Category: Population

First Encounters and Coexistence

The federal policies that targeted Native American populations were highly influenced not only by the white population’s aims and objectives for the land where the Natives resided but also by the Natives’ attitude toward nature, resources, and the concept of prosperity. As pointed out by Butler (129), there were two distinctive cultures, the Northern Fremont and the Shoshonean; those Shoshonean that lived in the Lemhi were considered to be a part of the Northern Shoshone. Lewis and Clark’s expedition can be seen as the first phase of the federal policy approach toward the Native populations, namely, coexistence. The Lewis and Clark’s expedition did not aim to bring any harm to the Natives yet (as they themselves showed by providing the Shoshone with gifts) but mostly aimed to observe and evaluate the lands encountered, as well as prepare for future expansion; “the Corps of Discovery” was the tool for exploring the lands and Native populations that stayed isolated from the white population until 1805 (Schwantes 12).

During their expedition, Lewis and Clark had the opportunity not only to gain a better understanding of the terrain and acquire maps of it (as they did, trading American goods for horses and information with one of the Native chefs, Cameahwait) but also study the lifestyle and behaviors on the Native population. The explorers emphasized the poverty the Natives lived in and also indicated the necessity of seasonal migrations. To gain the necessary information about the Columbia, Clark promised Cameahwait that he would receive a particular privilege in trading with the American government, as well as access to goods, ammunition, and arms (Ronda 152). As the Native populations were unaware of the expedition’s aims in detail, they provided the Corps with the needed information, thus facilitating the next step in federal policies toward Indian populations and the expansion of the exploration further to the West.

Explorations and Reservations

Knowledge gathered by Lewis and Clark expedition became the basis for future ones, including Bonneville’s exploration of the far Northwest and Fremont’s search for the trail to Oregon (Schwantes 43). The Oregon Fever and mass emigration of American settlers to this area have various explanations. Some of the emigrants hoped to improve their health, while others relied on the opportunity to start a new life in the West, escaping slavery and race issues. Others sought the new life due to the series of floods in 1836, 1844, and 19846, which destroyed farms and made the area barren (Schwantes 43).

However, the exploration of the West and Oregon led to a series of treaties that reduced the area available for Idaho’s Native settlers and mostly focused on providing these lands to white citizens. The governor of the newly created territory of Washington, Isaac I. Stevens, prepared and pursued a policy that would force Indians onto reservations and make the land available for white populations (Schwantes 46). The first treaty, secured by Stevens, at first left the Indians with an 11,000-square-miles area in Oregon, Washington, and central Idaho; however, in 1863, it was reduced to 1,100 square miles by a treaty signed with a pro-American Nez Perce leader. The era of reservations that lasted for several decades began.

The Cour d’Alene Reservation was established in 1873; it made Indians abandon their holdings in Idaho and settle on 600,000 –acre reservation. Nevertheless, it was only ratified in 1891, “when the tribe ceded 2.4 million acres for $600,000 that was to be divided among its members” (Schwantes 47). The signed treaties adversely influenced the life of Indians because they found it difficult to adjust to agriculture after years of hunting and gathering. Furthermore, some of the supplies that were sent to Indians were redirected by federal agents. The lands provided to some of the Indians were so sterile that even those interested in farming were not able to make the land fruitful.

Saints and Natives

Additional attention should also be paid to the settlements of Mormons and their impact on the life of Natives. Mormons moved north from Salt Like Valley; they have been prominent in Idaho since the 1850s (Schwantes 54). The first town in Idaho was called Franklin and found by Mormons in 1860, on April 14. Mormons’ towns were self-contained communities that centered on family and religion; citizens built schools, irrigation channels, roads, and bridges.

Mormons’ encounter with Native populations happened five years prior to the foundation of Franklin, during the Salmon River Mission or Fort Limhi (Lemhi). The partakers of the mission were told to settle near or among the Natives (Flathead, Bannack, or Shoshone Indians specifically) in order to teach them agriculture and peaceful communication and residence with other tribes and the white population (Arrington and Bitton 167). As the Book of Mormon stated that Indians were also God’s chosen people, who once practiced Christianity but forgot it due to the loss of belief, the Mormons’ mission was to teach the Natives about the Book of Mormon so that they could be revitalized (Arrington and Bitton 145).

The Mormons were greeted by The Bannock chief, Rock-i-kae, and received permission to settle in the area; the only condition that the chief emphasized was not to hunt and kill animals for commercial purposes. Nevertheless, Mormons disregarded the promise and sent eight wagons of smoked salmon to Salt Lake. However, unlike white settlers, Mormons did not acquire the provided lands aggressively and quickly and did not build any reservations; instead, they expanded their fort after the 1855-1856 winter, during which they also supported the remaining Shoshones with food and other provision (Arrington and Bitton 175). The difference between Mormons’ and secular attitude toward Indians was in the former’s awe toward the chosen people together with the “white man’s burden”, according to which their responsibility was to civilize the populations that once were morally superior and, assumingly, will be once they are civilized. Mormons’ “civilization” was partially effective; during the spring of 1856, approximately one hundred Indians were baptized. Furthermore, Mormons’ were also advised by their leader Thomas Smith to improve relations with Indians and marry Indian women.

The role of women in Mormon settlements depended on the protection of polygamy and plural marriages, supported by the church. Woodworth-Ney (168) also points out that many economic transactions between male and female settlers were based on sex; Native American women took part in the sex trade as well. The definition of prostitution, however, varied among these women, as some of them understood it as the sale of sex in saloons, while others viewed cohabitation with non-Indian men as prostitution. Whereas European women were desexualized (according to the Victorian view of male sexualization dominating female asexual nature), Native American women were only seen through the prism of sexualization; aboriginal women were by default prostitutes or concubines at best. This way concludes Woodworth-Ney (168), sexualization and desexualization became powerful tools during the European colonizing process.

Both the Mormon attempt to “civilize” Indians and view of Aboriginal women as prostitutes and sex objects are the parts of the process that tried to assimilate Native populations; both approaches were not persecuted (and, in turn, supported) by law or its substitute (church). Nevertheless, the Mormon-Indian assimilation eventually resulted in the Bear River massacre, where many Indian men, women, and children were killed or raped (Woodworth-Ney 173). Thus, the assimilation process also failed.

Dawes Act

The next attempt to assimilate Native populations was the Dawes Act, passed on February 8, 1887 (U.S. National Archives & Records Administration para. 2). It postulated that reservation lands could be divided into small allotments that were the property of individuals rather than the whole tribe. It was assumed that if Indians were able to adopt the lifestyle of white settlers, they would eventually “drop [their] Indian-ness and be assimilated into the population” (U.S. National Archives & Records Administration para. 1). However, the Act was not as useful as it appeared to be; many of the lands provided to Indians were desert or near-desert, i.e., impossible to farm. Additionally, not all Native populations understood agriculture due to their previous tribal way of life. Inheritance, although granted by the law, was also problematic because if several children inherited one small allotment, these holdings were too small and unsuitable for farming. Moreover, some of the heirs did not know how to farm because they were sent to boarding schools instead. Thus, the Dawes Act was also ineffective in assimilating Native Americas and addressing the “Indian problem”.

Works Cited

Arrington, Leonard J., and Davis Bitton. The Mormon Experience: A History of the Latter-Day Saints. University of Illinois Press, 1992.

Butler, B. Robert. “Prehistory of the Snake and Salmon River Area.” Handbook of North American Indians, edited by Warren L. d’Azevedo, Smithsonian Institution, 1986, pp. 127-134.

Ronda, James P. Lewis and Clark among the Indians. University of Nebraska Press, 1984.

Schwantes, Carlos A. In Mountain Shadows: A History of Idaho. U of Nebraska Press, 1991.

U.S. National Archives & Records Administration. “Dawes Act (1887).” Our Documents. 2017. Web.

Woodworth-Ney, Laura. Women in the American West. ABC-CLIO, 2008.

The experience of the Native Americans, including traditional cultural aspects and interaction with the new settlers of the New World, is a theme that unifies the topics of the readings in question. Richter draws attention to the communication of Indians with Europeans and mentions both the positive factors of this interaction and the negative nuances. The author notes trade as one of the areas of development of local communities, which influenced the way of life of the Indians. At the same time, he also notes the even greater role of warfare, which came to the continent and radically changed the life of the indigenous population. Ray and Freeman also consider the innovations brought about by the arrival of Europeans in the Americas and examine the cultural innovations that had an impact on different tribes’ way of life. This concerned, for instance, the introduction of horses into daily affairs. These discussions bring together both readings, in which attention is paid to the cultural features of Indian tribes’ development from the perspective of the influence of Western culture.

Attention is also paid to language groups that have formed under the influence of the Indian-European interaction. According to Richter, the Iroquois experience was marked by war and culture, whereby they were believed to pass down their character traits from generation to generation. At the same time, the arrival of European colonists on the American content became an incentive for the adoption of cultural features, including linguistic ones. This mention is essential because such individual criteria for social development, as practice shows, are flexible and can be changed and supplemented due to the intersection of cultures.

An important aspect of both readings is the discourse on the cruelty of the native population. Regarding the Iroquois, cruelty was their main virtue and was practiced and taught to their children from the beginning of their childhood until it became their habit. The war was considered important among the Iroquois groups and even their neighbors. For decades of Euro-Americans, the importance that Indians placed on battle appeared to validate stereotypes of uncivilized killers who perpetuated violence for the sake of it. Cruelty being a virtue for them established a strong route and desire for bloodlust among them as they trained children to be brutal and wicked throughout their lives. Being involved in the war was part of training activities for the Iroquois youth. As a result, through this analysis, one can discern differences in upbringing between the native inhabitants of the continent and the colonists.

An important reference is trade, which is seen as a means of crossing two distinct cultures. The European traders managed to influence the Indian’s trading activities to a certain extent by credit manipulation and issuing gifts to the local traders. This practice affected the per capita income of Indian traders. Furthermore, big companies owned by the French and European individuals contributed to the manipulation of Indians. While considering trade in the indicated period, the conclusion comes that the penetration of the characteristic Western principles of conducting trade relations into the local Indian culture was a natural and inevitable phenomenon. Therefore, adopting the relevant features of interaction was strengthened by mutual trade.

By comparing the two readings, one can point out the distinctive tools of the description. Ray and Freeman pay more attention to the trade and economic prerequisites for the development of Indian society in the era of colonization of the country. Richter, in turn, focuses on cultural nuances, including social characteristics and contradictions that led to clashes between indigenous and colonists. According to Richter, getting used to the war helped the Iroquois people deal with their grief, especially death. Thus, the differences in the topics raised contribute to assessing the interaction of the two cultures, including both external manifestations and internal factors that brought different peoples closer and further apart during their interaction.

The texts discussed show that they have different themes, as Richter talks more about cultural features while Ray and Freeman pay more attention to the practical peculiarities of the Indian-European interaction. Practicing war was part of the natives’ heritage, and this is a crucial point to consider. The Indian people were traders, which was essential to maintain communication with colonists and earn money. The manifestation of differences in cultural perceptions of social phenomena, such as war, is reflected in both readings, although a distinctive focus on prerequisites and consequences is given. The texts contain valuable information regarding the features of establishing communication between the two cultures.

Assessing the life of the aboriginal population of Canadian lands is a topic that brings together the readings involved. At the same time, some of the authors’ approaches to reflecting the events of the second half of the 19th century in this region differ. Lutz presents the information in a more concise manner, aiming to list the key events that influenced the course of events. Daschuk, in turn, describes the political, economic, and social aspects of development in more detail and includes a discussion of American history at the time. For instance, Lutz mentions the smallpox epidemic as one of the factors that worsened the lives of the inhabitants of Canadian lands. Daschuk emphasizes the cyclic nature of the epidemic and compares the events of the 19th century with those of the first half of the 18th century when local residents also experienced the disease en masse. As a result, the latter text is more detailed, although both readings show a deep dive into the history of Canadian aboriginals.

One of the features of both texts is the analysis of the impact of political events that took place during that period, including immigration laws and the role of the authorities in resolving local problems. For example, as Daschuk states, the original inhabitants of the Northwest were forced to displacement by the European immigrants as they occupied major parts of the plains. This displacement caused clashes between the two groups, and by 1871-1877, treaties were made between nations to negotiate and have a mutual agreement on the land settlement. Lutz pays more attention to the Tsilhqot’in population as a people living in the north of the continent and notes their close attachment to the native territory. In other words, the former text describes the economic opportunities that resettlement could provide for immigrants, while the latter reading demonstrates a position on the importance of maintaining individual territory. However, both authors pay sufficient attention to immigration issues and the consequences that inadequate resettlement control policies entailed, including on the lives of indigenous people.

One of the approaches that allow both researchers to describe the target peoples’ life in their texts is the assessment of trading not only as an economic but also as an intercultural interaction mechanism. French-English conflicts in the subarctic played an important role in the growth and development of the fur trade, which many Indians promoted in their major economic activity. The Hudson Bay Company played a vital role in this economy since it entered smoothly into the economy without interrupting the French. This made it easier for the Indians to travel and contact the company if they wished to trade with the English. As evidence, Lutz cites the results of archaeological excavations confirming relevant trade trends and showing goods used by local indigenous peoples. As a result, the texts highlight the evolution of the Indian trading network, which was influenced greatly by the geographical position of the region and the location of the Indian traders.

