Category: Population

The rapid development of modern society might be too stressful for a variety of people, producing such uncomfortable conditions as social anxiety disorder. According to Leigh and Clark (2018), social anxiety disorder is characterized by a persistent and severe dread of being demeaned or scrutinized by others. Moreover, data on age at diagnosis suggest that after adolescence, a person’s social circle becomes crucially influential and determines the integration of an individual with society (Leigh & Clark, 2018). As a result, adolescent social anxiety is accompanied by significant impairment that lasts into the adult years. Providing therapeutic methods during adulthood has clear advantages and is required for an individual’s well-being. Social phobia cognitive approaches have been created; as such, Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) is one of the most functional and results-oriented methods for curing social anxiety (Kennerley et al., 2017). CBT is a short-term, evidence-based therapeutic strategy for a variety of mental health issues, including social anxiety disorder. Several strategies present in the CBT methodology could be discussed, although the most effective method for the adult population seems to be exposure therapy.

There are some CBT models of social phobia worth consideration when discussing the current techniques of treatment. As such, one of the typical preconceptions and assumptions of socially anxious individuals is that they will be judged negatively and will not be able to cope (Kennerley et al., 2017). Next, the cycle of social phobia is pushed by acute self-awareness, which could also emerge as self-referent depictions. This increased self-consciousness is disorientating and, as a result, obstructing because it makes it impossible to properly assess circumstances and engage in constructive problem-solving (Kennerley et al., 2017). Moreover, the severe contemplation about perceived stress makes the person suffering painfully aware of signs such as trembling and stammering. Finally, the socially anxious individual would therefore try to eliminate personal interaction to avoid potential embarrassment or awkwardness (Kennerley et al., 2017). Thus, CBT describes the phenomenon of social anxiety in a thorough way that can lead to the development of possible treatments.

CBT treatment strategies for clients experiencing social anxiety are multiple. Namely, switching attention away from self-reflection entails shifting attention between sensorial information sources. To empower patients to recognize themselves in an emotional and accepting manner, one can develop a proactive or caring inner voice to counteract the negative criticism that people with the condition anticipate from others. Re-evaluation of thought patterns related to the perceived social threat and emotional justification is also a beneficial technique (Kennerley et al., 2017). However, one of the most relevant and important treatments for social anxiety for adult people is exposure therapy.

Exposure therapy practice has changed over the years in tandem with transitions in the hypotheses that are used to demonstrate why and how it is beneficial. In the 1960s, alongside the advent of behavioral psychology, Joseph Wolpe started promoting systematic desensitization as a therapy for fears and other forms of anxiety (Vinograd & Craske, 2020). According to his theory, the procedure’s effectiveness depended on picturing the frightening stimuli while being in a relaxed state. As systematic desensitization became less popular, the habituation model emerged as the main method of exposure treatment. Finally, practitioners of the inhibitory learning approach have proposed a variety of ways to improve exposure treatment in order to lessen the chance of fear resurfacing (Vinograd & Craske, 2020). Hence, the sum of these ideas has founded the modern exposure method that refined ineffective practices and left the most beneficial ones.

The model of exposure treatment can be realized with a variety of techniques. For example, Narrative Exposure Treatment is an exposure-based therapy that has demonstrated promising outcomes in treating persons afflicted by multiple trauma in diverse cultures and displaying long-term benefits (Siehl et al., 2020). The treatment employs a net safety method in which the patient’s life story is told in chronological sequence through several exposure sessions on traumatic incidents. Next, the therapeutic alliance may be suggested as a subdivision of the exposure method. Namely, it is a coalition formed by the patient’s commitment and the therapist’s delivery of suitable therapeutic approaches (Buchholz & Abramowitz, 2020). Thus, the technique includes components that could be chosen by a therapist for a specific patient’s condition and identity.

The appropriateness of the treatment for the adult population is defined by its focus on the commitment of the patient. Although exposure practice is typically done with the help of a psychologist as part of a cognitive-behavioral therapy program, it may also be done in one’s everyday life. Hence, the procedure supposes that an individual that undergoes it perceives its usefulness and is sufficiently independent to practice it on their own.

To conclude, social anxiety disorder is an important issue that interrupts the daily lives of various individuals and could be treated via the methods of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy. One such technique includes the exposure approach, which has a long history of research and, as a result, theoretical and practical background. The exposure treatment might be the most appropriate for adults because of its time-spending nature, as well as an option for autonomous practice.

References

Buchholz, J. L., & Abramowitz, J. S. (2020). The therapeutic alliance in exposure therapy for anxiety-related disorders: A critical review. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 70.

Kennerley, H., Kirk, J., & Westbrook, D. (2017). An introduction to cognitive behavior therapy: Skills and applications (3rd ed.). SAGE Publications Ltd.

Leigh, E., & Clark, D. M. (2018). Understanding social anxiety disorder in adolescents and improving treatment outcomes: Applying the cognitive model of Clark and Wells (1995). Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 21(3), 388–414.

Siehl, S., Robjant, K., & Crombach, A. (2020). Systematic review and meta-analyses of the long-term efficacy of narrative exposure therapy for adults, children and perpetrators. Psychotherapy Research, 31(6), 695–710.

Vinograd, M., & Craske, M. G. (2020). History and theoretical underpinnings of exposure therapy. Exposure Therapy for Children with Anxiety and OCD, 3–20.

Introduction

Ageing in the population is constituted by the movement of the population of a country towards advanced ages. Ageing results from two closely related demographic occurrences: Declining fertility and a rise in the life expectancy of the population. When the fertility rate declines, the number of the young people declines while that of the old people increases, (Jill C., 2000).

On the other hand, a raise in life expectancy increases the years that every person is old in relation to the years that the person is young. The increasing population of people aged over 65 years is expected to have effects on the social policies.

The effects of ageing population on social policies

The ageing population has considerable effects on the economy in the sense that older people have more accumulated savings compared to the young people though they may spend less of their savings on consumer goods, (Mark R. et. al.2000). This population may hence cause lower rates of interest resulting to the economic advantage of lower inflation.

The increase in the ageing population however increases some expenditure like healthcare and education. The cost of health care rises as this population increases. The government is left with hard choices on reducing its expenditure by either increasing taxes or reducing its role in the provision of health care to its citizens, (United Nations Development Program, 2005).

The expenditure of the government in education reduces with an increase in the ageing population. This is especially so because there would be a high demand for workforce in the labor market so fewer young people would prefer to join tertially institutions, (Weil, David N., 1997).

There are resulting problems in social systems with an increase in the ageing population. It becomes quite difficult to sustain such a system with a very large number of the aged people, (United Nations, 2004). The pension benefit systems are having problems with sustainability as a result of increased longevity.

The addition of the pension period was not matched with an extension in the period of active labor or even an increase in the contributions of pension, (Gavrilov L., Heuveline P., 2005). This has resulted to a decline in the replacement ratios. Recently, many countries have had to adopt policies that will enable them to make stronger, the fiscal sustainability of their pension systems. Despite these efforts, the challenges of adequacy in pensions still remain an issue of concern.

Conclusion

There has been a general decline in the fertility rate in the past century that has resulted to an increasing population of the people aged above sixty five years in the most developed nations of the world today. Since most of these nations have been under going faster transitions in fertility, they will have a higher rate of population ageing than the countries that are currently developing.

This then implies that they will have to adjust their social policies in order to cope with this population as well as the effects of having a high number of people aged above sixty five years.

References

Gavrilov L., Heuveline P., (2005); Aging of Population, Institute of Management, Washington, U.S.

Jill C., (2000); Myths and the fear of an ageing population Oxford, Oxford press.

Mark R. et. al. (2000); Handbook of Population and Family Economics, New York: Elsevier.

United Nations Development Program; Human Development Report 2005, United Nations Development Program.

United Nations; World Population Prospects: The 2004 Revision Population Database, Population Division.

Weil, David N., (1997); The Economics of Population Aging Prentice Hall, New York.

Comparing Generic Characteristics of Counseling

When counseling diverse groups, it is common to encounter varying characteristics based on clients’ background, cultural beliefs, family units, experience, and many other demographical factors. When comparing generic characteristics of counseling with respect to culture, it is clear that Native Americans are more reserved compared to the Whites. While the Whites value nuclear family unit, the Native Americans value extended family unit. When counseling these different groups, these are the factors that one must understand. In terms of the language, Curry (2011) notes that most of the Native American languages have disappeared. English is increasingly becoming a common language among most of these Natives. The Whites still have a high social class compared to the Native Americans. When counseling clients from diverse backgrounds, understanding their social class sometimes is critical in defining the approach that should be taken to handle them effectively.

