one of the countries with the highest percentage of its population living with HIV/AIDs in the world. A number of South Africans have also perished from cardiovascular diseases. The table below shows the percentage of those suffering from cardiovascular disease over the last three years.

Source: (Rao 78)

Population Affected

Majority of those affected with cardiovascular disease in this country are the middle class who have put their focus on gaining financial security. This category of people does less strenuous work because they work in large offices in major cities in this country. They have limited time to spare for physical activities hence putting them at risk.

Problem Identification

Major Health Concern

As stated above, cardiovascular disease is a major killer disease in this country. Many South Africans have died due to this health complication. The main reason why these people perish is because of lack of proper healthcare facilities in the country to deal with this complication.

Economic and Social Impact of Cardiovascular Disease

Cardiovascular disease has had serious impact on the economic and social status of those affected. Most of those who suffer from this disease are the middle class trying to find financial security. Once affected by this disease, they would spend most of their savings, and would at times run into debts trying to meet the costs of treating the disease. This affects their social standings a great deal as they find themselves in lower social class that they thought they had passed.

Scope of the Problem

According to Jamison (92), although the problem has not reached an alarming level, the rate at which individuals are being diagnosed with this problem is alarming. The problem, once thought to be a preserve for the rich, is now affecting the middle class which is actually the driving force of this country. Although the government has tried to deal with it, it still remains a big issue in the society.

Historical Development of Cardiovascular Disease

Historical development of cardiovascular disease can be analyzed on an individual level basis. History of this disease on one patient may not be the same as that of another patient. According to Rao (67), this health issue is associated with lack of proper physical exercise and intake of a lot of calories. When the body fails to burn these calories, their accumulation may lead to this health concern.

World Wide Disparity of the Problem

Cardiovascular disease was previously considered a disease of the west. This was so because of the technological advancements in the west that meant that people would only perform light tasks that does not need heavy physical activity. However, as this technology spread, the disease became common even among Africans. Currently, cardiovascular disease is considered as a major global issue in the society.

Effects of Globalization and Technology on Cardiovascular Disease

Globalization and technology has had positive effect on the efforts to counter this disease. Given the fact that this is not a communicable disease that can be spread by being in contact with a victim, the ability to move enhances the possibility of finding its solution. A patient from South Africa can be flown to the United States where there are adequate medical facilities to deal with the problem. Advancements in technology has helped in coming up with sophisticated machines that help in detection and treatment of this complication.

Effects of Cardiovascular Disease if Left Unchecked

If left unchecked, cardiovascular disease can have serious negative impact in the society. The government needs to equip public hospitals with the machines that can help deal with the problem. If this is not done, the country will continue losing its citizens, and this would lead to decreased labor force in the economy. Children will be left orphaned, and this will increase the levels of poverty in this country.

International Healthcare Organization Involved in the Delivery of Healthcare in South Africa

The main international healthcare organization that has come out to help country this problem in the country is World Health Organization. Working with the local hospitals and community health workers, W.H.O. has made an effort to increase awareness of this disease. It has been working closely with donors and government to find permanent solution.

Summary and Conclusion

Cardiovascular disease is a health concern that has been on the rise in this country. The government of South Africa has not been able to come up with a lasting solution for this problem because of the costs associated with its treatment. However, partnering with international agencies such as W.H.O., the government has increased its effort in managing this disease.

Works Cited

Jamison, Dean. Disease and Mortality in Sub-Saharan Africa. Washington: World bank, 2006. Print.

Padayachee, Vishnu. The Development Decade? Economic and Social Change in South Africa, 1994 – 2004. Cape Town: HSRC Press, 2006. Print.

Rao, Gudu. Coronary Artery Disease: Risk Promoters, Pathophysiology, and Prevention. New Delhi: Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers, 2012. Print.