Both texts offer detailed descriptions of the lifestyles that the locals followed. The natives faced calamities that hindered their economic growth, particularly displacement by the European immigrants, which led to constant feuds. At the same time, Lutz describes the military clashes in more detail by focusing on the social contradictions and backgrounds that led to divisions between the indigenous people and the colonists. While taking into account the evidence by Daschuk, one can note that the political checks were strong during this period, and the Western governments were not ready to accept the independence of the northern tribes. The readings describe various initiatives, up to the control of transport networks, which were designed to control the life of the indigenous population in the north and deter their attempts to achieve independence. Thus, the texts converge in describing the difficulties that the natives had to face after the arrival of the western colonists.

Given the evidence and contexts reviewed, both readings offer valid and valuable reflections on the development of the North American continent. The contribution of research to the study of lifestyles and the social, economic, and political hardships faced by the indigenous population confirms the similarity of local scenarios with those of the American Indians. The desire of Western governments to create a monopoly on trade in the local region proves the colonists’ unwillingness to recognize the natives’ independence. The considered texts are of high practical importance from the standpoint of a chronological description of the events and civil clashes taking place in that era.

The key theme that unites both readings under consideration is the background and consequences of socio-political movements among the indigenous population of North America. McCallum pays particular attention to the displacement of the indigenous Indian female population and demonstrates local women as strong characters who celebrated their strengths and struggles. They were displaced persons from their ancestral land leaving behind their race and ancestral heritage for today’s civilization. With the high rise of civilization, the displacement caused them to move to cities to look for education and jobs in urban places. Nickel describes the early nineteenth and twentieth century when Pan-Indigenous unity was propelled greatly by relevant companies, which had a strong impact on the natives’ solidarity. The local political discourse allowed for creating the Union of British Columbia Indian Chiefs, which was a critical step towards building a cohesive nation. Thus, despite the similar common theme, both readings differ in the context of their research, namely the assessment of positive and negative factors that influenced the development of North American indigenous peoples.

When arguing about the hardships Indian women faced, McCallum notes that, despite the existing constraints, they were proactive in getting an education. Since the events described relate to the second half of the 20th century, this period was marked by the active use of technologies that were often inaccessible to indigenous people. However, as McCallum highlights, local women were able to work as typewriters and business ledgers and perform calculations, which speaks of the author’s study of the labor market of that era. The context of Nickel’s research is broader and mentions not only women but all indigenous people who were involved in the movement to strengthen the political position of local residents. This movement allowed the indigenous groups to elect leaders representing them in the British Columbia Conference. The leaders represented the people’s issues and concerns and shared their objectives to benefit the people, largely regarding the existing land claims and racial issues. Thus, the focus of research is different, and distinctive areas of the socio-political life of that era are considered in the two readings.

In both texts, it is evident that politics plays a vital role in the lives of the indigenous people, as demonstrated by the federal government and the Union of Chiefs. Both studies rely on official documents confirming relevant government initiatives aimed at regulating issues related to the Indian population. Moreover, in both readings, a persistent problem of oppression of indigenous people is observed. Nickel mentions the Canadian government’s unofficial motto: “the only good Indian is a non-Indian.” As McCallum states, enduring anti-Indian rhetoric has put severe pressure on Indian women by promoting their dependent roles as the main tenet of the social role assigned to them. As a result, the ideas of both authors can be characterized as those that criticize the current socio-political discourse. While McCallum reflects women’s struggles, the study by Nickel is more expansive in terms of discussing measures taken to overcome the existing social barriers. Therefore, in terms of the breadth of the evidence, the latter reading offers more arguments in support of the Indians’ methods of fighting to maintain their national identity.

While taking into account historical events, both texts use the context of past years to describe the background of the respective issues and their consequences. However, given the scope of the research, the reading by McCallum can be characterized as narrower because the main theme of the work involves assessing the problems and social barriers for women. Nickel’s historical references are general, but they also emphasize the relevance of specific government decisions to the impact on Indian life in the second half of the 20th century. The former text seeks evidence to evaluate the initiatives related to the oppression of women, while the latter reading showcases various political developments with a focus on the history of the entire Indian community. As a result, when bearing in mind the aims of both texts, they address the stated objectives effectively.

Thus, while comparing both texts, one can find it challenging to argue which of them is more credible and accurate. The justifications and facts that the researchers offer allow for understanding the key socio-political problems of the designated time. Depending on the topic, different aspects are emphasized in detail, which, however, is not a limitation and helps focus on specific issues. The organization of research structures in chronological order makes it easier to learn the materials read and reveals all the prerequisites for the relevant events.

Based on the texts read, one can note that all of them, to a greater or lesser extent, deal with the problems that the indigenous population of modern America and Canada faced. Each reading offers a unique perspective on relevant topics and raises issues of equality, racial bias, political and economic deterrents, and other barriers to normal coexistence. One of the studies reflecting the features of trade relations between Indians and immigrants from Europe is the work by Ray and Freeman. They study not only the dynamics of the trading market but also related events, particularly hostilities between the nations and general economic trends. Attention to the art of war in the work by Richter provides an opportunity to evaluate the psychology of the indigenous people, their views on self-identity, as well as characteristic cultural beliefs. In the context of studying the lifestyle of the Indians, these facts immerse the reader in the life of the indigenous population and describe the differences between their views and those of Western colonists.

Due to sufficient justification, the considered readings in many ways allow one to better learn about the features of the Indians’ life, those including in America and Canada. For instance, the text by Lutz offers a fascinating description of the characteristics of the Canadian aboriginal population, who had to defend their right to equality and independence. The inability to resist the resources and technical capabilities of colonists can be seen as one of the key reasons why the natives endured oppression. In addition, given the geopolitical interests of western leaders, the described steps to develop the northern territories of the continent ruled out loyalty to the local population. The accompanying hardships that Daschuk describes, such as diseases and starvation, made it difficult for the Indians to develop freely. The more they resisted their opponents, the more obstacles arose in their path. Therefore, the considered texts are credible and valuable resources proving the plight of the indigenous population of the continent during its active development by immigrants from the west.

The emphasis on specific manifestations of oppressive politics, such as gender discrimination, adds to the practical value of some of the readings. When addressing the problems of Indian women, McCallum lists the difficulties and barriers they had to face. This allows one to compare past events with the current historical context and identify real changes that have occurred in recent decades. Mentioning the educational and employment aspect intensifies the discussion and reveals the full range of deterrents. The analysis of national self-identity, which is clearly presented in the work by Nickel, highlights the enduring nature of the indigenous freedom movement. The reluctance to cede their land and natural wealth to colonists reflects a strong desire for independence. Moreover, the political processes within the Indian communities prove the fact that the natives were determined to resolve the problems not only through war but also through peaceful means. Therefore, all the readings reviewed confirm that even in the face of social, political, and economic pressures, preserving local wealth has always been one of the main goals of the indigenous people of North America.

Bibliography

Daschuk, James. Clearing the Plains: Disease, Politics of Starvation, and the Loss of Aboriginal Life. Regina: University of Regina Press, 2013.

Lutz, John. “The Tsilhqotin.” In Makúk: A New History of Aboriginal-White Relations, 119-62. Vancouver: UBC Press, 2008.

McCallum, Mary Jane Logan. “Introduction.” In Indigenous Women, Work and History 1940-1980, 3-20. Winnipeg: University of Manitoba Press, 2014.

Nickel, Sarah A. Assembling Unity: Indigenous Politics, Gender and the Union of BC Indian Chiefs. Vancouver: UBC Press, 2019.

Ray, Arthur J., and Donald Freeman. ‘Give Us Good Measure’: An Economic Analysis of Relations between the Indians and the Hudson’s Bay Company before 1763. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1978.

Richter, Daniel K. “War and Culture: The Iroquois Experience.” In Trade, Land, and Power: The Struggle for Eastern North America, 69-96. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2013.

In retrospect, the American Revolutionary War was not simply an attempt at gaining political and economic independence from the United Kingdom but the symbol of independence and democratic values that would, later on, become the foundation for American society. However, the attitudes toward the idea of fighting for independence were not homogenous in the American society – a group of people who called themselves the Loyalists chose to remain loyal to the British Empire and its political choices. Even though there were economic and political considerations when the movement was supported, the primary reasons behind people’s willingness to remain, Loyalists, concerned the propensity to follow the traditions, as well as the fear of a social change and the possibility of losing moral values.

Being devoted to the cause of the British Empire and the Crown, Loyalists assumed that going against the directions set by the British government, let alone promoting the ideas of independence, was not only illegal but also immoral (Newman, 2016). The reason for Loyalists to take the identified political stance was that the British culture was an integral part of their identity: “Loyalists – Black as well as white – defined themselves, in the last resort, as British subjects” (Blackstock & O’Gorman, 2014, p. 174).

Furthermore, the fact that the opponents of Loyalists resorted to brutality and use of violence as the means of getting their point across did not help in convincing the supporters of the Crown that the cause of the rebels was worth pursuing. Indeed, historical records show that the fighters for independence often used methods that could be viewed as ethically questionable (Newman, 2016). With the controversial steps that the proponents of independence took, it was very difficult for Loyalists to accept the new ideas and support them.

It would be wrong to claim that the reasons for some Americans to remain Loyalists included only culture-related factors Apart from the attachment to the traditions and the cultural ties with the British Empire, the proponents of the Loyalist movement also had business-related connections (Schneid, 2011). Therefore, the refusal to abandon their loyalty to the British Empire among Loyalists was quite understandable. Although the motivations of Loyalists could not be condoned, they were, nevertheless, rather clear.

However, even though there were the elements of the economic-based reasoning behind the arguments of Loyalists, most of their statements were linked directly to the traditions, values, and philosophies of Great Britain. It was the fear of change and the possible need to abandon the traditions and values of Great Britain that became the driving force behind the Loyalist movement (Newman, 2016). Even though the social changes to the framework of interactions between the members of the American society were inevitable at the identified point, the transition to a new model of building relationships, establishing the principles of social and legal justice, and running the state was a rather challenging step. Accepting the ideas of the war meant refusing the long-established model of communication, which was an understandably responsible decision to make. Fearing the weight of this responsibility, the proponents of the Loyalist movement promoted the ideas of being faithful to the British empire, yet the country was on the brink of a massive social change, and the endeavors of Loyalists could not stop these changes from happening.

References

Blackstock, A., & O’Gorman, F. (2014,). Loyalism and the formation of the British world, 1775-1914. Woodridge, IL: Boydell & Brewer Ltd.

Newman, P. C. (2016). Hostages to fortune: The United Empire loyalists and the making of Canada. New York, NY: Simon and Schuster.

Schneid, T. D. (2011). Legal liabilities in safety and loss prevention: A practical guide (2nd ed.). Boston, MA: Jones & Bartlett.

Introduction

As a matter of fact, Jim Crow, or the Jim Crow system, may be defined as a particular racial caste system that existed in the United States between the 1870s and the middle of the 1960s, predominantly in the country’s border and southern states. It was not just a series of anti-black laws that limited the civil rights of African American citizens – it was a specific way of life. Under this system, Black people were regarded as second-class citizens culturally, morally, and intellectually inferior in comparison to Whites. In general, Jim Crow may be regarded as the era of anti-black racism’s legitimization when politics, science, religion, mass media, and other social institutes supported and reflected the oppression of African Americans.

All regulations created within the Jim Crow system and aimed to segregate socially acceptable and honored Whites and seemingly inferior Blacks were based on violence and hate. Thus, in the present day, when tolerance and equal human rights are highly valued in all developed countries, any type of racial discrimination is supposed to be eliminated. In addition, the total absence of racial segregation was expected after the election of Barack Obama, the country’s first African American president. However, despite all these facts, racial discrimination may still be observed in almost all spheres of human activity. On the basis of peer-reviewed research, this paper aims to examine racial disparities related to the Black population in health care, employment, the criminal justice system, education, and society in general.

Health Care

Regardless of the fact that Jim Crow finished several decades ago with the passage of particular laws, unfair and unequal treatment of Black citizens may still be observed in various spheres of modern society. According to Yearby (2018), neither the first ruling of 1954 nor the Civil Rights Acts of 1957, 1960, 1964, 1968, and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 were able to prevent the existence of discrimination and structural racism in multiple areas, including health care. At the same time, limited access to health care facilities and the poor health status of African Americans are strongly connected with disparities in other spheres of life, especially employment, income, net worth, wealth, and homeownership (Yearby, 2018). Thus, the discriminatory practices ignored by the government that aims to deteriorate the economic well-being and housing of Blacks lead to unofficial racial segregation and the creation of predominantly African American neighborhoods. In turn, this segregation has a highly negative impact on people’s access to health care and health status in general.

First of all, the quality of food accessible in different neighborhoods substantially varies. The residents of Black communities “do not have access to healthy food due to a lack of supermarkets and a preponderance of convenience stores and fast-food restaurants as the primary food outlets” (Yearby, 2018, p. 1118). As a result, they become more vulnerable to obesity, cardiovascular disease, and cancer. In addition, due to insufficient investments in racially segregated neighborhoods, their residents have to receive low-quality health care in local hospitals or stay without any medical assistance at all. Therefore, according to multiple types of research, there are disproportionately high rates of disabilities, lung cancer mortality, mental health disorders, and other diseases among African Americans in comparison with the White population (Yearby, 2018). The shortage of health care providers and the reduction of hospital beds and other essential services in these communities may be traditionally observed as well.