How My Approach Would Reflect My Understanding of My Characteristics and That of Clients

As a counselor, I know that my approach of handling clients may reflect my characteristics and the views I have towards my clients. My characteristics, attitudes and beliefs have direct impacts on my counseling practice. According to Schellenberg and Grothaus (2009), as we grow up in a given community, there are stereotypes and other cultural beliefs that we get to learn. For instance, there are stereotypes about African Americans, Indian Americans, the Hispanics, and other minority groups. The belief is instilled in us and we grow up associating a given group of people with certain practices. It is common for an African American to be associated with violence in this country.

As a counselor, sometimes these beliefs form our attitude towards our clients. We believe that clients from a given ethnic group tend to behave in a given manner. It is not easy to fight such beliefs and attitudes towards certain people. As Pyne (2011) notes, a counselor should be a person who is very open minded. He or she should not classify clients into a certain group that is expected to behave in a certain manner. On the contrary, they are expected to treat every client as unique as possible without any form of criticism. Humans, given that they are judgmental beings, sometimes find it difficult to dissociate their personal feelings with their professional work. Such situations may hamper ability to deliver services to clients effectively.

As a counselor, I know it is my responsibility to tailor my approach to be sensitive to clients from diverse characteristics and experience. To do this, I will need to be competent in terms of emotional control. I must have the will power to fight personal beliefs and attitude that I might have developed within the environment I have stayed. I will need to treat each client as a unique person with a unique case that requires a unique solution. Even if the case presented to me is similar to other cases I have handled in the past, I should remain as open-minded as possible.

I will also need to have special skills to listen. Sometimes listening keenly to what a client has to say and reading their facial and body language may help a counselor to identify special needs of a client. Competencies in reading body language are critical for a counselor, especially when handling clients who are trying to hide part of information (Stansbury, Harley, King, Nelson, & Speight, 2012). With such skills, one is able to know when clients are leaving out some information because of the feeling that they belong to a different ethnic group from the counselor. Trust is another characteristic that a counselor should learn to develop when handling clients from diverse backgrounds. A counselor will only be capable of helping a client if he or she trusts the client.

Impact of Historical and Current Oppressions on My Work

According to Harper, Terry and Twiggs (2009), the United States of America has experienced a long period of racial segregation and oppression of the minorities even after slave trade and slavery was brought to an end. The Native Americans lost their land and were subjected to oppressive rule of the immigrants. The African Americans were treated as second class citizens and were denied a number of rights even though they were considered citizens of this country. Curry (2011) says that even in the modern society, oppression of the minorities is still a common practice in this country. Historical and current oppressions may have negative impacts on my work. When handling a client from a race different from mine, events that happened in the past and oppressions witnessed currently in the country may breed instant mistrust, fear, or even hatred. In such an environment, it is almost impossible to offer counseling services to the client. There will be a complete mental closure to any information coming from the counselor. Instead of focusing on the issue at hand, the two may end up engaging in mental wars.

Internalized oppression and institutionalized racism on individuals and family systems is still common. According to Schellenberg and Grothaus (2011), there are some hospitals that still demand for upfront payment when admitting an African American, while a White is not subjected to such treatment. This is specifically caused by institutionalized racism where a certain section of the society is still regarded as inferior and financially challenged. The decision to demand for upfront is because of the internalized belief that they may fail to pay after the service has been rendered to them. When counseling individuals or families, such beliefs may destroy trust and make it impossible to offer counseling services to the client as would be appropriate. To counteract internalized oppression and institutionalized racism, a counselor needs to always treat clients equally without giving any significance to issues such as race, religion, or social status. Personal bias and stereotypes should be eliminated as much as possible.

Client’s characteristics and concerns on my counseling and advocacy strategies may have significant implications in terms of problem assessment, goal setting, and intervention. As stated above, for a counselor to offer proper help to a client, there must be mutual trust. The client should trust the counselor and the counselor should also trust the client. In case characteristics of the client and their concern on my counseling and advocacy strategy create doubt in their minds, it may completely jeopardize the entire process. Problem assessment will not be possible because the client will not reveal important information to the counselor. As such, goal setting becomes impossible. Under such a difficult environment, counseling becomes a highly complicated process whether one is handling an individual, couple, or family. A counselor should be ready to deal with tribal considerations and diversity in general to offer quality services to the client.

References

Curry, J. (2011). Addressing the Spiritual Needs of African American Students: Implications for School Counselors. The Journal of Negro Education, 79(3), 405-415.

Harper, F., Terry, L., & Twiggs, R. (2009). Counseling Strategies with Black Boys and Black Men: Implications for Policy. The Journal of Negro Education, 78(3), 216-232.

Pyne, J. (2011). Comprehensive School Counseling Programs, Job Satisfaction, and the ASCA National Model. Professional School Counseling, 15(2), 88-97.

Schellenberg, R., & Grothaus, T. (2009). Promoting Cultural Responsiveness and Closing the Achievement Gap with Standards Blending. Professional School Counseling, 12(6), 440-449.

Schellenberg, R., & Grothaus, T. (2011). Using Culturally Competent Responsive Services to Improve Student Achievement and Behavior. Professional School Counseling, 14(3), 222-230.

Stansbury, K., Harley, D., King, L., Nelson, N., & Speight, G. (2012). African American Clergy: What are Their Perceptions of Pastoral Care and Pastoral Counseling? Journal of Religion and Health, 51(3), 961-969.

The human population in such a region as Latin America is increasing at a rapid rate than expected. Such a trend, in most cases, is highly likely to bring in some problems. In this paper, some of these problems are going to be identified, and some specific solutions are going to be suggested which may help in bringing about improvement regarding economic and social conditions in several nations in Latin America.

According to Jorgensen, rapid population increase is defined as “a quick increase in population” (Jorgensen, n.d, Para 1). Various factors contribute to rapid population growth in a region or nation. One of them is regarding a situation where there are higher birth rates as compared to death rates, especially in areas where there is no birth control and particularly, in less developed countries as opposed to industrialized nations where there is birth control.

Moreover, rapid population growth may be realized in a situation where the aged people do not die quickly but live for a pronged time and at the same time having no slow down in the birth rates. Several countries, especially in Latin America are realizing a rapid population growth as a result of the existence of such factors.

Rapid population growth has several effects; some of them are positive ones while others are negative. Among the positive effects is that an increase in population can lead to the supply of a population that would not have been there in the absence of rapid population growth.

The new population can make positive contributions such as labor supply that is diverse thus offering various talents and also may play a role in triggering more production due to increased demand. These factors serve to boost economy activity in a country. On the other hand, a rapid population can bring in problems. For instance, by the number of people increasing, this can lead to overpopulation.

In a situation where a nation experiences overpopulation, many problems can come in. One of such problems is lack of land. Much pressure can be put on land thus having an impact negative on the people. For instance, the lack of enough land can lead to starvation resulting from inadequate food production. Also, the lack of land may lead to homelessness or lack of quality housing (Jorgensen, n.d).

Another problem that can be associated with overpopulation is the lack of adequate waste control. Where there are relatively more significant numbers of people in an area, waste control becomes a big problem. It is quite important to find a site where the waste can be deposited to serve to maintain a healthy environment in which people can not easily come in to contact with poisonous materials.

Some of the toxic substances can enter drinking water causing such diseases as typhoid and cholera among other dangerous diseases. In various parts of the world where the governments lack the ability of effectively managing waste, there is experiencing many serious issues, and this turns out to be a great “public health” problem (Black, n.d).

There is no single major solution to the problems that are brought about by rapid population growth. The affected nations, especially in Latin America need to come up with solutions and where they are unable to solve these problems on their own, they need to be given assistance by such nations as the U.S who is their neighbor and developed.

Sadik (n.d) offers some solutions for these problems, especially the problem of food shortage that results from rapid population growth. One of the solutions is suggested is that, for the affected countries to solve the problem of inadequate food production due to limited land, there is need to consider other significant factors that influence food production on top of focusing on the agricultural sector.

These countries are supposed to put in place some strategic plans that help in ensuring that there is the incorporation of “population concerns such as population growth, distribution and rural-urban migration patterns” (Sadik, n.d, Para 10). There is also a need to come up with “community development strategies” that may be aimed at bringing together the basic social services and “production resources” (Sadik, n.d).

Also, strategies should be set up to deal with such issues as waste management to have a clean environment. This calls for the need to have programs in place that are aimed at waste control. There is a need to have special sites where the waste can be deposited. There may need to have advanced technology to do this effectively.

The developed countries such as the U.S also need to come in to offer financial and technological support. The U.S needs to play a major role in ensuring that the people in Latin American countries overcome the problems associated with the rapid population in region since a large number of these people are opting to leave their countries to seek better living conditions in the U.S.

If such a trend persists for a long time, more problems shall be created. Sadik (n.d) suggests that “sustainable development strategies which combat soil erosion, impoverishment, deforestation, falling agricultural output, and poor water management should also be implemented” (Para 11).

