Category: Population

Introduction

The protection and restoration of the environment are important duties of every individual if our world wants to continue enjoying the benefits that nature brings. These tasks cannot be left to the government agencies alone because of the people who interact with their habitat everyday.

Research showed that individuals were not conscious enough of the damage they exposed the environment to through their activities. This has led to environmental degradation which has affected various habitats in a number of ways. Some of these habitats that are under a real threat due to this degradation are stream and rivers’ biodiversity and productivity.

Though evolutionary change was noted over the past few generations because various species had disappeared from the ecosystem, human activities have a great impact on the natural ecosystems. According to Williams et al (271), this has affected the earth biota in a number of ways.

This paper will focus on the effect of these activities on the population of salmon fish and seek to find some explanations for this issue. This is because the population of this species has been noted to reduce consistently over the past few decades.

Much of this decline is attributed to human activities which interfered with the physical stream habitat and caused the danger. Such a situation has happened because of high rates of fishing on this species. This affected the population of both the young and adult salmon.

Materials and Methods

In determining the population stability in salmon species, consistent change in environmental conditions was noted as the greatest force behind the decline in populations. Therefore, Measures can be taken to reduce this interference, especially after determining how this occurs.

However, the problem that most of ecologists have found difficult to decide lies in coming up with the appropriate processes that outline the variability in the fish population abundances.

The best time to determine the temporal variability in fish population abundance is spawning which is the most important part of their life because fish is a species that reproduces fast. The reason to take into consideration this period is that there are high rates of mortality in the fish species during the spawning.

According to Einum et al (812), this is determined by trade-offs between egg size and number. During that period, an organism is highly productive, so this fact should reflect in the high mortality from egg to adult life. As a result of the high mortality, even a small level of environmental change may lead to even larger change in adult population abundance during the juvenile stage.

In fact, any changes raise the mortality rate at this stage. On the other hand, such species that lay fewer eggs, but that are larger in size show more stable numbers in their population. This thesis is supported with comparative data received from the month long observation of the population when the egg size was important in unfriendly environmental conditions.

Therefore, adopting other approaches seems to be the best option. This includes such ones as phylogenetic comparative approach which has been adopted by some ecologists due to its ability to compare organisms that have the closest related data.

When this approach was applied in marine fishes where the high rate of productivity was compared with high recruitment variability, the result indicated that there could be a possible relationship between productivity and changes that occurred among fish populations in stability. The changes in fish habitat cause even greater influence on the individual fish species leading to even larger changes in the total population abundance than it was expected.

In determining how population changes affect and result in replenishing breeding habitat of Atlantic salmon, it is necessary to compare those population changes, that is why salmonid fishes are a good choice due to various reasons. First of all, there are some determined data that were created after observation of population sizes during some particular period, these results should be accurate because they are of high importance.

This is because the number of adults can be taken as they rise up their natal river (Einum et al 931). Another reason that makes this method the best for salmonid species is that it is easy to define population of this fish as its representatives do not always fail to go back to their biological river.

In addition, the history of the salmon fishes reveals that there are always a great number of its representatives. This makes it easy to carry out interrelation studies between the characteristics and population dynamics possible and efficient. In an attempt to reinforce the conservation measures of the salmon populations, it is important to understand that fish characteristics affect their dynamics.

While studying the populations of the Salimo salar vary, the Scorff river which is a small coastal river of Southern Brittany was used. The method used to determine and analyze the potential for interactions from human activities to influence evolutionary change in the life history of a threatened salmonid showed that salmon fish has various species which are either found in fresh water or the sea.

For instance, in the Snake River which is the largest tributary of the Columbia River, Chinook salmon is a unique species. This is because its migration approach is different from other existing species which can be highly attributed to anthropogenic interferences.

For instance, the construction and activities at Brownelee Dam has a great effect on the water temperatures between Hells Canynon and the area where the Salmon joins the Snake River (Williams et al. 275). Due to these interferences, the water becomes warmer in the fall and cooler during the spring.

This has affected Chanook salmon spawn in a great way. This is because the fall in the water temperatures could be attributed to the delay in their spawning while the young ones fail to thrive as they are expected.