Employment

In the sphere of employment, racial disparities are frequently covered. For instance, according to some evidence reviews, “wage gaps are smaller or nonexistent for very high-skill workers and employment gaps are somewhat smaller among high-skill than among low-skill workers” (Borowczyk-Martins et al., 2017, p. 106). However, Borowczyk-Martins et al. (2017) state that in the United States, an average Black employee has a lower salary and lower employment rate in comparison with his White counterpart. Moreover, inequities exist regardless of education, even if the percentage of prejudice in both cases varies. Therefore, when workers are without any college degree, almost 60% of potential employers have a prejudice against Black employees, while approximately 30% of employers are prejudiced when candidates have high education (Borowczyk-Martins et al., 2017). At the same time, Black and White employees may have different qualities of their skills, however, this difference is frequently determined by the discrimination of African Americans in education.

Criminal Justice System

Inequities on the basis of race and ethnicity still exist in the country’s criminal justice system as well. Thus, African Americans are arrested, convicted, and incarcerated at highly disproportionate rates in comparison with Whites. According to Tyler and Brockmann (2017), Black citizens are incarcerated at almost seven times White men’s rate. In addition, similar to inequities and limitations in health care, the highest rates of incarceration among African Americans are connected with racial discrimination in other spheres. For instance, “in 2014, median household income for Black families was $35,398, which was 41.3% less than the median white household income” (Tyler & Brockmann. 2017, p. 548). Thus, African Americans more frequently live in poverty compared with White citizens and are more vulnerable to committing a crime due to economic needs.

As a result, Black are overrepresented in the country’s criminal justice system and traditionally face more severe penalties. Tyler and Brockmann (2017) state that 1 in 3 Black men “is likely to spend time in prison in their lifetime, as compared to 1 in 17 white men” (p. 549). According to the researchers’ findings, in twelve states across the country, Blacks constitute more than half of the total incarcerated population (Tyler & Brockmann. 2017). In general, although African Americans are only 13% of the United States’ general population, they constitute up to 40% of the prison population (Tyler & Brockmann. 2017). One more factor that contributes to this situation is deep racial prejudice and stereotypes against Blacks that still exist in modern society. For instance, they are supposed to be involved in the drug industry more than Whites, although there are no facts that may support this information.

Education

Discrimination in the education system is primarily represented by the division of students and the establishment of segregated classrooms on the basis of race rather than knowledge and skills. High-track classes are disproportionately represented by White students, while low-track classes are filled with Black ones (Franklin, 2016). In addition, despite officially common curriculum and standards, the information provided for young people in classes is different. In other words, White and Black people are prepared for different roles in society from school. Moreover, racialization contributes to the association of academic success, goal achievements, and development with whiteness. In addition, according to Franklin (2016), Black students frequently suffer from racial microaggressions in hostile campus racial climates. Nevertheless, such situations and related poor academic achievement of African Americans do not receive attention from university authorities.

Social Life

Previously mentioned microaggressions might be regarded as a highly disturbing issue of the Black population outside education facilities as well. According to the research conducted by Keith et al. (2017), “skin tone and body weight are two phenotypic characteristics that influence the type and frequency of discrimination experienced by African Americans” (p. 233). Thus, Black people with darker skin tones face discrimination, unfair treatment, and microaggressions more frequently in comparison with those with lighter skin tones (Keith et al., 2017). In addition, as obesity is stigmatized in American society as well, the combination of dark skin and excess body weight exposes particular individuals to an unprecedented level of hate. In general, discriminated people have fewer opportunities for socially desirable outcomes and socioeconomic achievements.

Conclusion

As a particular discriminatory caste system that supported anti-black racism, Jim Crow characterized American society in the first half of the 20th century. However, despite all achievements in the sphere of civil rights, tolerance, and human equality, discrimination on the basis of race still exists in almost all spheres of human activity in the United States of America. In general, discrimination in one sphere frequently determines inequities in others. Thus, disparities in education lead to disparities in employment and wages. In turn, lower employment rates and lower salaries for African Americans lead to inequities in homeownership, segregated neighborhoods, limited access to health care, and poverty. Finally, unemployment and poverty in combination with deep racial prejudice lead to Blacks’ massive incarceration. Thus, it is possible to conclude that Jim Crow has currently transformed into the New Jim Crow system.

References

Borowczyk-Martins, D., Bradley, J., & Tarasonis, L. (2017). Racial discrimination in the U.S. labor market: Employment and wage differentials by skill. Labour Economics, 49, 106-127. Web.

Franklin, J. (2016). Racial microaggressions, racial battle fatigue, and racism-related stress in higher education. Journal of Student Affairs at NYU, 44-55.

Keith, V. M., Nguyen, A. W., Taylor, R. J., Mouzon, D. M., & Chatters, L. M. (2017). Microaggressions, discrimination, and phenotype among African Americans: A latent class analysis of the impact of skin tone and BMI. Sociological Inquiry, 87(2), 233–255. Web.

Tyler E. T., & Brockmann, B. (2017). Returning home: Incarceration, reentry, stigma and the perpetuation of racial and socioeconomic health inequity. The Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics, 45, 545-557. Web.

Yearby, R. (2018). Racial disparities in health status and access to healthcare: The continuation of inequality in the United States due to structural racism. The American Journal of Economics and Sociology, 77(3-4), 1113-1152. Web.

The idea of a parent or a mother abandoning their child in a designated place to determine their fate to strengthen society is unethical in many ways in today’s society. However, this was not new in ancient societies like Rome, Greece, Japan, and China (Gosselin, 2019). They had a designated place where the parent would take their child and leave it for someone to take them. The child could be left whether naked or clothed, and they also believed that their fate would be decided by gods too. This report focuses on how the abandonment of some children strengthened the population in the ancient communities.

One of the ways they used to control the population in the society was children’s exposure. The children were left out in the wild to starve to death, be eaten by wild animals, or be taken by a family that did not have children. In the early Middle Ages, children were left at places like churches, and a small fee was offered as an oblation (Gosselin, 2019). The exposure was a way for the family to save economically or financially because the arrival of an extra mouth to feed in a family struggling with poverty is a problem. Wealthy families adopted the lucky children while others died. The children abandoned in the wild did not have a chance of survival anyway, considering there were wild animals.

The roman society often valued children with what they brought to the table or their proper function to the community. Female children were most likely to be exposed to or abandoned than male children (Holzwarth, n.d). They termed the ancient roman society as the man’s world because they controlled if a child was to live or die, and the mother had no opinion on it. The males were considered necessary because they continued the family legacy or name. Although the society preferred males, if a family had more male children, they would expose even the healthy ones to avoid sharing wealth between them.

The society also exposed children with physical deformities because they saw that they were an embarrassment to their families. They had to get rid of them to avoid taking care of them, considering they had no value to the society and would only become a burden to the family (Cook, n.d). The exposure did not only involve children with deformities but healthy children were not spared at all. Children with deformities were also considered a threat to the economy, and they would drain the family if the child were sick from the deformation.

Infanticide was another way the ancient societies used to strengthen their population, which involved killing newborns. According to ancient Rome, a child was not considered human until they could eat solid food or talk. Girls were often killed, and if society did not kill them, the community would sell them into slavery and prostitution. Infanticide was done when a child was illegitimate, or they posed a threat to society.

Giving up the child or exposing them still exists in today’s world, but it is more humane than the previous way. With the introduction of the adoption method, the children can survive with a good family. Even though the family is not well off, the child can get a good family to take care of him/her. Contraceptives have made it possible for a family can control the number of children they have.

References

Cook, S. (n.d.). Roman women and children Part 3 – Newborns. Web.

Gosselin, D. K. (2019). Family and intimate partner violence: Heavy hands. Sixth Edition. Pearson.

Holzwarth, L. (n.d). Population control was no joke in Ancient Greece and the Roman Empire. Web.

This paper elucidates how David E. Stannard describes the nature of European society before the end of the 15^th Century and how this society was able to manufacture the stereotypes that are relevant enough to justify the subjugation as well as the annihilation of the indigenous population. The experiences were encountered in the Northern Hemisphere. There is also the relation of several horrific instances of viciousness as indicated by Stannard.

In his book, David writes about the nature of life and the society in general in the New World before the coming of Columbus, the invasion which came with the arrival of Columbus, and the concept that what took place should be considered as genocide (Winin 78). The phase before the arrival of Columbus is not entirely peaceful. Nevertheless, it was a set way of life whereby the indigenous Americans enjoyed the kind of isolation they were subjected to from the rest of the world and reached a level of development at the end of it all. People were highly exploited and suffered from all sorts of diseases. Some lost their lands and ended up remaining in the unfortunate positions they are in today (Stannard 77).

For over four hundred years from the beginning of the first Spanish assault against the people of Arawak, Hispaniola in the 1940s to the massacre of the United States Army in the 1980s, the native inhabitants of South and North America endured an unrelenting firestorm of aggression. During this period, the indigenous population that lived in the western Hemisphere reduced by over 100 million individuals. David Stannard argues that both the European together with white American destruction of the indigenous people of America presented the highly massive act of genocide in the history of the entire world (Winin 5).

Stannard shows a portrait of massive richness and the varied nature of the United States before Columbus’ most fateful voyage in 1494. Stannard then takes the path of genocide from the Indies to Mexico as well as other parts such as Central and Southern America. He further goes to the Southwest of California and the North Pacific Coast. Stannard makes a revelation that in case European or white Americans managed to go, the indigenous people were caught between the possibility of imported plagues as well as barbarous turmoil. This typically resulted in the annihilation of about ninety-five percent of the total population. According to Stannard, those kinds of people who did such acts were inhuman. He believes that through digging deeper into ancient Europe, the attitude of Christians towards sex, race, and war is one of the driving forces. Through them, the cultural grounds are well prepared towards the end of the middle ages (Stannard 91).

Through the advancement of a hypothesis that is most likely to bring about the controversy, the writer argues that the architects of the American Holocaust relied upon the same ideological wellspring the same way it was with the later architect of the Nazi Holocaust. It is one of the ideologies that are still precariously alive and has mainly featured among the American validation for military intervention both in South East Asia as well as the Middle East. Stannard’s work is meticulously detailed. It is a work of impassioned scholarship that easily ignites both historical and moral debate.

Works Cited

Stannard, E David. American Holocaust: The Conquest of the New World. Oxford: Oxford University Press US, 1993.

Winin, Pereira. Inhuman rights: the western system and global human rights abuse. New Orleans: Other India Press, 1997.

Introduction

As a developed nation, Canada is experiencing an aging population in its demographics. Due to the advancement in healthcare, more people are living longer than before, despite an increase in the number of chronic illnesses among the senior population. However, according to Hsiao, the share of the population of seniors in Canada is smaller than many other developed western countries (950). The country has been experiencing a rise in its aging population in the last 40 years. Notably, at the beginning of 2011, the first baby-boomers attained the age of 65 years. Hence, the aging population is expected to accelerate very fast onwards. According to Morgan, Daw, and Law, the number of seniors in 2005 was 4.2 million (41). The number is expected to rise up to 9.8 million by 2036. In 2005, the aging population represented 13.2% as of 2005.

It will represent 24.5 % of the whole population by 2036. From 2036-2056, it is projected that the rate of increase in the older population will be slower. It will go up only from 9.8 million to 11.5 million. This increment represents 27.2% of the Canadian population in 2056 (Kutzin, Cashin, and Jakab 17). The increase in the aging population corresponds with the increase in life expectancy in the country. For instance, in 2012, it was estimated that the life expectancy was 81 years as compared to 76 years in 1981. The increase in life expectancy explains the rising number of the aged people in the country. Another major reason why the aging population is increasing is the reduction in fertility rate, which stands at 1.5 children per woman (Steinbrook 1661). This figure is below the replacement level of 2.1 children per woman.

Although the issue of aging population in Canada has come later as compared to other industrialized nations, there are conflicting messages on what an increase in aged population will imply to the provision of health care services and health care expenditure in the Canadian context (Kutzin, Cashin, and Jakab 17). On one side are those who believe that the senior population takes a disproportionate share of the healthcare costs as compared to other populations in the country. Hence, as this population grows, the health care expenditure is likely to explode, thus leading to the collapse of healthcare systems if adequate measures to reconstruct the financing of the sector are not put in place. On the other hand, there are those who argue that the increase in the elderly population is only one element that will contribute to increased health costs. The supporters assert that the other elements are manageable. Thus, if handled well, they will ensure adaptability of the healthcare sector to cater for all people’s health care needs.

In this paper, the impact of the aging population on the healthcare expenditure in Canada will be discussed. Further, the paper will provide recommendations on the future adjustments that will guarantee sustainability of the healthcare subsystem, regardless of the increased costs. Concisely, the paper will show that despite the increase in healthcare spending due to the rising aging population, such changes will not destabilize the health care system because of proper planning to address the outcomes of the changes in the demographics of the nation.

The Elderly Population Representation in Canada

The representation of a given population as part of the whole population is majorly done using percentages. In this case, it is important to represent the elderly population as a measure of the whole population to guarantee a clear understanding of the future health impacts of the population changes. A population is viewed as aging when the people above 65 years are increasing as a measure of the other population (Kutzin, Cashin, and Jakab 18). The graph below represents the change in the population of those above 65 years in the country as a measure of the remaining population since 1920.

Canada’s Population Age 65 Years and above (aggregate)

The above population projections are represented as a percentage of the whole population as shown in the graph below:

Canada’s Population Age 65 Years and above (Percentage)

From the information represented above, there were 3.9 million seniors in 2001 that represented 12.6% of the population. The figures represented a rise of 63% from 1981 when the population of seniors (65 years and above) was 2.4 million. In 1921, only 5% of the population was above 65 years of age. The trend in the rise of the senior population is expected to continue in the 21^st century with 7 million senior being expected in 2021. The rise will represent 19% of the total population (Sammartin 1133). By 2041, the population of the 65-year-olds and above will represent 25% of the population that will have gone to 9 million people.