These measures will go a long way in dealing with the problems that result from rapid population growth in Latin America and other parts of the world to minimize the negative effects. Generally, these countries are supposed to set up policies that will, in the future, serve to control population growth such as family planning among others.

References

Black, K. (2011). What are the effects of population growth?

Jorgensen, A. (n.d). Effects of rapid population growth.

Sadik, N. (n.d). Population growth and the food crisis.

Introduction

There has been a consistent decline in population in most of some of the developed countries over the past three decades. In the past, there was a general belief that the solution to higher standards of living in a country would be to reduce birth rates. This strategy worked, but countries have come to realize that this move has its consequences.

It is a fact that smaller families are easy to manage, but the problem comes when the population of a country drops significantly. For instance, German, and many other developed nations in Europe have been experiencing a sluggish growth of population. Some have been experiencing a decline in the population. According to Caselli (67), a declining population may have negative consequences for the government.

This is so because, with the reduced population, there will be a reduced workforce within the nation. The market for various companies will also drop, making the country unattractive to investors. Although the reduced population will have a higher purchasing power per family, the total purchasing power of the country will drop.

The revenues for the government will also be reduced because of the reduced number of people who pay tax. For this reason, many governments in the developed countries have been keen to control the significant decline of the population.

According to Weiner (113), scholars and other technocrats have proposed various ways of increasing the population of a country. The United States has maintained a high population increase over the years because of a higher rate of immigration as compared to the rate of emigration. This approach may be good because most of the immigrants have the technical knowledge and therefore, can apply their skills in various sectors.

However, some governments have been critical of this approach, especially because such immigrants would repatriate part of their income back to their home countries.

This would have negative consequences to a country’s economy. For this reason, many economists have proposed the idea of increasing the birth rate as the best approach to increasing a country’s population. This paper seeks to investigate if it is appropriate for the government to encourage couples to have more children as a way of increasing its population.

Discussion

Population increase is becoming relevant in some countries around the world. With the technological advancement and improved economic conditions of the third world countries, the need to immigrate to other developed countries have declined. This means that some of the countries that relied on the emigrants as their main workforce have realized that they must find alternative of increasing their population.

In this study, it would be interesting to determine the appropriateness of the government to encourage couples to have more children as a strategy of increasing the country’s population. The research seeks to find a solution to the question below.

Should the government encourage couples to have more children with a reduction in the population rate?

To find a response, it would be appropriate to determine some of the factors that may make couples reject or accept this proposal. It would also be important to understand the appropriateness of the strategy on the side of the government, and what it can do to convince couples to have more children

Factors that may encourage couples to have more children

Some families have always preferred having a smaller number of families. There are several reasons that have encouraged some couples to have smaller families. In some instances, couples have larger families. It is necessary to determine some of the factors that would encourage families to have a higher number of children. One such factor is improved living standards.

Some couples are always concerned about the lifestyle their children would live if their number exceeds the income capacity of the parents to take care of them. When couples have decent jobs, and the future is assured, they will always feel comfortable having a higher number of children. This is because they will not have worries about the future of these children.

The education system and the role of the government in this system is another determinant to the number of children a couple would have. Every parent wants his or her children to go to decent schools to lead decent lives in the future. For this reason, they would always try to limit the number of children to a manageable size so that they may be able to take them to good schools.

In countries where the government takes the responsibility of educating children at various levels, couples would tend to have more children. According to Caselli (90), human being fears responsibilities, and every moment one is to face a given responsibility, he or she would try to avoid it, or limit its magnitude.

This means that when parents realize that it is their responsibility to take care of their children’s educational needs, they would always try to reduce the number of children they have. However, when they realize that the responsibility has been taken by the government, then they would have no problem having a higher population.

Another issue that can encourage couples to have more children is the life expectancy within the country. Ballou (83) notes that old people always like having large families to take care of them and keep them away from loneliness at this critical stage in life. When a couple is assured of long life, they will try to have a higher number of children as a way of securing their happiness in the future.

This means that a government can cite life expectancy as one of the reasons that should make couples have larger families. When the couple is convinced that they would need a large number in their old age, it becomes easy to convince them to increase their population.

Some of the negative factors that may motivate couples to have a higher number of children is a high child mortality rate. Some parents would have a higher number of children for fear that some of them may perish after some time. Although this is a factor that may motivate parents to have a higher number of children, it is a factor that may not be used by the government because it is a sign of failure of its medical systems.

When the government plans to increase the population of a country by encouraging couples to have more children, it would be important to understand these motivating factors. It would allow the government to determine the best approach of motivating these couples to have more children.

The appropriateness of the strategy to the government

According to Balas (688), this is the most appropriate strategy that a government can use to increase its population. This scholar notes that a drop in the population of a country may affect it in various ways. Encouraging other nationals into the country may be a good solution, but it is a short term solution, and the government must develop a long-lasting solution to such problems.

Russia, Japan, and Germany are some of the countries that have been experiencing a decline in population over the years. Such population decline comes with several challenges that the government will be forced to address at higher costs. According to Cox (617), most of the European firms are considering to relocate their processing plants to China, India, and Brazil.

This is so because these three countries have a large population, which means that labor is always available at cheap costs. However, such moves would always affect the economy of a country. It reduces the rate of employment within a country. It also reduces the income a government would have through taxing such firms if they were operating locally. There has also been the problem of outsourcing some of the government activities.

Instances, where a government or local firms are forced to hire technical forces from other countries, are common in some of the countries with a declining population. This means that the government must find a way of boosting its population to avoid depending on other countries population. The increasing birthrate is the most appropriate strategy that a government can use to solve this problem.

This is the only strategy that the government can be assured of as a means of increasing its population. The other strategy of encouraging immigrants into the country may not work, especially when the country is not attractive to other people around the world. A language barrier may also discourage immigrants into the country (Demathew 89).

By encouraging couples to have more children, the government will be certain that this younger generation will be able to take the normal running of various activities within the country when the current generation gets to the retirement age. It is also the best approach that a country can be assured of its continuity.

As Ballou (38) notes, a one-child policy that has been popular in Europe and many other parts of the developed economies may be disastrous to a country’s future. When a couple gives birth to one child, this could mean that there will be a drastic fall in the population of the country, given that there are other natural factors that may make one fail to give birth at all or die before giving birth.

Preston (644) says that increasing birth rate is the most appropriate solution when dealing with the falling population within a given country. It is the reverse of what was the actual cause of the problem of the declining population. The government will be assured that its future population will be able to handle future needs. This is the surest way of achieving sustainability in the country.

How the government can encourage couples to have more children

When taking this approach, the government must have a clear way that it would use to encourage couples within the country to have a higher number of children. The following are some of the factors it should consider as a way of encouraging couples to have a higher number of children.

• Improve the quality of its education system. The government should also offer free education from lower levels to institutions of higher learning. Couples will be convinced that the burden of educating their children would be taken by the government
• Healthcare facilities, especially the maternity facilities, should be improved to ensure that deliveries are done without any fatalities. Some couples would limit the number of children for fear of fatalities during childbirth.
• The government should have better social amenities and offer these couples decent jobs that would allow them to support many children. Every parent would want to provide for his or her child. For this reason, they would try to limit the population of their children based on their income. With higher income, they may be motivated to have more children

Conclusion

It is clear from the above discussion that the government may find it necessary to encourage couples to have more children with a reduction in population rate. The younger generation is the only assurance of a country’s posterity, and therefore is there is such a drop, then the government would be justified to be concerned. However, the government needs to understand the reason why many couples prefer having smaller families.

This way, it would be able to know how to address the issues to convince them to have a higher number of children. The main duty of government in this would be to ensure that these couples have better income that can help them sustain such large families. The government should also offer to educate their children and offer better healthcare.

Works Cited

Balas, Charles. “The Quantitative Problem of Population.” Population and Development Review. 7. 4 (1981): 685-692.

Ballou, Michael. Population Management for Survival and Recovery: Analytical Methods and Strategies in Small Population Conservation. New York: Columbia University Press, 2005. Print.

Caselli, Graziella. Demography: Analysis and Synthesis, Four Volume Set. Burlington: Elsevier, 2005. Print.

Cox, Harold. “The Problem of Population.” American Journal of Sociology. 29.5 (2004): 616-617.

Demathew, Jane. Population Management. New Jersey: John Willey & Sons, 2011. Print.

Preston, Samuel. “The Social Sciences and the Population Problem.” Sociological Forum. 2.4 (2006): 619-644.

Weiner, Amir. Landscaping the Human Garden: Twentieth-century Population Management in a Comparative Framework. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2003. Print.

Introduction

The healthcare sector in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia [KSA] is experiencing significant transformation, which is arising from the high population growth rate. Currently, the sector is estimated to serve over 26 million citizens. Demand for healthcare services is expected to increase due to the annual population growth rate, which is estimated to be 2.5% (Al-Homayan, Shamsudin, Subramaniam & Islam, 2013).