In addition, the spawning areas that are in the lower part become cooler than the location that is above Brownlee Dam since the water that flows from high elevation tributaries cools the temperatures of the mainstream. As a result, the fry currently surfaces in the extant spawning areas from the gravel in spring later than it was before. After this stage, the juveniles are noticed to take more time to grow than it was earlier.

Such a disorder leads to the delay in the beginning of their seaward movement. These operations have also affected the movement of the Chinook salmon. As Williams et al (274) note, in the past, the peak of the Chinook salmon subyearlings movement via the lower Snake River was in the month of June.

However, this has been changed because the movement via this location is observed in the early or even mid July nowadays. In Chinook salmon species, juveniles are known to either start relocating into the sea after emerging in the spring or sometimes taking a whole year in fresh water to venture into the sea as yearlings.

Results

The obtained results reflected major disparities among species. The variation in annual population went down with the mean population size. In addition, there was annually a decrease in the size of the population.

After examining and analyzing how various species differed from each other as far as their marginal means were concerned, it was established “that Atlantic, Chinook and Coho salmon were less variable than sockeye and pink salmon, and with chum being more similar to sockeye and pink. For detrended variation, a similar pattern emerged” (Einum et al 939).

The results of the potential for disruptions from human activities to influence evolutionary change in the life history of a threatened salmonid were reached after coming up with estimates. After receiving the proper data of the relative fitness of the yearling and subyearling movement strategies, there were modeling functions that could be undertaken.

The modeling functions that were used in the study were based on demographic data that had been gathered from Snake River fall Chinook salmon that had been intercepted at the adult trap at Lower Granite Dam between 1999 and 2006. The gender and the length of each fish were noted, and the scales were also tested during their period at the hatchery.

Based on subsequent scale reading, natural fish were distinguished from hatchery fish, total age was identified, and the age at ocean entry was determined. Up to seventy percent of spawners made the population of Lyons Ferry Hatchery which was taken into the Snake River while thirty percent were destined for the Clearwater River.

Using samples extracted from mature fish in Cleanwater where spawning took place, the distribution of age and class for the mature fish was determined. This was narrowed to cover the young juveniles which had moved into the area. This appeared to coincide with samples taken from Lyons Ferry Hatchery.

Nevertheless, seventy-six percent of these included young fish that were one year old. Taking these figures into account, it is possible to find out the representation of adults that were in Cleanwater River at that period.

While exploring the evolutionary mechanisms that were experienced in wild Salimo salar found in the Atlantic, the results showing the comparison of posterior to prior distributions suggested that the information contained in the data led to considerable updating of the prior distributions.

In predicting population responses to replenishment of habitat in Atlantic salmon where breeding took place, results showed that the intensity of reliance on density differed strongly between size classes in a given environment and across habitat availability scenarios for a given size class. Severe competition ensued due to limited breeding areas, thus exacerbated dependence on density.

In the end, the parr population heightened since only a limited number of fry matured to parr. The result of reduced competition weakened density dependence. One can therefore conclude that survival of fry directly determined the survival of parr.

A rise in breeding dispersion among the fry in a certain habitat led to reduced reliance on fry density and increased dependence on density among parr. Reliance on density was the same in the populations that were influenced by density as well as those which were not influenced by it at all.

In terms of numbers, one can explain significant disparities that occur when analyzing data of deaths because of density dependency and the cases which were not influenced by dependency. If density increases, there is a chance that a number of deaths will grow for fry and reduce for parr. This happened because of decrease in parr body size is of higher importance than deaths because of density-dependent increase.

It would be correct to conclude that movement of parr in the smolt stage led to an increase in adult population. Consequently, more eggs were deposited considering the limitation of habitat for fry population. To sum everything up, deaths in fry increased due to the growth in density

Discussion

It was identified that the population of salmon did not vary greatly each year. Even where population varied, a link between this variation and the number of eggs deposited were not established. From the findings that were determined, the strongest one was that increasing population sizes appeared to lend stability to the dynamics.