Another important indicator of the rise in the number of aging population as a share of the whole population is the dependency ratio. According to Steinbrook, the aging population in the country as a share of the working class is increasing over the years (1661). This rise is a sign of future problems that may affect the economy and the healthcare sector. Since more people depend on the working class, the burden of health care increases on the working. This situation is likely to have an impact on the health care sector, as it will be discussed later. The graph below shows the dependency ratio in Canada as observed since 1971 and as projected up to 2056.

The graph above shows that the dependency ratio of the youths below 15 years has been decreasing. The situation is projected to drop and stabilize at 35 per 100 population of working. Further, the population of the dependants above 65 years has been on the rise. It has wiped out the benefits of the decreasing youth dependency. It is projected that by 2026, the dependency ratio of those below 15 years and/or above 65 years will be equal. Thereafter, senior people will constitute the major share of dependants in Canada.

The median age of a population is an important indicator of an aging population in a country. The median age represents the exact half of the population where one half is older while the other half is younger. Since 1966 when the last baby boomers were born, the median age has been on the rise from a median age of 25.4 years. In 2001, the median age of the population in the country was 37.6 years as compared to 35.3 years recorded in 1996, which represented the largest census-to-census increase of median age in the country (Flood and Haugan 320). Further, the 2.3-year increase in the media age was linked to the decrease in number of births since 1991. Projection shows that the median age will reach 44.8 years by 2030 and 45.8 years by 2050.

The Impact of the Aging Population on Canadian Health Care Spending

From the demographic discussion above, it is important to accept that the Canadian elderly population will continue to grow. Further, since the route is a health deteriorating process, people in this age group will be the greatest consumers of health care services in Canada (Steinbrook 1663). With the high number of elderly people, the implications to the economy and most importantly the health care services and health care budgets will be greatly affected in the country. In this section, the focus is on the projected costs and changes in the health care sector to reflect the changing health care demands in Canada.

Firstly, the health expenditure in the county has been rising steadily over the years, partly because of inflation, economic changes, and due to the increase in the elderly population. Since 1997, the country’s healthcare spending has been increasing. In 2003, the country spent $121 billion on healthcare, which was an equivalent of $4,000 per person (Kutzin, Cashin, and Jakab 19). During the time, the private health sector accounted for approximately 33% of the total expenditure. In 2001, the county’s healthcare expenditure was equivalent to 10% of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP). According to Morgan, Daw, and Law, the healthcare budget had been projected to increase from $80.7 billion in 2000 to more than $250 billion in 2020 (44). During the same time, it is projected that the provincial and territorial governments’ expenditure will increase from $55.9 billion to $102.5 billion. In total, this increase in healthcare spending will represent 83% rise for the period spanning 20 years. The gravity of this increase in health spending can be well understood when compared to other public expenditures that are only projected to rise by only 36.5% during the same time (Kutzin, Cashin, and Jakab 22). The following graph shows the total healthcare spending in the period 1975-2014:

Total Healthcare Spending 1975-2014

The per capita spending of the country on health care was approximately $4000 in 2003. It increased to $5911 in 2012. In 2015, the total health care per capita reached $6,045 (Morgan, Daw, and Law 46). Between 1997 and 2010, the total health care expenditure per capita grew faster than the population growth and inflation combined. The total healthcare expenditure per capita is represented below:

Per Capita Healthcare Spending in Canada 1975-2014

In 2003, the healthcare expenditure was approximately 10% of the GDP. It rose to 11.2% in 2012. In 2013, the healthcare expenditure rose to 11.2% but slowed down to 11.0% in 2014. Since 2000 to 2012, the expenditure on healthcare was rising by an average of $8.9 billion annually (Steinbrook 1662). The graph below represents the healthcare expenditure as a percentage of the GDP in Canada from 1975 to 2014.

Total Health Expenditure as a Percentage of GDP 1975-2014

More than 50% of an individual healthcare spending occurs after the age of 65 years. This observation shows that that an increase in the elderly population in a country will most likely increase the cost of health care. The population of Canada is growing. The elderly population is also increasing drastically. Its projected continued growth will result in higher healthcare expenditure (Hsiao 953). To understand the current healthcare expenditure, it is important to know the current healthcare spending by age and sex in the country. The following graph shows the 2012 total/provincial/territorial government expenditure in Canada.

Total Health Care Expenditure in Canada by Age/Sex in 2012

The graph above shows that more money was spent on the healthcare of the elderly than for other age groups in the country. On the other hand, females between the age of 25-34 and above 80 years had more healthcare expenses compared to their male counterparts during the same age groups. The disparity can be explained by the fact that women tend to have more health care costs during their childbearing years, that is, 24-34. Further, since females have a higher life expectancy, there is more expenditure for women above 80 years.

Although it is evident that the increase of 65 years leads to greater health care costs, seniors are a diverse group where the health care expenses vary considerably across the age group. In this case, those above the age of 80 years have the highest health care spending per person.

Government Healthcare Expenditure per Capita, by Age Group, Canada, 2012

The graph above shows that as people age, there is a significant increase on health care spending. For instance, in 2001 the per capita expenditure on healthcare was approximately was over $17000 for people above 85 years. This figure has risen to approximately $30,000 in 2012 (Morgan, Daw, and Law 48). The seniors above 65 years represent approximately 12.6%, yet they account for approximately 43% of the government spending. The older the person, the higher the healthcare costs they incur.

The development in medical technology is expected to continue exerting more pressure on healthcare spending across all the age groups in the country. However, such a trend will lead to a very sharp increase in health care expenditure for the elderly population whose current healthcare spending is already very high at about three to five times as compared to those below 65 years (Kutzin, Cashin, and Jakab 24). Two demographic factors, namely a high population share of old people and the older people who live longer in their final years, are driving health care cost up. According to Steinbrook, higher medical and hospital costs are incurred at the final period of death (1663). Further, the higher costs of health care are incurred during the final two years of a person’s life. Since older people are living longer, the cumulative healthcare costs are very high due to frail health at this period of age.

One in four elderly people in the country has a long-term disability while a large number suffers from chronic health conditions such as high blood pressure, arthritis, rheumatism, diabetes, dementia, and chronic heart diseases among other illnesses. It is further estimated that more than 500,000 elderly people in Canada will be suffering from Alzheimer’s disease by 2031 (Kutzin, Cashin, and Jakab 25). However, the health of the population and other demographics are not the only factors that amplify the cost of health spending. Instead, other factors such as technology, pharmaceuticals, and public expectations among others can have an impact on the health care costs in a country. Aging alone will contribute to 0.8% increase in health care costs of the 5.3% annual nominal increase in health cost.

Other developed countries are experiencing similar problems in the healthcare systems due to the aging population. In addition, some of the countries such as Japan, France, and the United Kingdom have a higher population of older people. However, they have managed to keep their costs of health care as a share of the GDP lower than Canada’s situation. Evidence shows that despite the increase in aging population, modest growth of economies in most of the developed countries has allowed the health care costs to be controlled.

The Impact of the Aging Healthcare Workforce in Canada

The health care sector is a labor-intensive segment of the economy. Thus, for quality services and care, the health care workforce is critical. The sector faces major challenges in terms of workforce. This challenge is driving the cost of health care in the country. The health care and social service sector employs one in 10 Canadians. However, despite the impressive figures on the number of employees in the workforce, there have been concerns that the sector faces major challenges. The challenges are likely to lead to higher costs in the healthcare sector. The amplified costs will lead to more challenges as the aging population increases.

One of the major challenges facing the healthcare sector is the aging health care workforce in the country. In 2011, the average age of registered nurses was 45 years. Further, approximately 28.4% of the nursing workforce in the health sector was above the age of 55 while 13.4% of nurses were beyond the age of 60 years (Sibley and Weiner 22). Indeed, in 2007, for every nurse who was 35 years or younger, two nurses were above 50 years. The higher age of the health care workforce is a clear indicator of the dire need for workforce in the sector to respond to the rising health needs in the country. With more than a third of the nurses above 50 years, the increasing number of nursing professionals who are retiring by 56 years is a concern for the whole health sector in Canada. Further, due to the increasing cost of the healthcare education, it is worrying that more nurses graduated in 1972 than in 2002, despite the increase in population by more than 50%. As such, in terms of ratio, there were more nurses per population in 1972 than in 2002. There is a large disparity in the distribution of healthcare professionals across region in the country. This situation led to a high inter-provisional competition for healthcare professionals in the country. Such competition has pushed the cost of hiring nurses very high. The healthcare sector has to cater for the increased workforce costs.

As of 2014, there was a shortage of more than 22,000 nurses. The situation was only masked by heavy workload and delayed retirement in the sector (Sibley and Weiner 24). The shortage of nurses in the country will reach 60,000 by 2022. The rise is likely to put the health care sector into crisis. The sector also employs the highest number of part-time workforce of any other sector in the country. For instance, the recommended fulltime-to-part time workforce is 70:30, yet statistical findings show that more than 45% of nurses work on casual/part-time basis in the healthcare sector (Steinbrook 1663).

Long-term Care and Family Support

The increase in aging population not only indicates an increase in dependency ratio in the country but also an increasing burden to families and healthcare sector in providing long-term care and support to the aged. Aging makes people become frail. It also increases their chances to be ill. Hence, they need support to ensure that they can run their daily activities (Morgan, Daw, and Law 46). As such, the long-term care is a major area of concern since it poses a strain on public, family, and personal resources. The support provided to the aging population can be formal or informal. The formal support can be grouped into two areas. The first support is in the form of community-based care, which allows an older person to receive community-based health and social services at home. The second approach to formal support is the institution-based care where the aged receive care in government-provided-and-controlled areas at subsidized costs.

On the other hand, family members, friends, or neighbors provide informal care. In most cases, informal care is largely provided by other elderly people, especially the spouses. It is estimated that the informal support caters for more than 90% of the care needs in the country (Hsiao 956). In this case, more than three million people provide the informal care to the elderly. The projected increase in elderly dependency ratio, as well as the decline in the working people in comparison with the older people is likely to have serious consequences where there are fewer people to take care of the older generation.

In 2014, approximately 16% of the older Canadians are receiving regular long-term care is long-term care facilities where the costs of accessing such services costs more than $3,000 per month, which represents a high cost to families (Sibley and Weiner 26). However, despite the increasing costs of accessing long-term care, very few people at only 12% are protected by long-term care insurance (Morgan, Daw, and Law 46). The cost of care to the elderly will extend to the labor force where those who leave workforce to care for their older relatives will contribute to labor shortage in the country. The shortage will further lead to societal opportunity cost due to the lost productive capacity and tax revenues. It is further suggested that those who provide long-term care in the home setting are likely to develop their health complications. Indeed, in case the spouses were caring for their frail partners, they were likely to die earlier than their counterparts who did not offer such care.

The interest on palliative care has increased because of the increasing aged population in the country. In this case, it is estimated that more than 317,300 deaths will be recorded in 2020 as compared to 227,620 recorded in 2002 (Sammartin 1136). More than 75% of the deaths in Canada occur in hospital environments, yet the beds dedicated to palliative care (end of life care) are very few. Hence, most patients end up in up in acute care beds. Consequently, the situation worsens the already precarious state of affairs in such hospitals. More than 90% of the people in the country prefer to spend their final days at home with their loved ones. However, such a situation requires the family members to spend approximately 54 hours per week with their frail parents. Such time is difficult for one to dedicate due to the strains on resources the elderly already bring to the family.

Restructuring the Healthcare System in Canada

The discussion above shows the dire need for reforms in the healthcare sector in Canada to cater for the needs of the aging population while ensuring sustainability of healthcare financing without compromising the quality of care. As such, there is the need to restructure the health sector through various approaches that target financing, the quality of care, training workforce, and technological advancements.

Restructuring Financing Structure

One of the biggest challenges facing the healthcare sector in the country due to the increase in the aging population is the access to funds to guarantee continuity of the sector. Over the years, the need to reform the financing of the healthcare sector has attracted increasing attention, yet very little has been achieved. According to Sibley and Weiner, some of the analysts in the healthcare sector argue that the increasing costs of health care will be manageable in a growing economy where the government revenues are expected to grow in equal measure (26). However, major concerns have been raised on the pay-as-you-go approach to healthcare budgeting. The approach to budgeting is unsustainable since it places the burden of caring the elderly on the ensuing generations (Kutzin, Cashin, and Jakab 48). Those who oppose the pay-as-you-go approach to budgeting argue that it is important to take action now when the economic conditions are ideal. Surplus budget makes it possible to have such actions undertaken now for future response to the increasing healthcare costs. So far, various options have been suggested to reduce future health costs in the country. These options include reducing health services, increasing taxes or introducing user fees to cover pay-as-you-go healthcare expenses, diverting resources from other sectors, and using the current taxation to pre-fund future health care expenditure.

However, it is unlikely that the public or the government will support the first three options suggested above. The situation suggests a funding gap because of the increased healthcare expenditure. The gap is attributable to the aging population and the falling national income due to the reduced workforce. More people will be moving to the senior age group. To address this gap, the prefunding option is the most appropriate approach. This option focuses on pre-funding of future health care expenditures. Hence, it may be supported. However, various approaches have been suggested under the option of pre-funding of future health care expenditure through the current taxation (Hsiao 957). Firstly, the approach suggests the establishment of seniors’ health grant to be incorporated into the Canada Health and Social Transfer (CHST) body.