The country’s healthcare sector is organized into two main tiers, which include tier 1 and tier 2. Tier 1 is comprised of the primary healthcare clinics and centers that offer basic care services such as prenatal care, emergencies, and other basic services. Moreover, it also includes mobile clinics that offer healthcare services in the remote rural areas. Conversely, tier 2 is comprised of hospitals that offer specialized health care services (Helen Ziegler & Associates, 2010).

The key players within the sector include the Ministry of Health [MOH], the private sector, and other governmental organizations. The KSA government owns and operates over 60% of the hospitals via the MOH, while the private sector and other agencies cater for 40% of the country’s healthcare services.

The hospitals offer basic and specialized health care services. MOH facilities are mainly accessible to local Saudis. The restrictions on accessibility of the MOH facilities imply that expatriates are forced to seek health care services from the private sector. However, the government controls healthcare activities in both the private and public sectors.

The KSA government is focused on improving the country’s healthcare sector, which is evidenced by its annual budgetary allocation. Between 2008 and 2010, the annual budgetary allocation to the healthcare sector increased from SAR 30 billion to SAR 52 billion of the total national government budget (Al-Homayan et al., 2013. Additionally, the sector’s annual budgetary allocation has been increased to SAR 108 billion.

The allocation is intended to improve the sector’s infrastructure. For example, the number of hospitals has been increased from 74 in 1970 to 415 by the end of 2010. Conversely, the sectors bed capacity has been increased from 9,039 beds to 58,126 beds by 2010 (Al-Homayan et al., 2013)

Problem statement

The KSA government has adopted tremendous measures that have led to an improvement in the physical infrastructure within the healthcare sector as illustrated above. However, the country continues to experience significant challenges with regard to human capital. The healthcare sector mainly depends on human capital such as nurses, pharmacists, physicians, and allied health personnel from the international market (Al-Homayan et al., 2013).

Some of the markets from which the KSA outsources its healthcare workers include North America, India, the UK, South Africa, and Malaysia. In 2000, the KSA outsourced over 8,000 nurses from the international market (Middle East Health, 2009). It is estimated that 45.80% of the total healthcare workforce is comprised of foreign workers (Al-Homayan et al., 2013). The aggressive recruitment process is aimed at reducing the doctor-patient ratio to 1: 400 (Middle East Health, 2009).

The KSA government has invested heavily in the education sector such as nursing education in an effort to improve the quality of healthcare providers. However, the high population growth rate indicates that that the country’s healthcare sector will experience a substantial increment in demand for healthcare services.

It is estimated that the country’s population will amount to 45 million by 2025. Thus, the number of healthcare professionals might not be in a position to serve the increase in demand for healthcare services owing to the high population growth rate (Al-Homayan et al., 2013).

Therefore, it is imperative for the KSA government to implement additional measures that will foster sustainability of the KSA health sector. One of the measures that the KSA government undertook entails the standardization of pay scale to all healthcare staff working in the state-run healthcare centers and hospitals (Hartley, 2009).

Previously, the sector’s pay scale varied in which expatriates received attractive incentives such as higher salaries and wages and travel opportunities as compared to Saudi healthcare professionals (Al-Homayan et al., 2013). Additionally, the pay scale varied depending on the nationality of the expatriates. For example, Malaysian nurses received a different pay form that received by nurses from Western countries.

The government’s motive to adopt a varied pay scale was to foster the sector’s competitiveness in the international labor market (Al-Homayan et al., 2013). Considering the fact that the dynamics of attaining organizational success have changed from financial capital to labor, the success of the KSA healthcare sector in providing services will depend on the expertise, knowledge, and level of satisfaction amongst the healthcare professional.

Therefore, it is imperative for the KSA government to evaluate the impact of the new unified national pay scale on healthcare professionals working in the Saudi healthcare sector. Gaining such knowledge will provide the KSA government with sufficient intelligence on the effectiveness of the unified pay scale. Thus, the government will be in a position to enhance the performance and sustainability of the sector.

Important economic concepts

This report is based on a number of economic concepts, which are briefly outlined in this section.

Salary-setting and compensation management

According to OECD (2012), managing the employees’ pay and benefits is one of the critical components in sustaining the cost of labor. Salary setting entails the determination of the pay scale, which is applicable to a particular group of employees and it is concerned with determining the employees’ financial compensation.

Conversely, compensation management involves the diverse activities that are adopted in order to satisfy the array needs of employees. The objectives of compensation management are multifaceted. Thomas and Maurice (2012) argue that the compensation policy adopted determines the success of a public sector in attracting, motivating, and sustaining a productive workforce. Moreover, compensation management is also focused on ensuring equity in the employee remuneration process.

Pay unification

Pay unification is a salary setting strategy, which entails establishing the pay scale, which is applicable to employees based on their merit. The objective of pay unification is to ensure proportionality in the employees’ remuneration process.

Cibils, Giugale, and Somensatto (2008) further opine that pay unification “is aimed at eliminating a substantial number of monetary payments that distorts the common salary scale” (p. 364). Alternatively, OECD (2012) asserts that pay unification is achieved by incorporating job titles and a grading system.

Equity theory

According to Caruth and Handlogten (2001), the equity theory underscores the importance integrating fairness and equity in the process of designing the employees’ compensation plan. Firms in the private and the public sector must focus on developing positive perception amongst employees regarding their work.

Organizational leaders must balance between the rewards offered to employees and their job effort. Thus, organizational leaders must develop a mutual relationship with their workforce.

Expectancy theory

This theory asserts that the employees’ efforts and commitment in their job depends on their perception regarding the likelihood of attaining a positive outcome with reference to rewards. Subsequently, the level of employee motivation is dependent on three main factors, which include the effort, performance, and outcome.

Demand and supply

Demand refers to the consumers’ ability and willingness to purchase a particular property at the set price. According to the law of demand, the price of commodities increases as the quantity demanded increases. Alternatively, the price decreases as the price declines.

According to Arnold (2010), “the law of supply states that as the price of good rises, the quantity supplied increases and the as the price of goods falls, the quantity supplied declines” (p. 87).

Research hypothesis

In an attempt to assess the relationship between the new national unified pay scale on healthcare professionals working in hospitals and healthcare centers in Saudi Arabia, this paper will evaluate two main hypothesis, which include the null (H₀) and the alternate (H₁) hypotheses.

1. H₀; the new national unified pay scale will improve the level of commitment and productivity amongst the healthcare professionals.
2. H₁: the new national unified pay scale will not influence the performance of the healthcare professionals.

Literature review

Employee compensation is a critical aspect in improving the attractiveness of the public sector to potential employees. Compensation of public servants accounts for the largest proportion of governments’ expenditure. It is estimated that salaries and wages account for over 80% of the total government expenditure (OECD, 2012). However, the wage bill varies across countries.

Some governments base the salaries and wages of their public servants on performance and number of working hours. Governments should compare their public servant compensation levels in order to evaluate their competitiveness (OECD, 2012).

A survey conducted on a number of OECD countries shows that countries organize their pay structure differently. Some of the common compensation systems include grade and pay structures. O’Riordan (2008) defines grade and pay structure as “a medium through which an organization or government can communicate the career and pay opportunities available to employees” (p. 9).

O’Riordan (2008) further argues that the grade and pay structures provide governments with insight on the pay policies to implement. Furthermore, pay structures provide intelligence on the hierarchical structures to be adopted in designing the job (Albejaidi, 2010).

For example, the government is in a position to determine the pay levels and the scope of progression, hence determining the most effective approach to managing possible relativities. Countries such as Italy, Estonia, the United States, and Sweden have incorporated the highest social contributions in their employee compensation plan. Other countries such as New Zealand, Korea, and Ireland have the lowest social contribution in their employee compensation plan (OECD, 2012).

Over the past few years, governments have been subjected to changes arising from diverse sources. Economic changes experienced over the past few years such as the recent economic recession have stimulated governments to adopt job cuts in an effort to minimize government expenditure. The decision to implement job cuts in different public sectors has been motivated by the need to manage government expenditure.

However, the job cuts being adopted by different governments might affect the performance of the public sector employees (Labor Research Department, 2011). Over the past few years, public administrators have appreciated the concept of merit-based pay by incorporating a single pay spine. According to Albejaidi (2010), most federal governments introduced merit-based pay during the 1970s and 1980s.

The single pay spine is mainly based on a grading system and a basic pay and it is intended to eliminate trade-offs encountered by governments in managing the level of wages amongst the public servants. Furthermore, O’Riordan (2008) asserts that civil servants “are paid according to a salary scale, which is predetermined in the pay spine that is applicable to all job categories” (p. 14).

Some of the factors considered in the process of formulating the pay spine include the exchequers’ ability to finance and sustain the budgetary allocation to the civil servants and the employees’ performance (O’Riordan, 2008). Ireland is one of the countries that have adopted a grading system in determining the level of remuneration amongst the civil servants.