An increase in the population of salmon had the effect of reducing population variation. The authors, however, substantiate that variability in this case was independently related to population size. In salmonids, as far as population size is concerned, varying negative relationships are biologically explainable.

Since large populations are spatially distributed in a complex manner, negative correlations are unavoidable. This fact differ it from small species where the entire population changes are synchronously.

That is why, “such spatial structuring may be stabilizing if the relative successes of different segments of a population vary from year to year because the effect of exogenous forces on the total population is averaged out during years” (Buoro, Prevost and Gimenez 2634).

It was also hypothesized that high variability existed in small populations since environmental variance was very high in such populations. Consequently, as far as spatial distribution is concerned, varying population size is affected by other factors that consider variations in environmental conditions as a constant.

Such factors include quality of the environment as well as the available habitat. If a number of species reduce, demographic randomicity may affect other levels of populations different in size.

The results for the potential for anthropogenic disturbances salmonid showed that the first method that was applied in this analysis was aimed at identifying the range of survival probabilities that in their diversity would be of benefit to individuals who adopted the yearling and subyearling smolt-migration tactics.

In this method, life tables separated the age-specific survival probabilities and fecundity for individuals adopting either the subyearling or yearling tactic and returning to spawn at sea after 1, 2 or 3 years.

Without considering the tactics that was chosen, individuals are assumed to have the same survival probabilities from the egg stage to the time they emigrate from the Snake River and in the ocean as subadults. The tables differ in such cases.

The first is the term Sriver that represents the probability that a smolt survives the period during which it resides in freshwater. The measurement value had to be no less than 0.2 or greater than 0.8. The life tables also showed that differences existed as far as chances of survival in the migration period when the smolts were headed to the sea coming from Columbia River.

This parameter, Smigration, was 0.05 on the lower side and 0.25 on the higher side for subyearling smolts. Among yearling smolts, their larger size may be associated with higher survival immediately prior to and/or shortly after entry to the ocean, Smigration was increased by factors ranging between 1 and 3.

To bind the range of survival probabilities, the researchers used estimated smolt-to-adult return ratios (SARs) developed from fall Chinook salmon tagged with PITs and released between 1995–2000 for a study to evaluate juvenile migration, survival and timing. Data from fishes that were PIT-tagged in 2001 and released similarly to the earlier studies were also used.

There was grouping of juvenile detections at Lower Snake River dams into three categories. Firstly, there were fish detected between June and August; the second ones were detected in September and October, and the third case when the species were detected the following spring.

Mature fish that had a PIT tag detected at Lower Granite Dam were assigned to their respective years when they migrated during their young stages. Geometric means of these annual PIT-tag estimates were also used to develop relative rates of return for fish migrating as juveniles during the three different time periods.

In predicting population responses to restoration of breeding habitat in Atlantic salmon, the success of restoration strategies is thought to depend on details of the ecology and behavior of individuals. For example, increase of anadromous salmonids population is the main target that all the scientists pursue trying to restore a natural balance.

Because of many conditions, growth in population resulted in decrease of local competition for distribution during the juvenile period. It is nonetheless recognized that thriving of the fish is strongly dependent on the habitat at different stages. During early stages of life, it was particularly recognized that this is the time when breeding dispersion was the most widespread in intermediate habitats.

This explains why a rise in breeding dispersion will lead to differing population effects. At the young stage of life, the fish will experience abundance in their habitat since competition is not severe.

While investigating the evolutionary trade-offs in wild populations of the Atlantic salmon (Salimo salar), the use of Bayesian state space modeling approach made it possible to represent the whole life-history process of Atlantic salmon and establish evolutionary changes.

The results did not rely on differences in traits in the lives of the fish. It should be noted that the traits that were under investigation were not fully observed since likelihood of detecting the traits were not more than one.

To come up with factors that would determine the selection criteria during the stages of observing and detecting changes, magnetic resonance studies were exploited. It is important to note that these were to be determined in under natal conditions.

However, magnetic resonance was noted to have its shortcomings, especially in detecting body mass. The results helped the authors to utilize detection probabilities, thus they were able to establish relationships between fish traits in relation to the history of the fish. The stage in the life of the fish was a contributing factor as far as a detection of body mass was concerned.