This strategy will ensure that the government can allocate money to the provinces in relation to their population that reaches 65 years and above. The grant will be adjusted annually through an accelerator provision that will be tied to the nominal GDP. However, it will require all seniors to have an equal fixed allocation per annum. Another option is the creation of a “seniors’ health account” that will operate in a similar manner since the Canada Pension Plan will grow over the years to fund some of the elderly health care in the country (Sammartin 1138). If adeptly implemented, the two recommendations will greatly help in offsetting the burden that future generations will incur in health care costs towards the elderly population.

Another approach that has been recommended for the prefunding of the future healthcare costs of the elderly is through insurance. Compulsory insurance schemes like the employment insurance would be an important avenue of cost sharing in financing future healthcare expenditure in the aging population.

Lastly, private long-term care insurance is another source of income that is highly viable. The insurance approach ensures accessibility and affordability of care without exerting a lot of pressure on the economy and emotional burden on family members. Such insurance can offer reprieve to families since it can cater for home-based care and provide options to patients who require home-based care. Sibley and Weiner assert that such private long-term care insurance is important for women since they are likely to outlive their husbands and hence more likely to face financial challenges in their widowhood (26).

Primary Care Reform

In the recent past, there has been focus on the improvement of primary care in the country. Primary care represents the entry point into the healthcare system. As such, it is important to dedicate resources, quality, and access to primary care since it is likely to have a major impact on the entire system. When the quality of primary care is good, the health outcomes are likely to reflect in generations since diseases are detected and treated early, thus reducing the number of people with serious health conditions in their old age. Concisely, a robust primary care sector will lead to healthy aging, which will ultimately reduce health care cost in old age.

Human Resource Planning

Major factors have been highlighted as leading to the increased health care expenditure challenges in the workforce in the sector. Some of the concerns include professional shortages, growing recruitment and retention costs, and an aging healthcare workforce. To address this issue, effective human resource planning is very important.

Firstly, there is the need to ensure recruitment of adequate staff members in the country. To increase the recruitment, the major approach that the government should focus on is the training of more professionals in the sector. The number of trained personnel that is graduating from institutions of learning has reduced drastically over the years. As such, promoting more training of healthcare professionals is one way of ensuring that the current challenges concerning workforce shortages are reduced (Flood and Haugan 323). It is projected that institutions of learning will need to graduate approximately 12,000 nurses to keep up with the demand, yet they have been falling short over the years.

For instance, in 2005, only 10,074 nurses graduated. This figure represents a shortfall of approximately 2000 nurses. Such a cumulative shortage can explain the current shortage that reached up to 22000 as of 2014 (Sibley and Weiner 29). More than 60% of the institutions in the country have a shortage of faculty members. The situation has consequently limited the number of students who can be admitted. A further 70% of the institutions have expressed shortage in financing. The situation has a repercussion on the number of students who they can admit. Another study found that 40-50% of the institutions have inadequate space (Sibley and Weiner 24). However, with adequate financing, many of the institutions pointed out they could increase their enrolment by up to 50%, which would consequently lead to more nursing professions among others in the country. Further, the recruitment and retention policies should be re-examined to ensure that they can promote recruitment both internally and externally to attract workforce from within and outside the country.

The second important approach that the healthcare sector should focus on includes strategies that are geared towards improvement of productivity and reduction of costs. Such strategies should include the use technology, upgrading of skills through training, enhancing scope of practice among the existing workforce, and using evidence-based research. For instance, since the nursing workforce comprises the largest share of the healthcare workforce, training them to handle some physicians’ work may be a great step towards a better health care system in the country.

There is the need to focus on the promotion of healthy and safe workplaces. Approximately 12,000 nurses do not attend duties since they are off on injury or illness-related issues (Morgan, Daw, and Law 48). Further, the workload that the nurses have due to the shortages facing the healthcare sector is another area that contributes to low quality of care and the increasing expenditure of healthcare in the country. There is the need to focus on the development of strategies that will lead to healthy workplace initiatives, innovative staffing initiatives such as nurse-patient ratios, workload management systems, and approaches to increasing productivity without jeopardizing the safety of the workers (Sammartin 1139).

For instance, increasing the productivity of nurses will be important to relieve nurses and other practitioners of non-nursing roles such as housekeeping, clerical, and caretaker functions among others than only acting to divert the efforts of nurses from providing healthcare services. This approach is very costly to the economy. Further, it affects the quality of care. Other important approaches include the provision of adequate and up-to-date technologies to ensure that nurses and healthcare providers can deliver health care fast and at high levels of quality. Working in the healthcare environment exposes practitioners to many risks such as disease, harm from patients, and emotional stress among other risks (Flood and Haugan 336). It is important for measures to be put in place to ensure that service providers are safe in their work environments.

Technological Developments

Technological advancement or adoption into the healthcare sector is another area that requires emphasis in the country. There is the need for more research on healthcare technologies that will allow better diagnosis, faster healthcare procedures, and better outcomes for the overall healthcare sector. However, technology can only be viewed as beneficial if it reduces healthcare costs and/or improves healthcare outcomes (Sammartin 1139). The unpredictability of technology in terms of when it will be discovered or used in the healthcare sector makes it an unreliable strategy in the short-term. Regardless of such shortcomings, it is still important to dedicate resources to the development or acquisition of better technology into the healthcare sector.

Focus on Quality of Healthcare

It is important to note that future health conditions are linked to the lifestyle and healthcare that an individual receives while young. Te future is determined by key factors such as adequate income, education, housing, transportation, and social support, among other factors. Consequently, it is very important to integrate and promote the incorporation of healthy aging needs into a population’s public health approach to the aging societies such as Canada. There is a need to ensure adequate research to understand the factors that lead to many health conditions faced by the elderly in the society such as cancer, diabetes, dementia, and cardiovascular diseases among other ailments that are common in the old age.

Initiatives that focus on chronic diseases can translate into cost saving that can help to reduce the burden of healthcare costs to the economy. For instance, delaying the onset of diseases such as Alzheimer’s condition, which is one of the most costly chronic diseases, can translate into billions of dollars in savings annually (Flood and Haugan 324). Programs that focus on health promotion such as primary prevention of falls in old age lead to better health outcomes and reduced healthcare costs at the household and national levels.

Home Care and Institutionalized Care

Hospitalization is one of the major areas that elderly population incurs high health care costs. The ability to reduce hospitalization or postpone institutionalization is an important approach that reduces costs, enhances the quality of life, and/or provides greater choices for the elderly (Sammartin 1137). It is also evident that most elderly people would prefer to be cared for from the comfort of their homes. As such, there is the need to dedicate efforts that will not only reduce hospitalization but also promote strategies that will ensure that the elderly people can receive care at the comfort of their homes. There is the need to dedicate more resources to the homecare and community support. Despite the potential that home-based care has on reducing the overall cost of healthcare among the aged, many territories in the country only spend between 4% and 5% of the healthcare budgets on homecare. The respite services can include adult-day programs, housekeeping, temporary breaks, personal emergency system, counseling, and peer support among others.

Conclusion

It is evident that more people are living longer because of the improved health and related technologies and services. With more than 12 million elderly people expected in the country by 2041, representing more than 25% of the population, The Canadian health care system must be ready to address the increasing healthcare cost. Such a large elderly population will exert pressure on the country’s budget and economy. The increased chronic diseases and the reduced working class will place an overwhelming pressure on the working people. Further, a higher elderly population will also mean that more workers will also be older and less productive, hence making the situation even more difficult. However, through proper planning and budgeting, it is likely that the healthcare financing in the country will remain sustainable. Firstly, the steady economic growth that the country is experiencing will be enough to cover the extra cost that the elderly population poses. Other important measures that may help include higher adoption of technology, revising recruitment and retention strategies, and reviewing the funding approaches in the country to include other approaches to funding such as prefunding of healthcare through current taxation and insurance. In conclusion, with the changes proposed above, the healthcare sector funding will remain sustainable even with the increase in the population of elderly people in the country.

Works Cited

Flood, Colleen, and Amanda Haugan. “Is Canada odd? A comparison of European and Canadian approaches to choice and regulation of the public/private divide in health care.” Health Economics, Policy and Law 5.03(2010): 319-341. Print.

Hsiao, William. “Why is a systemic view of health financing necessary?” Health Affairs 26.4(2007): 950-961. Print.

Kutzin, Joseph, Cheryl Cashin, and Melitta Jakab. “Implementing health financing reform.” World Health Organisation on behalf of the European Observatory on Health Systems and Policies 7.5(2010): 16-31. Print.

Morgan, Steve, Jamie Daw, and Michael Law. “Rethinking pharmacare in Canada.” CD Howe Institute Commentary 384.3(2013): 41-53. Print.

Sammartin, Claudia. “Comparing health and health care use in Canada and the United States.” Health Affairs 25.4(2006): 1133-1142. Print.

Sibley, Lyn, and Jonathan Weiner. “An evaluation of access to health care services along the rural-urban continuum in Canada.” BMC health services research 11.1(2014): 20-36. Print.

Steinbrook, Robert. “Private health care in Canada.” New England Journal of Medicine 354.16(2006): 1661-1664. Print.

Introduction

The current problems facing population or public health are increasingly being attributed to human behaviour. At an individual level, there have been notable problems that have arisen with regards to developing effective models to deal with health promotion programs that encourage healthy living and nutritional lifestyles.

At the society level, there have been notable problems when it comes to understanding the impacts of social perspectives on population health and how these perspectives affect the formulation and implementation of health-focused policies. Such problems have led to the increasing number of health care practitioners turning to the use of social science to understand public health issues.

Population health is always concerned with social perspectives such as social science that have an impact on the health and wellbeing of the general population. In the last several years, the concept of social science has continued to gain more prominence in the field of population or public health.

The underlying concept behind social science has its background from disciplines such as classical sociology, cultural studies, social statistics and political science. These disciplines have created a lot of debate that has been mostly focused on the theoretical, operational and practical use of social science to improve the population’s welfare (Coreil 2010).

Contribution of Social Science to Public Health

Social and behavioural science has made a significant contribution to the reduction of morbidity and mortality rates in populations based around the world. To add on, Social science has been used in medical learning programs to create more intervention alternatives that will be used to deal with health issues that arise in the population (Emmons 2000).

Social science has contributed to ethical matters that come with public health with focus on healthcare ethics. It has been noted that ethicists take up health problems or issues in the original form that these problems were presented by policymakers and practitioners.

Social science scientists and philosophers have taken an opposite approach to dealing with such problems by deconstructing the structure or framework of these problems to derive solutions that will be used to deal with health issues. Critical social science has provided powerful and useful tools that can be used to illuminate the dangers that come poor framing of public health problems (Peckham and Hann 2010).

This is further explained by Cribb (2007), who notes that using the official framing of certain public health problems as starting point will create ethical problems at the later stages of the problem deconstruction. This is because public health frameworks and categories have incorporated value judgments that are used to develop policies and health practices.

Cribb (2007) highlights this fact in an example where public health issues or problems are constructed in way meant to reinforce certain moral or ethical aspects.

These aspects might alter the distribution of health solutions to the problems identified or they might produce patterns of discrimination or stigmatization when it came to health care service provision. Social science was therefore viewed to provide critical tools that would be used to identify and deal with these issues to ensure ethics was observed in public health matters (Peckham and Hann 2010).

Green and Browne (2005) have viewed the contribution of social science to not only cover the introduction of techniques to be used to deal with public health issues but also as a means of providing disciplinary perspectives that are different from biomedicine and biological science.

Green and Browne (2005) have identified social science disciplines that have shifted their focus to deal with public health and health care matters.

One of these disciplines is the field of medical sociology, which has incorporated the use of qualitative research from sociology to deal with public health issues and health services research. Psychology is another medical field that has been used to explain the contribution of social science to population health.

Medical anthropology has been identified as an important social science field that is used to deal with public health. Medical anthropology has contributed to public health in that it examines how people in different societies around the world derive explanations to the various diseases and illnesses that afflict them as well as what patterns of treatment they can use to deal with these diseases.

Medical anthropology identifies patterns of illnesses, health perceptions associated to these patterns of illnesses, and health-seeking behavior of societies within a social, political, economical and ecological context (Green and Labonte 2008). Medical anthropology is divided into several theoretical streams that differ in their analytical focus of the study of public health and diseases.

These theoretical streams include aspects such as ecological contexts, socio-political contexts, political-economic contexts and symbolic contexts. Applied medical anthropology when compared to normal medical anthropology has been viewed to have a single theoretical stream that refers to the application of anthropological techniques in aspects of health care research and public health (Greene and Labonte 2008).

Applied medical anthropology has been used by public health scientists in a setting that involves the use of a donor agency that includes medical practitioners, healthcare providers and a recipient population, which includes the general society or community.

The assumption that underlies applied medical anthropology is that scientists working within the field can be able to incorporate interpretive and humanist approaches to determine what the recipient population knows, believes and understands about public health.

Medical anthropologists by incorporating social science aspects contribute to public health issues by assisting in the formulation, implementation and evaluation of appropriate cultural designs that will be used in health interventions.

They also contribute research explanations as to why some health interventions are rejected while others are adopted for use in public health issues. The medical anthropologists also examine the relationship that exists between healthcare providers, medical practitioners and their patients (Saillant and Genest 2007).