However, the Irish grading system can be defined as narrow as it is comprised of a series of jobs, which are categorized under one group depending on their relative equivalence. Despite the narrow grading system being effective in managing the employees’ compensation, the system requires the development of numerous grades in order to accommodate the diverse salaries.

Moreover, the narrow grading system is criticized as it limits the likelihood of employees progressing through their career path. O’Riordan (2008) asserts that promotion “to a higher grade is almost the only form of reward for good performance” (p. 14). The pay scale is determined by the central government, which means that the bargaining power of civil servants is limited. However, the government ensures that the process of determining the pay scale is highly transparent (O’Riordan, 2008).

Almalki and Clark (2012) affirm that numerous “state governments and federal agencies have launched competitive merit-based pay systems as a part of government reforms’ effort” (p. 2). This aspect has led to the emergence of new public management approaches. Some of these countries include the United Kingdom and New Zealand.

The motivation to adopt new public management approach arose from the need to improve service delivery. Moreover, Germany has also adopted a new public management model, which is commonly referred to as the ‘New Steering Model’. The model encouraged public sector firms to adopt employees’ compensation based on their performance, which led to the emergence of the performance contracts. Furthermore, the model further ensured that employees are customer oriented.

According to Almalki and Clark (2012), linking pay and performance leads to the attainment of a high level of effectiveness and efficiency within the workforce. Moreover, merit-based pay enables governments and organizations to reward exceptional performance.

For example, employees have the opportunity to receive high pay in accordance with their experience and performance. The available literature documents a number of cases whereby some public sectors such as the healthcare sector have performed dismally in their service delivery processes. Mid Staffordshire Hospital in the UK is a classic example of a firm that have experienced remarkable decline in its performance from 2005 and 2009 (Public Inquiry, 2014).

Similarly, the Saudi healthcare sector was characterized by unattractive employee compensation package, which limited the sector’s attractiveness to Saudis as opposed to foreigners (Al-Homayan et al., 2013). The chart below illustrates the basic salary applicable to healthcare professional in Saudi Arabia.

Source: (Al-Homayan et al., 2013)

The above table shows that nurses in Saudi Arabia are paid the least amount despite the fact that they work for a longer duration as compared to other healthcare professionals. Additionally, the table shows that the grading and pay structure is ineffective as it is extensively narrow.

For example, there are four main levels in each of the salary scale, which means that the likelihood of healthcare professionals achieving meaningful job promotion is limited. The compensation policy within the country’s healthcare sector also affects healthcare professionals. For example, the pay scale of foreign health care professionals is based on 1-year contract.

Moreover, the expatriates are compensated based on their country of origin and experience. This aspect affects the employees’ compensation policy in Saudi Arabia healthcare sector (Al-Homayan et al., 2013). Thus, the importance of developing effective incentive management systems cannot be underestimated in order to improve service delivery within the sector. However, the process of developing effective pay system is challenging and it requires the input of diverse stakeholders (Gohari, Ahmadloo, Boroujeni & Hosseinpour, 2013).

Data description

In order to assess the impact of the unified pay system on healthcare professionals in Saudi Arabia, the study has relied on qualitative and quantitative research design. The decision to adopt qualitative research design was motivated by the need to collect sufficient data from the field.

Subsequently, the researcher was in a position to explore the impact of the new national unified pay scale on the performance of different healthcare professionals. Conversely, quantitative research design enabled the researcher to understand the magnitude of the new compensation policy. This goal was achieved by incorporating quantitative measures such as statistics, hence enriching the descriptive data collected.

Data was collected from primary sources, which was achieved by issuing questionnaires to a number of healthcare professionals [nurses, physicians, and pharmacists]. A sample comprising of 100 respondents was selected from different public hospitals in the KSA.

Simple random sampling technique was adopted in selecting the respondents. Thus, the researcher eliminated bias during the data collection process. Moreover, the questionnaires were designed effectively in order to ensure that they were not ambiguous, hence increasing the rate of response.

The responses obtained from the survey varied. Ninety-six (96%) of the respondents argued that the new pay scale would lead to an increase in the level of motivation, while 4% argued that the new system would de-motivate healthcare professionals.

The respondents argued that unification of the pay scale would eliminate discriminatory practices in the process of determining the remuneration of healthcare professionals. Moreover, 97% of the respondents were of the view that the new national unified pay scale will promote the development of the Saudi healthcare sector.

In their opinion, the respondents argued that the new pay scale would improve the attractiveness of the Saudi healthcare sector amongst the Saudi nationals. More Saudis will join the Saudi healthcare sector, hence enabling the firm to deal with the skills shortage in the sector. Subsequently, the country will be in a position to deal with an increase in demand for healthcare services owing to increase in the country’s population.

Eighty-five percent [85%] of the respondents were of the opinion that the unified pay scale presents an opportunity for progressing through their desired career path within the healthcare professional. The respondents argued that unification of pay scale across the public sectors in the GCC countries means that they will not be discriminated based on their nationality.

On the other hand, 15% were of the opinion that the unified pay scale will increase the level of bureaucracy within the healthcare sector. These respondents were of the view that the unified pay scale means that the entire healthcare sector in Saudi Arabia would be centralized. Subsequently, the process of undertaking performance appraisal in order to determine the possibility of job promotion would be difficult.

Economic analysis

The data collected from the field corresponds with other studies that have been conducted on the performance of the healthcare sector in Saudi Arabia. First, the adoption of the new national unified pay scale has led to a significant improvement in the level of job satisfaction amongst the healthcare professionals.

Prior to the adoption of the new unified pay scale, the Saudi healthcare sector was characterized by a relatively low level of job satisfaction. A report released by the Saudi Arabian Ministry of Health shows that the level of job satisfaction index within country’s healthcare sector has increased tremendously over the past few years. The chart below illustrates the trend in the level of job satisfaction.

The graph above shows that the level of job satisfaction has increased across the various professional. However, the nursing profession has experienced higher level of job satisfaction as compared to the pharmacist and pharmacist professions. One of the factors that might have stimulated increased the level of job satisfaction entail an increase in the level of allowances.

In the unification program, the allowance of all healthcare professions, who have successfully attained professional excellence, will be subject to a 30% increase (Hartley, 2009). Therefore, salary increment has motivated healthcare professionals to be focused in enhancing their career by pursuing additional healthcare training courses in order to be eligible for the allowance increment.

The new national pay-scale unification scheme has also considered the training supervisors by rewarding them with a SAR 2,000 monthly allowance. Heads of departments and directors will receive a monthly lump sum (Hartley, 2009). Therefore, there is a high probability of the Saudi healthcare sector experiencing a significant improvement in the effectiveness of operational efficiency due to the high level of employee motivation.

The new salary scale has led to a considerable increment in the number of Saudi healthcare professionals as opposed to expatriates. Previously, the employee determination of healthcare professionals’ salary scale and compensation policy was based on discriminatory practices. Expatriates received a higher pay as compared to Saudi nationals.

However, the trend has changed as illustrated by the percentage change in the composition of healthcare professionals.

The above graph illustrates a considerable increase in the number of Saudi nationals who are joining the healthcare profession. This aspect implies that the sector will be in a position to deal with the increase in demand for healthcare services as demand increases. Moreover, the unification of the pay scale will enable the Saudi healthcare sector to adhere to propositions of the equity theory, which emphasizes equal employee treatment irrespective of their demographic characteristics (Gohari et al., 2013).

Findings of the study conducted affirm that the new pay scale in the Saudi healthcare sector has remarkably improved the level of job satisfaction. The sector has experienced a considerable decline in the rate of turnover intention over the past five years.

One of the factors that might have contributed to the reduction in the rate of employee turnover entails change in perception of healthcare professionals regarding the working conditions within the Saudi Arabian healthcare sector. The chart below illustrates the trend in the rate of employee turnover.

The level of service delivery in the healthcare sector has also been improved due to the high level of employee motivation.The MOH has recorded an increase in the number of patients seeking healthcare services in the public health facilities from 34% in 2009 to 78% in 2013. This aspect indicates a significant improvement in the quality of service delivery within the public healthcare facilities.

Conclusion

The sustainability of any economic sector is greatly influenced by the quality of its human capital. Therefore, it is imperative for the private and public sectors to improve their attractiveness to the local and foreign labor markets. One of the core areas that private and public sectors should focus on whilst improving their competitiveness in the labor market entails bettering the working conditions.

Thus, effective HRM practices such as employee compensation should be taken into consideration. The level of compensation awarded to employees should be aligned with their performance and level of qualification. Considering these dimensions ensures that the compensation policy adopted is equitable and fair.

The study above highlights that governments are increasingly appreciating the importance of adopting effective compensation policies in order to improve the performance of the civil service. Saudi Arabia is one of the countries that are focused on improving the quality of service delivery within the public sector.