In changes which are related to revolution as well as differences among individuals, interest is piqued in regards to explaining the differences among individuals. This holds a great promise in conducting studies in evolutionary changes.

The modeling platform is not fixed, and hence options are available on how to bring together the aspects of individual differences in order to emerge with a uniform model. By knowing that differences between individual exist, it becomes possible to determine what other factors may influence these differences. Although this is based on probability, it comes in handy in knowing what numbers of parr will smolt to adults.

Works Cited

Buoro, Mathieu, Prevost, Etienne, and Olivier Gimenez. “Investigating Evolutionary Trade-offs in Wild Populations of Atlantic Salmon (Salmo salar): Incorporating Detection Probabilities and Individual Heterogeneity.” Evolution 64.9 (2010): 2629-2642. Print.

Einum, Sigurd, Fleming, Ian A., Cote, Isabelle M., and John D. Reynolds. “Population Stability in Salmon Species: Effects of Population Size and Female Reproductive Allocation.” Journal of Animal Ecology 72 (2003): 811–821. Print.

Einum, Sigurd, Nislow, Keith H., Reynolds, John D., and William J. Sutherland “Predicting Population Responses to Restoration of Breeding Habitat in Atlantic Salmon.” Journal of Applied Ecology, 45 (2008): 930–938. Print.

Williams, John G., Zabel, Richard W., Waples, Robin S., Hutchings, Jeffrey A., and Connor William P. “Potential for anthropogenic disturbances to influence evolutionary change in the life history of a threatened salmonid.” Evolutionary Applications 1 (2008): 271–285. Print.

Introduction

Generally, the primary approach to managing the health of a given population group is by engaging in preventive measures to stop the disease from developing. The citizens of Sentinel town are facing various health problems following their economic status that hinder them from accessing better care services. The concerns are a threat to the well-being of the population. By assessing possible health issues and their determinants, it becomes easier to develop relevant evidence-based approaches to curb the conditions in the community.

Population Assessment

Sentinel town is a virtual community that contains different population groups living in a rural setting. The demographic assessment was conducted by touring the area through the website platform. During the process, the focus was based on the elderly health conditions irrespective of ethnicity or gender. The overall population of the town is approximately 800 individuals. Based on the previous statistics, about 8% of the total people in the region are children below five years (“Sentinelworld.healthcarelearninginnovations.com,” 2022). Moreover, young adults that are 18 years of age and below are less than 25% and 12% of the number of individuals in the rural area above 66years old. Majority of the people that is over 26% are aged between 25 and 45 years (“Sentinelworld.healthcarelearninginnovations.com,” 2022). Based on ethnic classes, Sentinel town contains a mixture of communities. The white Americans make the biggest percentage of people living in the Sentinel town consisting of over 80% (“Sentinelworld.healthcarelearninginnovations.com,” 2022). Hispanic populations are about 10%, and the rest include Caucasians, Asians, African Americas, and other races such as American Indians.

The median income of the people living in the region is approximately $25,050 whereby the mean household earning translates to around $80,250 per year. In addition, over 21% of the people living in Sentinel town are experiencing poverty implying that about 80 citizens are lives below the poverty level. Concerning health insurance coverage, only about 65% of the individuals are insured (“Sentinelworld.healthcarelearninginnovations.com,” 2022). During the process, there were no constructive data retrieved covering the rate of unemployment and homelessness. This may mean the town does not have a high number of people without homes as well as jobs.

Health Issues Affecting Hispanic Population

Limited Health Care Facilities

During the virtual navigation of the rural community, there were limited hospitals in the region. This implies that people hardly access care facilities in time in case of emergencies. The distance from one clinic to another was significant which required the individuals to travel over a long period to obtain the services. Following the road conditions, the ease of accessing the hospitals is low. Furthermore, there are limited buildings to accommodate patients in the facilities making it difficult to admit a large number of inpatients.