Public Health Issues and Social Science Intervention

The World Health Organization (2007) defines public health as the art and science of preventing the occurrence or recurrence of diseases through the organized efforts of health care organizations, improving the health of societies and prolonging the lives of members in these societies. The population that is under consideration could be a small group of people or a large community.

Public health is divided into several disciplines, which include epidemiology, occupational health, behavioral and social science and health service research. The main characteristics that are used to determine public health aspects are that it deals with the general population instead of an individual and it deals with prevention of diseases instead of curative strategies (Gillam et al. 2007).

Public health intervention strategies are, therefore, directed towards preventing rather than curing diseases that have been identified within the population. The goal of public health has been identified to be preventing diseases, illnesses or injuries from occurring or recurring in a population.

Public health also seeks to improve the lives of population members by providing prevention and treatment strategies that will be used to deal with disease outbreaks. The goal of public health is different from that of health care, which is mostly focused on provided medical services to individuals instead of large groups of people in the population (Smith et al 2006).

The Healthy States (2009) has identified more than 20 public health issues that affect various populations around the world today. Examples of some of the public health issues that have been identified include chronic diseases, cancer, disabilities, aging, HIV/AIDS, infectious diseases, obesity, oral health, reproductive health, STDs and smoking (Healthy States 2009).

Other public health issues identified in the AAFP (2010) website include domestic violence, metal disorders, firearm violence, rural health, health disparities, genetic dispositions, nutritional deficiencies, and pandemic flu. The public health issue that will be under consideration for this study will be sexually transmitted diseases and how social science can be used to deal with STD prevalence rates.

STDs also referred to as STI (sexually transmitted infections), are diseases or infections that are transmitted to an individual during sexual intercourse with a person infected with STIs, skin contact or contact of bodily fluids from a person infected with an STD. Examples of STDs include Chlamydia, Gonorrhea, Syphilis, Hepatitis, Herpes, Human Papilloma Virus (HPV) and HIV/AIDS.

The term STDs has also been used to describe the many clinical syndromes symptoms that occur as a result of bacterial infection (Workowski and Berman 2006).

STD prevalence rates have continued to remain high around the world despite medical advances in diagnostic techniques. The changing sexual behavior amongst populations around the world has contributed in large to the increasing STD incidence rates (Mokdad et al. 2005).

Governments the world over have recognized the importance of public health programs in reducing the occurrences of infectious diseases. Public health issues such as HIV/AIDS, which have been identified as an important problem affecting the world today has necessitated the development of public health programs that will reduce the rate of HIV infections.

These programs include HIV awareness seminars, distribution of condoms to health care facilities and communities identified with high HIV/AIDS infection rates and sensitization programs (EUPHIX 2009).

Public health programs that have made achievable strides in the recent past include vaccination programs to eradicate smallpox, which has afflicted various populations around the world for a long time (Sanderson & Gruen 2006).

The absence of regular screening of STD infections leads to high mortality and morbidity rates of people who are infected. Untreated or undiagnosed STDs have been known to lead to serious medical complications such as cervical, lung or prostrate cancer, ectopic pregnancies, kidney failures, miscarriages or stillbirths, blindness and skin disorders.

The individuals identified to be at the greatest risk of contracting STDs include people who engage in risky sexual behaviors, adolescents, teenage girls, and individuals who have more than one sexual partner (Devanter 2000).

The prevention of sexually transmitted diseases can be attributed to the use of diagnostic and treatment tools that are used to identify the type of STD infection and treatment options that are available to treat STIs. Other prevention strategies that are in use are surveillance and monitoring programs used to observe individuals in a population identified to have high STD infection rates (Newman 2002).

While these techniques form a critical component in controlling the spread of sexually transmitted diseases, they constitute the secondary prevention strategies that are used for infected individuals. Behavioral and social science interventions developed in the recent past have reduced the rate of STD infections by increasing the use of condoms and decreasing the rate of unprotected sex (McDonald et al. 2001).

The public health community has recently turned to the use of social science interventions in STD prevention after the successful use of these interventions in curing chronic diseases such as cardiovascular diseases, bronchitis and lung cancer.

Psychologists and scientists who have conducted research into the area of social science have shown that behavioral modification techniques and the social communication of intervention strategies to a selected population can be an effective method in reducing the prevalence rates of STDs (Aral and Douglas 2007).

Social science interventions have been used to reduce the prevalence of HIV infections at both the individual and community levels. It is o be known that this is because social science programs have increased the knowledge and the know-how of STDs and how these diseases affect the anatomy of human beings.

The social science programs have been able to change the sexual behaviors of individuals or members in the society, thereby reducing the risk of HIV infections.

The use of social science in individual-level interactions focuses on the importance of using condoms to reduce STD infections by teaching these individuals sexual communication skills and condom use that will reduce risky sexual behaviors (National Institute of Mental Health 2007).

The use of social and behavioral science interventions in STD prevention has seen the use of public education and awareness programs to sensitize people about the various sexually transmitted diseases.

Some social science interventions that have been proposed for use in STD prevention and control programs include fear-based messages about the dangers of STDs, efforts to control the sexual behavior of high risk categories such as teenagers, adolescent girls and commercial sex workers and the use of religion-based moral approaches to control and prevent the prevalence rates if STDs.

Despite recent advances and innovations in the biomedical field to reduce STD mortality and morbidity rates, public health workers need to incorporate the use of social science interventions to ensure that these infections are reduced (Aral and Douglas 2007).

According to research conducted in the U.S. by various health organizations on HIV/AIDS, social science has made a major contribution in slowing the spread of the disease. It is no longer the epidemic that it was in the past thanks to social science research on sexual behavior, peoples understanding of the disease and intervention strategies.

According to U.S. statistic’s, changes in risky sexual behavior saw a reduction of new HIV infections from 80,000 in 1993 to 42,000 in 2005. The use of social science has ensured that people who engage in risky sexual behavior are aware of the adverse effects of STDs and HIV/AIDS.

Social science has also enabled the prevention and management of AIDS to be recognized as a behavioral and social problem rather than a scientific or biological problem (NIH, 2007).

Behavioral and social science has also played an important role in HIV prevention research since every strategy that has been developed to deal prevent the transmission of the disease has incorporated behavioral and social components that will impact on the transmission rate.

These components are viewed to be important because they determine whether the intervention strategies to reduce the rate of HIV will be adopted and used. Research has shown that social and environmental factors affect the risk of an HIV/STD infection. These social and environmental factors include religion, sexual behavior, culture, gender and age (NIAID 2010).

Studies and clinical trials have shown that risky sexual behaviors that expose people to STD and HIV infection can be reduced by conducting social interventions such as risk reduction counseling, sexual behavior change, conducting awareness programs on the risks of STDS within a target population, and developing cognitive approaches that will be used in preventing the spread of HIV/STDs.

Social programs such as Voluntary Counseling Centers (VCT) have shown a reduction of risky sexual behaviors, especially amongst people infected with HIV or STD. VCTs have also created an awareness of the various STDs and also on HIV/AIDS and how people can practice safe sex.

Aside from providing testing services, VCT programs also provide counseling services to people who have been infected with HIV or STIs by informing them on how they can live positively with the infection and also practice healthy behaviors (NIAID 2010).

Social science theoretical work has fundamental importance in HIV/STD prevention as it specifies the determinants that lead to HIV/STD infections and what preventive behavior can be used to reduce the risks if HIV infections.

Social science theories have suggested that risk populations or people who have a high risk of getting infected with HIV or STDs lack basic information about the disease and also what preventive behavior they can exercise to reduce the chances of infection.

These theories have also shown that high-risk populations have insufficient information on prevention interventions and they also lack social motivation to practice safe sexual behaviors (Devanter 2000).

Theories such as the theory of reasoned action and planned behavior to STD/HIV prevention have shown that the attitudes that people have towards having preventive behaviors and the perceptions that these people have on preventive behaviors are important critical determinants in STD/HIV intervention strategies.

These theories hold that an individual who has a positive attitude towards preventive behavior and abstinence from risky sexually behavior is likely to practice the social science interventions that are used in reducing the prevalence rates of the disease.

Social science theories propose that public health officials should intervene so that the attitudes of a target population towards preventive behavior are improved. This would involve monitoring the pre and post-intervention attitudes that these people have towards the intervention strategies.

Devanter (2000) notes the emphasis that has been placed social science approaches to reduce STD infections can mostly be attributed to the absence of biomedical solutions that can be used in prevention and treatment strategies. Biological science is mostly focused on the structure of the disease and how this disease is transmitted to other organisms.

This field of science, however, fails to provide appropriate treatment alternatives that can be used to treat STIs. Social and behavioral science have, therefore provided a scientific basis that will guide the development of intervention strategies that will be used to prevent and treat STDS.

The success of these interventions has shown how important social and behavioral science is in dealing with public health issues despite the fact that public health deals with epidemiological and biomedical science (Fishbein 2000).

Many health care providers in the field of public health lack knowledge on behavioral and social science when it comes to health promotion and prevention activities. The interventions that have been carried for HIV have mostly been conducted in an experimental setting without using any public health knowledge.

This has highlighted the need to replicate these studies in public health programs for populations that have recorded high STD rates. Social science has also contributed to understanding the importance of involving the population, society, communities or large groups of people in STD prevention programs.

The participation in public health programs designed to reduce STD infection rates is critical for community members as it ensures appropriate interventions have been developed, implemented and sustained to promote health within the population (Devanter 2000).

The most meaningful and appropriate measure that can be used to determine the efficacy or effectiveness of social science interventions in HIV/AIDS prevention is evaluating and assessing the impact of the intervention in reducing the transmission rate of the STD.

Although public health officials have accepted the prevalence and incidence of STDs as the most suitable indicators of successful intervention strategies, there has been some resistance by medical biologists to using these social interventions as valid indicators.

These scientists have argued that the use of biological measures such as STDs should only be used as outcome measures in programs that have been designed to initiate behavioral change in high-risk populations (Fishbein 2000).

Examples of the use of social science by various public health organizations include the Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) which has developed technical assistance materials in collaboration with social scientists that will be used to help high prevalence communities to develop intervention strategies to reduce prevalence rates of sexually transmitted infections (CDC 2005).

Conclusion

The above research has shown the importance of using social science in dealing with public health issues that affect the general population. Social science has been viewed as an important intervention strategy because it bridges the gap that has been created by the epidemiological field of science and also biomedical/biological science.

Social science ensures that public health issues are understood properly by the recipient population that has been identified for medical intervention by determining what knowledge the affected population has of the disease and explaining the dynamics of the disease to these people.

Social science also enables community members to participate in prevention and treatment strategies, an activity that is deemed to be important for preventing future recurrence of the disease.

HIV prevention research that has incorporated social science concepts has shown a reduction in risky sexual behaviors in the high-risk populations. Reducing the STD infection rates for these high-risk populations will require a jointed effort from the concerned public health organizations to develop control, prevention, and treatment strategies for STDs.

Such efforts will necessitate increased funding to increase the use of social science in state and local health departments as well as increase the amount of research conducted in the field of social science with particular focus on the intervention strategies that can be used in public health programs.

References

AAFP (2010) Public health issues. Web.

Aral, S. O., and Douglas, J. M., (2007) Behavioral interventions for prevention and control of sexually transmitted diseases, New York: Springer Science.

Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2005) Health: United States, 2005, National Center for Health Statistics. Web.

Coreil, J., (2010) Social behavior foundations of public health, 2^nd Edition, California: SAGE Publications.

Cribb, A. (2007) Health promotion, society and healthcare ethics, In Ashcroft, A., Dawson, A., Draper, H., and McMillan J., (Eds) Principles of healthcare ethics, Chichester: John Wiley and Sons.

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Gillam, S., Yates, J., and Badrinath, P., (2007) Essential public health, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Green, J., and Labonte, R. N., (2008) Critical perspectives in public health, New York: Routledge.

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McDonald, M. A., Thomas, J. C., and Eng, E., (2001) When is sex safe? Insider’s views on sexually transmitted disease prevention and treatment, Health Education Behavior, Vol.28, pp. 624-642.

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National Institutes of Health (NIH) (2007) The contributions of behavioral and social sciences research to improving the health of the nation: a prospectus for the future, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services: Office Behavioral and Social Services Research.

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Saillant, F., and Genest, S., (2007) Medical anthropology: regional perspectives and shared concerns. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing Limited.

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Workowski, K., and Berman, S., (2006) Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines, MMWR Recomm Rep. 55 (RR-11) pp 1-94. Web.

Introduction

Over the next four years, there is a need to address the issue of the aging prison population in the U.S. A lot of concern has been expressed regarding the continuous growth of the number of older people in prison (Williams, Sudore, Greifinger, & Morrison, 2013). In 2006, the issue was pronounced one of the top management challenges of the U.S. Department of Justice (Psick, Simon, Brown, & Ahalt, 2017). The increase in the number of elderly individuals in prison requires the expansion of staff numbers to take care of inmates who have some disabilities such as vision loss or a debilitating sense of hearing. As a result, the costs of medical care for prisoners have risen dramatically over the last decade (Psick et al., 2017).

This paper aims to highlight the need to address the issue of an aging population, which is a substantial problem for America’s prison system. Also, the paper provides a brief discussion of economic, social, and political reasons for addressing the issue in a timely and effective manner. The analysis of the feasibility of the problem reaching the national agenda will also be included in the paper.