Subsequently, the government has undertaken a number of reforms on its grading and pay performance system within the healthcare sector. The Saudi govrnment has adopted a new unified national pay scale, which is aimed at improving the level of job satisfaction.

Since its inception in 2009, the Saudi Arabian healthcare sector has become competitive both in the local and international markets. The new unified pay scale is focused on rewarding healthcare professionals based on their merit. The healthcare professionals are remunerated equitably and fairly irrespective of their demographic characteristics such as nationality.

Subsequently, the government has been in a position to eliminate discriminatory practices that previously characterized the healthcare sector. As a result of pay scale unification, healthcare professionals in Saudi Arabia have become motivated in executing their roles and responsibilities. Moreover, the unified pay scale has entrenched the concept of equity and fairness, hence leading to improvement in the level of job satisfaction.

Apart from the remarkable increment of the sector’s attractiveness to domestic and foreign healthcare professionals, it has also experienced a significant reduction in the rate of employee turnover. Consequently, the likelihood of the sector coping with environmental changes such as an increase in population has been enhanced. Therefore, the findings of the study validate the null hypothesis considered in this study.

Recommendations

The study shows that the adoption of the new national-unified pay-scale in the Saudi Arabian healthcare sector has remarkably improved the performance of healthcare professionals. However, in order to improve the sustainability of the healthcare sector in delivering healthcare services to Saudis, it is imperative for the government to consider the following aspects.

1. The government should review the new national unified pay scale continuously in order to determine its effectiveness in motivating employees. By undertaking periodic reviews, the government will be in a position to make the necessary adjustments. For example, the Saudi government through the Ministry of Health will be in a position to factor inflationary pressures to the new pay scale.
2. In order to ensure that healthcare professionals are motivated adequately, it is imperative for the Saudi government to incorporate other elements in designing the employees’ reward system. Some of the issues that the Saudi government should consider include non-monetary benefits such as offering healthcare professionals comprehensive training and development opportunities, social benefits like insurance, and career leaves. These components will lead to the development of an environment conducive for working.
3. The Saudi government should ensure that the promotion of healthcare professionals is based on merit. Some of the elements that the government should consider include the level of experience and educational qualification. This aspect will provide all healthcare professionals with the opportunity to progress through their respective career paths.

References

Albejaidi, F. (2010). Healthcare system in Saudi Arabia; an analysis of structure, total quality management and future challenges. Journal of Alternative Perspectives in the Social Sciences, 2(2), 794-818.

Al-Homayan, A., Shamsudin, F., Subramaniam, C., & Islam, R. (2013). Analysis of healthcare systems; resources and nursing sector in Saudi Arabia. Advances in Environmental Biology, 7(9), 2584-2592.

Almalki, M., & Clark, M. (2012). The relationship between quality of work life and turnover of primary health care nurses in Saudi Arabia. BMC Health Services Research, 12(3), 1-11.

Arnold, R. (2010). Economics. Mason, OH: South-Western Cengage.

Caruth, D., & Handlogten, G. (2001). Managing compensation; a handbook for the perplexed. Westport, CT: Quorum Books.

Cibils, V., Giugale, M., & Somensatto, E. (2008). Revisiting ecuador’s economic and social agenda in an evolving landscape. Washington, DC: World Bank.

Gohari, P., Ahmadloo, A., Boroujeni, M., & Hosseinpour, J. (2013). The relationship between rewards and employee performance. Interdisciplinary Journal of Contemporary Research in Business, 5(3): 543-571.

Hartley, J. (2009). Saudi approves national pay scale for healthcare staff. Web.

Helen Ziegler & Associates: The healthcare system of Saudi Arabia. (2010). Web.

Labor Research Department: Wrong target; how governments are making public sector workers pay for the crisis. (2011). Web.

Middle East Health: Creating a sustainable healthcare system. (2009). Web.

OECD. (2012). Public sector compensation in times of austerity. Paris, France: OECD.

O’Riordan, J. (2008). A review of the civil service grading pay system. Dublin,Ireland: Institute of Public Administration.

Public inquiry: Executive summary. (2013). Web.

Thomas, C., & Maurice, S. (2012). Managerial economics; foundations of business analysis and strategy. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Publishers.

Introduction

A non-fiction literature writer by the name Jonathan Kozol who is best known for his publications concerning public education wrote about the struggles, problems and challenges that the children of the poor people face in USA. He started writing about public education after he was fired from Boston Public Schools after teaching a Langston Hughes poem but later he was offered a job in the district that he grew up in, Newton Public Schools.

Kozol is considered a great educator and activist who did some great work in advocating for social justice mainly through his writings and interpreting scientific works e.g. in the field of social psychology (Schultz, 2001). Let us look at one of his writing, ‘Amazing Grace’.

Kozol’s Work

In this essay discusses the work of Kozol, Amazing Grace, in identifying the challenges and problems that America’s poor population faces in their day-to-day life. A larger percentage of the affected people are either black Americans or of Hispanic origins living in Bronx, St. Ann’s Avenue, Beckman Avenue, Cypress, Hunts point, Mott Haven, East Tremont among others. He introduces to us the disheartening experiences that these poor people face including discrimination and racial segregation.

The most affected are the younger population especially children who are still dependent on their parents. He quotes when children are exposed to extreme hardships they are not hardened as people may think. The only thing that makes them survive is that they are usually full of hope and are more than willing to welcome better life.

For instance the people who attend and live near St. Ann’s church are said to be the poorest in America, the pastor to this church was interviewed by Kozol and he mentioned that he had visited different parts of America and according to him this was the “poorest of the poorest by any standard he can think of” (Schultz, p 372).

Statistical reports released showed that 95% of the residents of this area live below the poverty line. At a local elementary school at St. Ann’s Avenue, only less than ten children out of eight hundred children can comfortably afford their own lunch daily i.e. they are not dependent of the free lunches that are offered at the school. Five of the ten believe that they are just poor but not destitute and by this, the in most cases do not rely/ accept the free lunch offered (Schultz, p 372).

As we know if poverty levels are extremely high then crime is most likely to be as high in the same areas and this reduces security in the areas. This is known to the government but nothing much is being done to manage the situation. The New York Times refers to this area, St. Ann’s Avenue, as “the deadliest blocks in the deadliest precinct of the city. They claim that, if there is a deadlier place in the United States of America, they don’t know where it is” (Schultz, p 373).

This is the precinct that in the early 90’s, when Kozol wrote his work, was leading in cases of homicide. Kozol says that a total of 84 people were murdered just a few months before he visited the area. Most of them were below 21 years of age. During his stay in the area another ten people were shot dead on Beckman Avenue and in this Avenue majority of the population are schoolchildren and this means that they were most likely exposed to this incidences.

The following year which was 1993 on Valentine’s Day a whole family of six were shot in cold blood in their house and no one survived. Their house was only few blocks from them police but nothing was done to prevent the inhumane action from happening (Schultz, p 373).

The high crime rates as we have seen are promoted by the high poverty levels, but this is not the only outcome of the poverty. There is also a lot of drug use and poor health care. Talking of the drugs they also contribute to crime as we know and Mont Haven is the most affected area.

Some analysis that Kozol quoted on his writing indicated that during the time of his research, there were over four thousands intravenous drug users most of which were addicts of heroin and cocaine. Intravenous drug users tend to promote the spread of HIV/ AIDS, a pandemic that has claimed a lot of lives all over the world. This is after sharing needles for injecting the drugs.

Kozol says that after he interviewed several children from the areas I mentioned above, he concluded that at least every child in these areas knows of someone who died from AIDS, this may either be a neighbor or a relative. The most saddening news is that over 25 percent of all pregnant women that attend prenatal clinic are tested positive of the HIV.

From 1993 to the year 2000 over thirty eight thousand children were infected with HIV mostly through mother to child transition during or after birth. Most of these children only lived for one and a half years. Only 5% of them survived to 12 years and over 10,000 children were orphaned during this period. 20% of the 10,000 were residents of Mott Haven and they were mainly Hispanic or Black American. Kozol tells a saddening story of which was narrated to him as quoted below,

“In one family, the father died two years ago and the mother is about to die. The four soon-to-be-orphaned children are being cared for by their 75-year-old grandmother. One of the children, a nine-year-old, is sick with full-blown AIDS. Another child, seven years old, is less sick but he’s been getting IV blood infusions.

The six-year-old may be okay. But it’s the 13-year-old girl, who isn’t sick, who’s causing the most worries. She’s staying out all night, defying her grandmother. She stared to do this at 11, when her father died. Recently, this girl had an abortion” (Schultz, p 377).

Asthma, fear and anxiety are some of the most common diseases and problems respectively that children from this areas face in their lives. Winter season is considered the worst weather since they are never well protected from the dangerous cold weather. Rarely the government is forced to distribute free electric blankets and sometimes space heaters to protect them from the cold. This leads to over loading on the electricity supply in these areas and they are forced to turn to sleeping bags as an alternative (Schultz, p 372).