Background

During the last decade, the rate of growth of the number of aged prisoners has noticeably increased (Psick et al., 2017). Most people in America’s prison system are considered elderly (Williams, Stern, Mellow, Safer & Greifinger, 2012). For example, there has been a significant growth of men and women aged 55 years and above from 32,600 to 124,400 between 1995 and 2010 (Psick et al., 2017). This growth accounts for about a 282% increase when compared to a 42.1% increase in the case of the total population increase in the prisons within the same duration (Psick et al., 2017). A case of an increase in the number of elderly people in prison was reported in 2000 when the number of elderly prisoners was only 3% of total America’s prison population, but in 10 years the population grew by 5% (Psick et al., 2017). Presently, this group of people accounts for more than 16%. (Psick et al., 2017).

Recent projections show that there is a possible increase in the number of elderly people in prison by about 4,400%, concerning the increasing trend since 1981 (Psick et al., 2017). Based on this estimate, the number of prisoners who are 55 years of age and above is likely to be 33.3% of America’s prison population (Psick et al., 2017). If assessed in terms of states, the number of aged prisoners ranges between 4.2% and 9.9%, with the state of Oregon having the highest rate and Connecticut having the lowest rate (Psick et al., 2017). Between 1997 and 2007, there was a 145% increase in the number of aged people in prison in the Southern States (Psick et al., 2017).

Male prisoners account for the highest percentage of America’s aging prison population since only about 6% of the elderly prisoners are females (Williams et al., 2012). In terms of race, 15%, 33%, and 42% of the total number of elderly prisoners are Hispanic, Black, and White, respectively (Williams et al., 2012). The elderly convicts also account for the highest number of deaths in prisons. For instance, more than 8,400 elderly inmates were reported dead in prison between 2001 and 2007 (Williams et al., 2012). This accounted for an increase in deaths by 11.8% in the period between 2001 and 2007 (Williams et al., 2012). According to Psick et al. (2017), there is a high probability that the number of deaths among elderly prisoners is going to increase. This is attributable to the fact that as the current prisoners continue to age, the admission of new ones continues.

Aging Trend

The number of elderly people in America’s prison systems continues to increase each year (Williams et al., 2012). As pointed above, new individuals are imprisoned each day, and they inevitably transition to older age (Williams et al., 2012). Even though this might be a significant contributing factor to the increased numbers of old age convicts, concerns have been raised regarding the government’s policies on “touch-on-crime” (Williams et al., 2012). Some scholars argue that the increased numbers of elderly people in prison are brought about by the general aging of the people in America as well as those individuals who engage in criminal activities (Williams et al., 2012).

For example, in the mid-seventies, the government of the United States established laws that were aimed at ensuring that people convicted of any crimes served a long jail term, and they would not be given early releases (Williams et al., 2012). For this reason, it is evident that most of the aged inmates were jailed when they were much younger and spent several decades in prison following the introduction of these laws, which restricted early release of prisoners including those who were convicted of non-violent crimes (Williams et al., 2012). A good example is the case of Texas prisons where 65 percent of the elderly inmates were convicted of crimes that were not related to violence offenses (Williams et al., 2012). In North Carolina, more than 26 percent of aged prisoners were incarcerated for drug-related crimes (Williams et al., 2012). Interestingly enough, other crimes accounted for about 14 percent of the total population of elderly inmates of the state (Williams et al., 2012).

Additionally, other factors that are considered to have played a significant role in the exacerbation of the issue include the technical revocations, the truth-in-sentencing conditions, and the “three strikes” laws that affect repeat offenders (Maschi, Viola, & Sun, 2013). Following such factors, the prison system of America experienced a 300 percent increase in the prison population especially for individuals serving a sentence of twenty years between 1986 and 1995 (Maschi et al., 2013). According to the provided statistics, it is evident that more and more old people are being jailed, a move that has significantly increased the number of old prisoners (Maschi et al., 2013). The continuous trend regarding the increase in the number of aged prisoners has been showing to have adverse impacts. The presence of older prisoners has costly implications for the economies of the country, the criminal justice system, and the communities in which these prisoners are released.

Justification to Address the Issue of Aging Prison Population

Numerous politicians have expressed their fears that the high number of old people in prison will have adverse effects on the social, economic, and political life of the United States (Williams et al., 2017). The economic facet of the issue has to do with the fact that it creates a substantial burden for the national budget due to the increased costs of the delivery of healthcare services as well as the costs of housing in prisons. This is attributable to the fact that as inmates grow old, the cost of their care and housing proportionally increases. The cost of taking care of elderly prisoners is higher than that of the younger ones because aging inmates require special care due to their increased vulnerability to several chronic illnesses.

The social implications of the problem of having a large population of elderly prisoners are associated with a need for prison administrations to offer conditions of confinement that correspond to the rights and the needs of the prisoners (Maschi et al., 2013). As of now, the majority of prisons in the United States do not have proper policies, resources support, and commitment to ensure that the elderly prisoners are provided with better care. For example, it has become very costly for the prison system to offer an appropriate response to geriatric populations’ needs that include, but are not limited to, health and medical care. Also, the probability of elderly prisoners experiencing mobility problems that can disrupt their emotional well-being is exceptionally high. The same can be said about the chances of older prisoners developing terminal, disabling, and chronic illnesses (Percival, 2015).

The high cost of medical care is associated with the fact that there is no provision for health insurance programs that cover individuals in prison (Rikard & Rosenberg, 2007). Access to health care services is a problem for people behind bars. Moreover, according to Maschi et al. (2013), the older state prisoners’ medical expenditure exceeds that of the young inmates by eight times. The problem is exacerbated by the fact that the majority of incarcerated individuals tend to suffer from poor diet and lack of exercise. Furthermore, people in prison are likely to grow old at a faster rate due to the emotional problems they encounter in prison.

The continued growth of the population of old people in prison is a challenge to the social, economic, and political pillars of American society. Despite the approach that one takes regarding the problem of increased numbers of elderly prisoners, it is hard to deny that the provision of adequate medical care conditions and the implementation of proper staff training programs are a must (Williams, Rothman, & Ahalt, 2017). Considering the rate of occupancy of the prisons, it is not possible to cater for all elderly prisoners who are not able to get out of bed by themselves; therefore, there is a need for policies that are aimed at ensuring that the care of elderly prisoners is improved (Rikard & Rosenberg, 2007).

Another important facet of the issue is that the increased number of elderly prisoners is a burden to the taxpayers since they a social group that takes care of prison security and control measures, which tend to be quite expensive (Rikard & Rosenberg, 2007). Considering the infirmities and the age of these prisoners, such security measures are not necessary since these individuals do not pose a high level of threat. There is ample evidence suggesting that some sentences of elderly inmates do not warrant a long stay in prison. The continuation of a prison term has no significant positive impacts as far as the principal aims of punishment are concerned, which includes retribution, incapacitation, deterrence, and rehabilitation among others (Rikard & Rosenberg, 2007). In most cases, the continued incarceration of prisoners who have stayed in prison longer and have served a significant part of their sentence may be considered a violation of the rights of the affected prisoners regarding a proportionate and just punishment (Williams et al., 2017). Such conditions call for alternative forms of punishment that could help to achieve the goal of punishing an offender without overburdening the society. For example, home confinement could be an effective solution to the problem.

Taking into consideration the fact that the aging prison population takes a grave toll on the social life and public health of American communities, it can be argued that the problem has political ramifications. Politicians who will show that they are able to properly address the issue will amass a substantial amount of political capital that can be used to win elections and bring about meaningful social change. It is important to understand that the problem of mass incarceration is not a bipartisan issue. It can be argued that neither Republican nor Democratic party is interested in annually spending more than 80 billion dollars on the incarceration of elderly inmates (Williams et al., 2017).

Considering the magnitude of the effects caused by the increase in numbers of elderly people in America’s prisons, it is justified for the government to address the problem (Williams et al., 2017). Such a move would ensure that the available resources are not drained, and that appropriate system is put in place to improve the health care services provided to elderly prisoners. Compassionate release policies might become an effective solution for the problem, which at the same time has a high potential of becoming a political tool for politicians who know the intricacies of the agenda-setting theory. Such policies would allow “some prisoners with life-limiting or serious illness to die outside of prison” (Williams et al., 2017), thereby reducing unnecessary incarcerations.

The Feasibility of the Issue Reaching the National Agenda

The agenda-setting theory is referred to as the capacity of (mostly news media) to champion for the salience of a particular issue on the national agenda (Johnson, 2013). Two main presuppositions of the theory can be stated as follows: 1) the media does not reflect reality but shapes it; and 2) the media coverage of an issue leads to the distortion of audience’s perception of other problems, thereby making covered material more important for the public (Johnson, 2013). In this particular case, the core assumptions of the theory apply to the possibility of the problem of an aging prison population reaching the public agenda. If one were to consider media agenda-setting as the dependent variable in influencing the cognitive process of the nation, they would realize that to decrease the number of aging prisoners in the American justice system, the issue has to be covered more often. Currently, the coverage is lacking in terms of accessibility. It is extremely important because the agenda-setting effect can only take place if an issue is extensively covered by electronic and print media with large audiences (Johnson, 2013).

Policymakers play a key role in the agenda-setting process (Johnson, 2013). It has to do with the fact that they can often be more influential than even the most renowned media sources. Moreover, for any issue to achieve a substantial level of prominence, it has to be supported by some high-caliber politicians who understand how to properly leverage the media’s thirst for highly reliable sources of information that is valuable in terms of predictability and relevance. However, while the increase in the number of aging prisoners is a problem, there are various ideologies and current national trends that might interfere with the possibility of this issue gaining prominence in the public sphere.

Furthermore, the existence of various laws and regulations that govern the length of certain sentences impedes the development and implementation of new policies (Rikard & Rosenberg, 2007). For instance, there are ‘touch-on-crime’ laws that restrict prisoners from early releases regardless of a crime that one has committed. Also, the number of investigative committees assessing prison conditions is woefully low (Loeb, Steffensmeier, & Myco, 2007). The government laws and policies and the absence of prison investigations, substantially exacerbate the lack of political will to make the issue of the aging prison population a part of the national agenda.

Conclusions and Recommendations

It is evident that the issue of increased elderly prisoners in the American justice system has become a national crisis. The justice department has expressed its concerns about the adverse effects associated with the excessively high numbers of elderly prisoners. One of the significant problems is that the growth in the number of elderly prisoners is causing a strain on the resources allocated to the country’s prisons. This is attributable to the fact that elderly people have a high probability of suffering from chronic and terminal illnesses, which require advanced medical care and costly equipment. Such a situation increases the taxpayers’ burden. Therefore, the government should come up with a policy that ensures the reduction of the aging population in prisons by setting up a certain age limit making sure that elderly individuals do not remain in prisons longer than is required by the conditions of fair and just punishment.

Higher quality of health care services for aged prisoners is also a must. Notably, aged prisoners suffering from the loss of vision and hearing require special care (Williams et al., 2017). Such individuals might find it hard to cope with overcrowded conditions of prisons; therefore, the government should come up with better infrastructures to reduce excessively high occupancy rates.

The revision of the existing ideologies and values can be a suitable approach towards addressing the problem of an aging prison population. For example, the primary goals of punishment include retribution, incapacitation, deterrence, and rehabilitation. While ‘tough on crimes’ policies and accompanying them long sentences might have appeared as reasonable approaches to the reduction of the rates of criminal activities, these laws do little to achieve the goals of punishment and instead violate the rights of the prisoners.

Taking into consideration the social, economic, and political aspects of the issue, it can be argued that a lot needs to be done to address it properly. If the issue is not addressed, its effects will continue to tear apart the fabric of American society. Therefore, the government should come up with better policies that reduce the number of criminal activities that the elderly people can be jailed for and improve the mental and physical conditions of inmates.

References

Johnson, T. (2013). Agenda setting in a 2.0 world: New agendas in communication. New York, NY: Routledge.

Loeb, S. J., Steffensmeier, D., & Myco, P. M. (2007). In their own words: Older male prisoners’ health beliefs and concerns for the future. Geriatric Nursing, 28(5), 319-329.

Maschi, T., Viola, D., & Sun, F. (2013). The high cost of the international aging prisoner crisis: Well-being as the common denominator for action. The Gerontologist, 53(4), 543-554.

Percival, G. (2015). Smart on crime: The struggle to build a better American penal system. New York, NY: CRC Press.

Psick, Z, Simon, J, Brown R, & Ahalt, C. (2017). Older and incarcerated: Policy implications of aging prison populations. International Journal of Prison Health, 13(1), 57-63.

Rikard, R. V., & Rosenberg, E. (2007). Aging inmates: A convergence of trends in the American criminal justice system. Journal of Correctional Health Care, 13(3), 150-162.

Williams, B. A., Rothman, A., & Ahalt, C. (2017). For seriously ill prisoners, consider evidence-based compassionate release policies. Web.

Williams, B. A., Stern, M. F., Mellow, J., Safer, M., & Greifinger, R. B. (2012). Aging in correctional custody: Setting a policy agenda for older prisoner health care. American Journal of Public Health, 102(8), 1475-1481.

Williams, B. A., Sudore, R. L., Greifinger, R., & Morrison, R. S. (2013). Balancing punishment and compassion for seriously ill prisoners. Annals of Internal Medicine, 155(2), 122-126.

Identification of Community

San Joaquin is one of the counties in the state of California (San Joaquin County, 2016). San Joaquin County has a population of around 690,000 people. One unique aspect of this community is that San Joaquin City is in another county. The county seat is in Stockton City. Created in the year 1850, this county borrows its name from the San Joaquin River. The county is famous for the Tracy Tire Fire of 1998.