Conclusion

The residents of these areas especially children have their comfort on one song which to them is like a prayer, “Amazing grace! How sweet the sound, that saved a wretch like me, I once was lost and now am found, was blind but now I see…” This is according to Jonathan Kozol who sympathizes with them.

References

Schultz, F. “SOURCES: Notable selections in education.” New York: McGraw-Hill Dushkin, 2001, p 370-380.

Vulnerable populations such as the elderly, people with disabilities, and racial minorities have unique health care needs that include complex chronic conditions, multiple chronic comorbidities, dependency, and lack of access to healthcare (Vanderbilt et al., 2013). Complex chronic conditions affecting people in these groups of the population require constant medications to enhance their wellbeing and longevity. However, vulnerable populations often struggle to pay for the medications and some are forced to cut back on prescribed medications to save money, resulting in increased risk for disease entrenchment and suboptimal treatment outcomes (Freedman & Spillman, 2014). The proposed bill seeks to structure Medicare in such a way that it can utilize its buying power to negotiate with pharmaceutical firms for lower prices and hence ensure continuous drug coverage for vulnerable populations.

Although the health care law adds benefits to assist in making the Medicare prescription drug coverage more affordable upon reaching the Medicare Part D coverage gap, vulnerable populations have often fallen into what is commonly referred to as the “doughnut hole” due to failure to pay all the costs of their medicine as required by the law (Danzon, 2004). Moreover, Gusmano and Allin (2011) proved that the current health care delivery systems in England and the US need improvement. Even though they tend to make healthcare services of good quality available to the diverse population, older persons and minorities have poor access to primary care in the US. The fact that access inequalities exist is underlined. It is claimed that even though the county tries to make forget about the racial differences, they are not ignored and affect the delivery of services negatively. Under the current law, the coverage is 75% of the initial drug cost, which seems to be rather beneficial, but when the sum reaches $2,830, individuals become responsible for all costs. Here the coverage gap occurs, as the next coverage will be received only when the sum is almost $6,500 (Traynor, 2010). Thus, the necessity of the “donut hole” solution is undeniable.

Unfortunately, today one-third of the beneficiaries fall into the “donut hole”, which proves that the issue is to be solved as soon as possible. With the help of Part D, many people who suffer from chronic diseases and need constant treatment will pay very modest sums (Howard-Ruben, 2006). Part D coverage benefits the vulnerable population, as it will increase every year so that eventually people will always pay 25% of the cost, everything else will be paid by insurance and other private companies (Information pharmacists can use, 2013). Those who are already on Medicare have an opportunity to change the program for Part B if they want, and others join it directly. The advantage of this coverage is that it has several drug plans that cover all services, and people can choose the one that will be the best for them depending on the drugs they need and their location. Moreover, some of them have mail order services so there is no necessity to go to the pharmacy. Many old people and representatives of minorities have limited income and resources so they can receive Extra Help. This program provides premiums and coinsurance and can be got automatically or applied. People can also get assistance with drug coverage decisions if they visit the office, send an email, or just call (Your guide to Medicare n.d.).

Thus, it can be seen that the vulnerable population needs support and assistance even including the representatives who are applying for Medicare and Medicaid. With the help of Medicare Part D, they all will gain an opportunity to avoid or at least get out of the coverage gap. This program will use the money provided by insurance and private companies so that the individuals will pay only a quarter of the drug costs while those with limited income will also gain Extra Help.

References

Danzon, P.M. (2004). Closing the doughnut hole: No easy answers. Health Affairs, 23(2), 405-408.

Freedman, V.A., & Spillman, B.C. (2014). Disability and care needs among older Americans. Milbank Quarterly, 92(3), 509-541.

Gusmano, M., & Allin, S. (2011). Health care for older persons in England and the United States: A contrast of systems and values. Journal of Health Politics, Policies & Law, 36(1), 89-118.

Howard-Ruben, J. (2006). Unexpected “doughnut hole” raises concerns that patients will fail to fill needed prescriptions. ONS News, 21(2), 10-11.

Information pharmacists can use on closing the coverage gap. (2013). Web.

Traynor, K. (2010). Health reform law offers relief in Medicare part D coverage gap. American Journal of Health-System Pharmacy, 67(13), 1049-1049.

Vanderbilt, A.A., Isringhausen, K.T., Vanderwielen, L.M., Wright, M.S., Slascheva, L.B., & Modden, M.A. (2013). Health disparities among highly vulnerable populations in the United States: A call to action for medical and oral health care. Medical Education Online, 18(1), 1-3.

Your guide to Medicare prescription drug coverage. (n.d.). Web.

Introduction

Prisons are an integral part of the countries Criminal Justice System. They serve as the institutes through which society members who break the law are punished and rehabilitated. The state of Florida has several correctional facilities, which have been set up to, achieve the retribution and rehabilitation roles of the Criminal Justice System. This paper will identify the types and locations of Florida’s prisons with a description of the recent inmate population and an analysis of the issues that currently affect the prison system.

Types and Location

The prison system in Florida is comprised of several facilities which include “major institutions, annexes, work camps, work release centers and road prisons” (Tucker, 2012). A number of factors are taken into consideration when determining the facility that the inmate will be sent to. The factors include the amount of time to be served and the nature of the offense for which the person is being incarcerated. Past criminal records will also be factored in with first offenders being considered for minimum-security facilities while repeat offenders are sent securer facilities.

Tucker (2012) states that the major institutions house inmates whose sentences exceed a year and at 84%, this constitutes the majority of the offenders. The major institutions are partitioned into levels according to the security needs of the inmates; minimum security houses inmates who are not considered a threat while maximum facilities hold the most dangerous criminals. Road prisons are facilities that hold inmates who have been sentenced for over a year and who are not considered dangerous. The inmates engage in community work such as collecting recycling materials and doing roadwork. Work camps also house inmates who are serving sentences exceeding one year and the inmates engage in some form of labor. Work/Forestry Camps are a type of prison facility for the minimum to medium inmates who have completed part of their sentences at correctional institutions. The inmates engage in community work such as cleaning roadways and maintaining buildings, cleaning up forests. Work Release centers house inmates who have been sentenced to more than a year but who are remaining with two or three years to complete their sentences. The facilities are not secured by perimeter fences and inmates can engage in paid employment in the community.

The Florida Department of Correction has 61 major institutions of which 7 are privatized facilities. The Secretary of the Florida Department of Corrections documents that the major institutions and privatized facilities housed 100,272 inmates as of August 2012 (Tucker, 2012). The Florida prison facilities are classified into three geographical regions. Region 1 comprises the North West area, it has 15 major institutions, and 4 privatized facilities within its boundaries. Region II is the north-central area, it has 17 major institutions and 1 privatized facility. The region houses 32,284 of the total offenders in the State. Region III is made up of the southern area of Florida, it has 16 major Institutions and 2 privatized facilities.

Violent offenders contribute 52% to the total inmate population making them the majority. They are followed by property offenders who make up 21.8% and drug offenders who constitute 17.4% (Tucker, 2012). The other offenses contribute 8.3% to the prison population. Like with many other states, the majority of inmates in Florida are male. Statistics indicate that as of July 2012, the prison population was made up of 93% male and only 7% female inmates (Tucker, 2012).

Issue Affecting Prisons

Due to the growing population, the Florida prison system has been faced with significant growth in the prison population over the decades. While new facilities have been built by the state and the capacity of old institutions expanded, the growth in inmate numbers has been greater (Pollock, 2006, p.59). This has led to the problem of overcrowding since some facilities are a forced to operate beyond their maximum capacity. Haney (2006, p.265) notes that overcrowding also results in the prison infrastructure, such as medical resources and rehabilitation programs, being unable to serve the entire population adequately. The overcrowding has mostly been caused by the lengthening of sentences as the state adopts a tough-on-crime stance. Haney (2006, p.266) also notes that an increase in incarceration for non-violent crimes such as drug users has led to the phenomenal increase of the prison population.

Prison gangs also pose significant issues in Florida Prisons. Gangs engage in violence within the facilities, therefore, disrupting prison life. Tucker (2011) notes that most of while most of the violence is directed against fellow inmates, some gangs attack prison staff. The fact that most gangs require prospective members to engage in a violent act as an initiation rite further increases the danger that gangs pose to prison security.

Conclusion

This paper set out to identify the types and locations of Florida’s prisons and identify some issues affecting the prison system. To this end, the paper has identified the 3 groupings of prison facilities and offered a breakdown of the prison types. Overcrowding and violence have been highlighted as some of the issues that currently face the prison system.

References

Haney, C. (2006). The Wages of Prison Overcrowding: Harmful Psychological Consequences and Dysfunctional Correctional Reactions. Journal of Law & Policy, 22(1), 265-276.

Pollock, J. (2006). Prisons: today and tomorrow. NY: Jones & Bartlett Learning.

Tucker, K. (2011). Major Prison Gangs. Florida Department of Corrections. Web.

Tucker, K. (2012). Introduction to Information on Florida Correctional Facilities. Florida Department of Corrections. Web.

The study reveals the influence of organized crime groups in southern Italy. Over a long period of existence, they have achieved significant influence in the country, extending it to the entire population of the South, thereby undermining the confidence of citizens in power. At the same time, organized crime wins people’s favor through various financial and humanitarian assistance. This may be due to the fact that citizens in poor financial conditions cannot rely on the state. If Italians are forced to rely on organized crime rather than the government, the influence of the mafia will only increase and ultimately lead to detrimental consequences for the country. The government is trying to undermine the position of organized groups, but today these attempts have still not been successful. The research question in this context is to identify the degree of influence of the mafia on citizens and find out how the government can replace these functions.

The Italian government is doing everything possible to support the most vulnerable segments of the population. In the vicinity of Naples, throughout Sicily and Calabria, members of local mafia structures distribute food in poor areas and give people interest-free loans. In a country as large as Italy, the subversive activities of criminal gangs can pose a serious threat to the security and sovereignty of the government and lives of people. The problem is that organized crime groups act solely in their interests by intimidating people into silence. Blackmail and imaginary protection remain the main instruments of influence on the population that operates effectively. It is important to get the government to do everything legally that organized crime does in its way. This is the guarantor of building a state of law and the well-being of people in their country. Accordingly, it is important to explore all possible ways to fight organized crime in Southern Italy and the ways in which the government can help the citizens instead of the mafia.

Memo

The opposition between organized crime and the state has been studied for quite a long time since this issue has been a problem in Italy for a long part of its history. Many researchers have considered various issues related to penetration into power, false support for citizens, and sources of funding for the mafia. Analysis and study of the following sources can help draw conclusions about what actions should be taken to eradicate the problem.

Various scientists have developed this issue extensively, among which are Savona, Calderoni, Campedelli, Comunale, Ferrarini, & Meneghini. In their study (2020), the authors examine questions about how criminal gangs managed to increase their influence through helping citizens. In addition, aspects of the history of the emergence of the mafia and the factors that led it to the current state of affairs are touched upon. The paper is based on the Proton Mafia Member dataset, which the Italian Ministry of Justice compiled to counter crime. Savona et al. (2020) examine the financing, activities, and influence of the mafia throughout the region. Occupation in various fields of activity allowed criminal groups to extend their influence to all branches of government in the regions. Savona et al. (2020) consider in detail the structure of groupings and the roles of their main members in it. The activities of the mafia are considered at three levels macro, meso, and micro, which allows us to reveal in detail all aspects of the work of criminal groups.

An important topic in the study of criminal groups in any country is their relationship with local authorities. The second study conducted by Mete (2019) focused on the relationship between the Italian government and criminal groups. Many examples of the government’s struggle with the mafia were considered. Among such examples, one can single out the dissolution of the councils, which were infiltrated by mafia members to rule the regions. Much attention is paid to the extent to which such measures as the dissolution of councils and authorities on which the mafia has influence necessary. It is noted that if there is precise control of any local regional state organization by organized criminal groups, then it can no longer perform its functions. This is of great importance for the perception of the issue of the fight against the mafia since such state councils should be one of the components that help in the fight against organized crime. In this regard, such state elements should be completely free from the influence of outside organizations. Mete (2019) focuses his paper on analyzing mafia infiltration into Italian government structures. Knowing the factors that allowed criminal organizations to achieve such success may in the future allow the police to more effectively counter them.

Looking at specific examples of mafia influence on regional councils, one can understand what threatens the independence of the government. The third study by Eboli, Toto & Ziruolo (2021) focuses on a topic similar to the previous one but focuses on a sample of municipalities being dissolved and their balance sheets. The paper uses discrete analysis and statistical regression methods to find out how much the mafia can infiltrate local councils. In addition, the paper reveals questions about how to identify and identify municipalities that are under the influence of criminal groups. This study is useful because it shows how the mafia can influence power within a certain region by forming a quasi-government. The study analyzes local governments’ activities under the mafia’s leadership and compares the effectiveness and policies they promote. The study’s results compared and analyzed several factors different from the state government, such as a high rate of tax arrears, a low level of debt, and a low level of capital expenditures.

The extent to which criminal gangs infiltrate the government is important to study and requires special attention. In his work, the author of the fourth source Frickel (2021) considers the factors that influence the penetration of the mafia into the state apparatus and the degree of its influence on politics. Criminal groups’ role in preserving social power and class stratification in Sicily is considered. In his study, the author relies on critically grounded theory, with the help of which it was possible to find out that criminal groups play a significant role in government and influence the government at all levels. The paper examines why the state allows such free behavior of organized criminal groups in the country. In some cases, this may indicate the failure of the government to take control of the region completely. In addition, the mafia’s activities directly or indirectly affect citizens’ social life and interactions with state apparatuses. However, the author found that criminal gangs within the country have some positive impact, as they soften conflicts and confrontations between various government organizations. Frickel (2021) concludes that the mafia in Mezzogiorno can be perceived as an expression of state power and equating to it. This poses a significant threat to the national security of the region.

Considering the many problematic situations that arise in the context of the influence of criminal groups on governments, it is important to know how to deal with them. The fifth source, authored by Slutzky & Zeume (2018), looks at how justice fights the mafia using the example of municipal governments. This paper was created to study the impact organized groups have on businesses in the country. The correlation is that after the adoption of active measures to combat the mafia in the region, market competition, and innovative developments have increased. At the same time, in this way, it is possible to identify firms that organized criminal groups control. This becomes understandable since such companies do not go into open work after the events. They lose customers and suffer losses because they can no longer conduct illegal operations. Thus, additional mafia centers can be identified by studying similar organizations in the regions where the preventive procedure was carried out. The authors argue that the use of any means by the government can be justified since these preventive measures aim to purge local councils from the influence of bought officials. In addition, illegal financial transactions for money laundering can also be stopped, and, as a result, the region has a healthier economy.

The strategic research plan determines what results need to be achieved based on the purpose of the research and the current state of the problem under study. For this study, an explanatory plan will be applied that answers questions about why a phenomenon occurs, and the available information is sufficient to formulate explanatory hypotheses. The purpose of the plan is to identify functional and causal relationships. The suggested recommendation is that organized crime groups’ intervention directly affects public authorities’ functioning. As the results of the studied works showed, preventive actions against the mafia are effective; accordingly, their further implementation can be recommended.

Anti-crime measures in Italy cost the country quite dearly, not only in finance but in human lives, since criminal groups used harsh measures that opposed the state’s struggle. Thus, this is another proof that preventive cleanings in local municipalities in the South of Italy were effective. With the continuation of such a course, it is possible to achieve results in the complete disposal of organized criminal groups. This, in turn, will increase citizens’ confidence in state structures and relieve them of the need to turn to the mafia for help. Another important step towards achieving order is to expand the range of services and powers of local governments so that citizens have constant support. Thus, the South of Italy will be spared the influence of the criminal elements of society.

Conclusion

Despite significant efforts by the authorities to combat organized crime in Southern Italy, the crime rate is still quite high. The recommendation to the president, as it follows from the factors listed above, is mainly that law enforcement agencies should step up the municipal cleanup program. A potential impact on other areas, such as the geographic area, could be the improvement of the relations between the regions due to the general subordination of one state authority. The impact on the topical sphere can also be positive, as people will begin to turn to state institutions for help instead of criminal groups. In addition, continuing the program is effective, as shown by many of the studies reviewed in this paper. This means that the continuation of productive work should bring results. The potential impact of such a recommendation would be reducing the influence of organized criminal groups throughout Italy, especially in the South. In addition, the current policy of dealing with the influence of criminal gangs will affect small businesses.

References

Eboli, M., Toto, A., & Ziruolo, A. (2021). Mafia infiltrations in Italian municipalities: two statistical indicators. Applied Economics, 53(24), 2693-2712. Web.

Frickel, M. (2021). Is the Mafia a State Apparatus? Web.

Mete, V. (2019). Italy: politics, local government and mafias. In Handbook of Organised Crime and Politics (pp. 72-85). Edward Elgar Publishing. Web.

Savona, E. U., Calderoni, F., Campedelli, G. M., Comunale, T., Ferrarini, M., & Meneghini, C. (2020). The criminal careers of Italian mafia members. In Understanding Recruitment to Organized Crime and Terrorism (pp. 241-267). Springer, Cham. Web.

Slutzky, P., & Zeume, S. (2018). Organized crime and firms: Evidence from Italy. Available at SSRN. Web.