The authorities allowed the 1998 fire to burn for over two years because extinguishing it could pose numerous environmental threats (San Joaquin County, 2016). In terms of size, this county has an area of 3,690 square kilometers. Approximately 2.5 percent of the area is covered by water. The county boasts of a national area known as the San Joaquin River National Wildlife Refuge (SJRNWR). The county is among the top 100 most populous metropolitans in the United States (San Joaquin County, 2016).

The major newspapers published in the county include the Lodi News-Sentinel and The Record (San Joaquin County, 2016). The county boasts of the Stockton Airport and Port of Stockton. San Joaquin County is known as the home of walnut processing in the world.

Tools, Description of San Joaquin County and Interpretation of Collected Data

Several tools were used to identify the health risks and needs associated with the county. The population economic status assessment tool was used to examine the income of different groups in the county. The tool also examined the demographics of the county. The community safety inventory was used to analyze the major health problems and risk factors. The cultural assessment tool outlined the social issues affecting more people in the community.

The disaster assessment and planning guide focused on the county’s preparedness to deal with various events such as fire outbreaks (San Joaquin County, 2016). The windshield survey examined specific issues such as transport, news media, and the availability of amenities. The population health scavenger hunt tool identified the existing health opportunities and support for many people in the county.

Population Economic Status

Analysts have indicated that the population of the county was around 726,000 in 2015. The county has been observed to be one of the most diverse in the state. The racial constitution of the county includes 58 percent of whites, 6.8 percent of African Americans, 11.4 percent of Asian Americans, and 1.1 percent of Native Americans (San Joaquin County, 2016). The remaining 16.3 percentage is constituted of the other races (San Joaquin County, 2016). Statistics indicate that 54.3 percent of adults are married or staying as couples. Studies have indicated that the average family in the county had 3.5 individuals. The average household revenue stands at 41,200 US dollars.

Males had an annual income of 39,200 while females had 27,500 dollars annually (San Joaquin County, 2016). Around 17.7 percent of the county’s population lives below the poverty line. The majority of the affected persons are either below 17 or above 65 years of age. The number of criminal offenses is one in every one thousand persons. The level of unemployment in the county is 9.8 percent. Around 21.6 percent of the population lack health insurance coverage. Twenty-six percent of the population has limited access to dental health care. Almost 42 percent of the population faces challenges whenever trying to access various health services.

Disaster Assessment and Planning

The occurrence of the Tracy Tire Fire disaster in 1998 led to new measures in an attempt to prevent future events (San Joaquin County, 2016). Since the county is largely an agricultural area, small-scale disasters can affect the welfare of more citizens. With the county receiving heavy rains annually, floods are usually common thus calling for better planning. Disaster assessment, planning, and coordination are executed by the Office of Emergency Services (San Joaquin County, 2016). This office is a division of the General Services Department. Whenever there is a disaster, the department collaborates with different healthcare organizations, the police, and the local agencies to address the problem. The local Red Cross office plays a positive role whenever there is a disaster in the county.

The county has several avenues to sensitize the population whenever there is a disaster. Notifications can be done via various Weather Services. Radios, televisions, police departments inform more people about every disaster. The Office of Emergency Services (EOC) provides immediate support whenever there is an emergency (Office of Emergency Services, 2016). The OEC provides adequate care, shelter, food, and clothing materials whenever there is a disaster. The agency collaborates with different stakeholders and partners to address the needs of more people. The nature of the disaster dictates the support systems and evacuation mechanisms employed by the EOC.

Community Safety Inventory

Several issues affect the lives of many people in this county. To begin with, agriculture is practiced thus exposing more citizens to chemicals such as herbicides and pesticides. The presence of a major river in the county increases the risk of contamination to more people and natural creatures. Greenhouse gases are emitted by different manufacturing plants. Statistics show that 2.4 percent of all households are at risk of contamination from these chemicals and gases. The county has several disposal units for materials such as tires. This fact explains why the 1998 Tracy Tire Fire disaster changed the county’s history forever (Office of Emergency Services, 2016).

Groundwater has continued to face new threats due to various economic activities. Frequent power outages make it impossible for more people to engage in their economic activities. Traffic accidents are common in this county. The presence of major highways in the county increases the prevalence of accidents (San Joaquin County, 2016).

Cultural Assessment

San Joaquin County is known by many people in the country as the home to the largest city in that field for bankruptcy (San Joaquin County, 2016). This county is celebrated by many Americans because it is one of the most diverse in the nation. However, the county is characterized by huge economic gaps between racial groups (San Joaquin County, 2016). Some parts of the county have been characterized by increased cases of homicide. Many people do not have access to quality care.

The county is associated with various farming activities. The community struggles with a wide range of challenges such as mental illness, economic instability, unaffordable housing, poor dental health, and obesity (San Joaquin County 2016 community health needs assessment, 2016). The Central Valley has been characterized by increased use of illegal substances and a high prevalence of asthma.

Windshield Survey

The completed windshield survey exposed several attributes in San Joaquin County. To begin with, the survey indicated that many homes where single-family dwelling (San Joaquin County 2016 community health needs assessment, 2016). Most of the buildings were constructed using brick and concrete. A small number of houses especially in Central Valley were constructed using boards (San Joaquin County 2016 community health needs assessment, 2016).

Another unique attribute of the county is that most of the homes have modern features and lighting systems. The homes have trees and flower gardens. The yards are carefully designed and maintained. Although many people have private cars, public transport is offered by various companies such as the San Joaquin Regional Transit District. This company provides adequate transportation services across Stockton City.

The county has three airports that support the needs of many citizens in the county. These include Tracy Municipal Airport, Lodi Airport, and Stockton Metropolitan Airport. Stockton has well-lit streets. The sidewalks in this urban region are carefully maintained and clean. There are several grocery stores, chain stores, and gas stations throughout the town. Stockton City also has several shops and cafeterias that can be accessed by different community members.

The community boasts of several publications such as The Record, Big Monkey Magazines, and the Lodi News-Sentinel. Pacific is another common newspaper that features sports and opinions (San Joaquin County, 2016). The famous TV show is Sons of Anarchy and is set in a fictional town in the county. Many people in the county embrace the use of various social media networks such as Twitter, Pinterest, and Twitter.

Scavenger Hunt

San Joaquin County Public Health Services partners with different stakeholders and communities to promote the health outcomes of more people in the county. The agency offers useful information to ensure more people eat balanced foods. The Medical Marijuana Identification Card Program is a campaign undertaken by the department to support individuals who abuse drugs. The department offers numerous ideas to ensure parents create the best environments for their infants. The department promotes most of the programs undertaken to address the health needs of the population (San Joaquin County 2016 community health needs assessment, 2016).

For example, the Nutrition Education and Obesity Prevention (NEOP) program are used to address the health issues affecting more people in the county. The department is located on Hazelton Avenue, Stockton. Citizens can visit their physical location or call to receive timely health information. Users can acquire vital information about the department through social media networks such as Facebook.

The Fire Prevention Bureau of San Joaquin County liaises with different departments such as the Sherriff’s Office to deliver adequate services whenever there is a fire breakout (Office of Emergency Services, 2016). The department provides quality services throughout the county. The department adopted the California Fire Code in 2013 in an attempt to improve the quality of its services. The bureau collaborates with the Community Development Department to ensure more people have access to fire management services (San Joaquin County, 2016). Firefighters are usually equipped with the best resources and skills. Useful information about the department can be obtained from the county’s website. The agency responds to accidents, fires, and rescue missions.

The Office of the Sherriff for San Joaquin County was established in 1850. The Sherriff serves for four years and can be reelected by the county’s citizens. The current Sherriff is Steve Moore (Office of Emergency Services, 2016). The Sherriff’s Office plays a significant role in promoting the best environment for every individual. The office provides desirable law enforcement ideas and services. The Office works 24/7 to improve the level of security. The department’s physical address is 7000 Michael Canlis Blvd, French Camp (San Joaquin County, 2016).

The YMCA of San Joaquin County is located on 2105 W. March Lane, Suite 1 in Stockton City. The major programs include pre-school support, day camp, and child care. Sporting activities for the youth include soccer, basketball, flag football, Lincoln basketball, and baseball (YMCA of San Joaquin County, 2016). The YMCA also focuses on several initiatives to support youth development and encourage more individuals to engage in social responsibility.

The YMCA has “a free-weight center, basketball courts, gymnastics arena, tennis courts, running track, and an aerobics studio” (YMCA of San Joaquin County, 2016, para. 4). Individuals are allowed to register for free. Those with financial needs are encouraged to sign up. The YMCA offers financial support to different individuals with various needs. Scholarships are also provided to support the needs of more people. Citizens with diverse needs and members should visit the office from Monday to Friday.

The office operates from 8:30 am to 5:00 pm (YMCA of San Joaquin County, 2016). The office is closed on public holidays such as Labor Day, Thanksgiving Day, and Presidents’ Day. Members of the society can offer their donations to support more individuals in the county. The YMCA offers new opportunities thus encouraging youths to hang out with their peers and develop better behaviors.

San Joaquin County Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) Program supports the needs of children, women, and infants in the county. The program is managed and monitored by the County Government. The office is located at 620 N Aurora St, Stockton City (San Joaquin County, 2016). The office can be accessed from Monday to Friday.

Other Epidemiological Indicators

A survey conducted in early 2016 indicated that the number of people dying from cancer-related conditions was 175 in every 100,000 citizens in the county. The infant mortality rate was 6 in every one thousand births. Asthma was seen as a major health problem affecting the people of the county. The survey indicated that 21 percent of the population was affected by the health condition (San Joaquin County, 2016). Diabetes is a major disease that continues to affect more people in this county. Around 10.4 percent of the population suffers from diabetes. Child obesity has increased compared to the national average.

Over 21 percent of children in the county have a body mass index of >30 (San Joaquin County, 2016). Heart disease affects over 6 percent of the population. Sixteen percent of the population is uninsured while 31 percent receive either Medicaid or Medicare (San Joaquin County 2016 community health needs assessment, 2016). The survey also indicated that over 25 percent of children were living in poverty. The majority of the households (41.3 percent) recorded a low-income status.

Three Problems in San Joaquin County Based on Healthy People 2020 Goals

Several problems have been observed to affect the welfare and health outcomes of many people in San Joaquin County. The three major problems identified in this county include obesity, asthma, and inequality. The Healthy People 2020 topic “Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Obesity” can play a positive role in dealing with the problem of obesity. According to the initiative, a healthy body can make it easier for the body to fight various diseases such as obesity (Obesity prevention in San Joaquin County, 2016).

Balanced diets can support the health needs of more citizens in this county. More people in the county should be encouraged to avoid fast foods and engage in physical exercises. Over 73 percent of the county’s dwellers do not engage in physical activities. Healthy People 2020 offers new approaches that can deliver positive results. The Environmental Quality Indicator initiated by Healthy People 2020 can play a positive role in dealing with asthma. The government can identify several measures to minimize the presence of specific allergens because they trigger asthma. A cleaner environment initiative will support the health needs of more people and address the problem of asthma.

One of the overarching goals of the Healthy People 2020 initiative is “to eliminate disparities and improve the health outcomes of all groups” (Healthy People 2020, 2016, para. 3). That being the case, the goal should be used to address the problem of disparity in the county. This is the case because more children lack basic needs. The number of households living below the poverty line is extremely high. New measures should be implemented in an attempt to deal with this challenge and make it possible for more people to lead better lives.

Problem to Address about Healthy People 2020 Objectives

Overweight and obesity have become common health problems in San Joaquin County. That being the case, the county should implement various initiatives to support the health needs of its citizens by the Healthy People 2020 objectives. This county has several resources that can be used to deal with this problem. For instance, San Joaquin Public Health Services supports several programs to address the problem of obesity. These programs include the Network for a Healthy California Campaign and the Central Regional Obesity Prevention Program (Obesity prevention in San Joaquin County, 2016).

The first campaign usually targets people from low-income backgrounds or residents. The second program has been focusing on the health needs of many people in South Stockton. The role played by these programs is to ensure the problem of obesity in the county is addressed (Murphy, 2011). Several universities and community organizations have been included in the programs to deliver positive results. It should also be observed that the county’s YMCA has been encouraging more youths to engage in various exercises. The presence of city parks and footpaths can play a positive role in encouraging more people to engage in physical exercises.

Primary Prevention Topic

The Healthy People 2020 initiative outlines several strategies that can deal with the major health problems affecting the American population (Obesity prevention in San Joaquin County, 2016). Borrowing a lot from this initiative, the best topic to deal with obesity is a physical activity and healthy nutrition. The current resources and organizations available in San Joaquin County should be used to support the needs of more people. Measures should be undertaken to encourage more citizens to exercise regularly. They can do so by walking, jogging, or engaging in different physical activities. The presence of gymnastic studios in the county will support this initiative.

Balanced diets characterized by vegetables and fibers should be considered by more individuals in the county. The San Joaquin Public Health Services can undertake numerous initiatives to educate and sensitize more people about the dangers of fast-foods (Murphy, 2011). Such individuals will be encouraged to eat balanced diets every day.

References

Healthy People 2020. (2016). Web.

Murphy, W. (2011). Obesity: USA today health reports: diseases & disorder. New York, NY: Twenty-First Century Books.

Obesity prevention in San Joaquin County. (2016). Web.

Office of Emergency Services. (2016). Web.

San Joaquin County 2016 community health needs assessment. (2016). Web.

San Joaquin County. (2016). Web.

YMCA of San Joaquin County. (2016). Web.