Substance Abuse

Based on the data I managed to collect, a large percentage of the people living in Sentinel town are abusing substances in the region. The previous research data indicates that the rate of tobacco consumption was around 18% and alcohol at approximately 16%. The majority of the people mainly abuse the two substances in the rural community. Similarly, the findings revealed that marijuana is common and its usage is roughly 10% of the Sentinel town population. Other drugs including cocaine and heroin usage by the group are below 7%.

Obesity and Overweight Issue

The people in Sentinel town are experiencing a high rate of obesity in the community. This has increased the diabetic condition of the individuals hence becoming a significant health challenge. The rural community lacks adequate parks where people can conduct physical activities including playing games. Similarly, the rising consumption of illicit drugs such as tobacco and alcohol are the forefront contributors to the rising overweight amongst the Sentinel Citizens.

Determinants of Health Issues

There are several determinants that contribute to the key health issues facing the Hispanic population in the rural community. In the case of limited healthcare facilities, relevant causes include low-income levels, reduced social support, social status, neighborhood, and physical environment. Moreover, in the case of substance abuse, key contributors are genetic factors, social, gender, income level, education, mental health condition, peer pressure, limited family involvement, and popularity. In the case of overweight people, the main elements causing it include genetics, eating habits, physical activities, sleep, sedentariness, economic stability, built environment, access to education, and community context.

Common Issues People Living in Urban Centers Encounters

Hispanic individuals living in urban centers are exposed to several concerns. For instance, people are likely to face a high level of air pollution which is harmful to their health. In the city, there are several activities including transportation that involves the use of fossil fuels, when the gases are released into the atmosphere, they contaminate the fresh air. However, in the rural community, the group toxic air is not common because such activities are limited.

The population group living in urban are likely to encounter obesity challenges. Since overweight is determined by genetics and eating habits, the individuals may have an unhealthy diet that contributes to the obese conditions. Another common concern is substance abuse, the people in urban have the potential of accessing the drugs because of interaction with other communities. This makes the usage of the illicit substances more common among them than among people in the rural setting,

Evidence-Based Health Promotion and Intervention

The relevant approach suitable for promoting healthcare in Sentinel town is through a social media campaign. The technique will create awareness about the overweight health issue. By communicating the importance of healthcare to the Hispanic population group, the individuals will value their lives and begin engaging in healthy living styles to avoid possible encounters with obesity. The community promotion will entail educating the people on determinants of obesity and relevant ways of managing the causes (Rubenfeld & Scheffer, 2015). The practice will inform the individuals effectively hence lowering the chances of one becoming overweight (Finn, 2011). On the matter of limited healthcare facilities, the promotion will focus on the adoption of telehealth services to facilitate remote access to nurses. The target will be highlighting to the people how e-health will enhance the ease of obtaining effective care delivery despite the distance. Concerning substance abuse, infographics depicting the side effects of cocaine, marijuana, and alcohol will be displayed on the online platform to educate the group about the side effects of drug usage. During the intervention, the rural or urban location will not change the intervention approaches because the criteria are suitable for both regions.

Conclusion

The virtual assessment of Sentinel town portrays a number of health issues the Hispanic population group in the rural community encounters. The challenges are majorly influenced by the social and economic status of the people. Some of the concerns such as substance abuse are common even to the individuals of the group living in urban. In order to promote healthcare understanding among the population, the social media campaign is appropriate because it enables the information to reach many people.

References

Finn, P. (2011). Critical thinking: Knowledge and skills for evidence-based practice, Language, speech, and hearing services in schools, American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (42), 69–72.

Rubenfeld, M. G., & Scheffer, B.K. (2015). Critical thinking TACTICS for nurses: Achieving the IOM competencies (2nd ed.). Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett.

Sentinelworld.healthcarelearninginnovations.com. (2022).

Colombia is one of the South American countries with a relatively small middle class in the contemporary world. The country’s economy has improved in the past two decades, a condition that exposes the insecurities in the nation’s economic and social situations. Even though Colombia has experienced a series of financial stabilities, the state’s status quo remains a significant concern. The relatively small but growing middle class in the country has only profited to a limited portion. Alejandro Gaviria, a former dean of economics at the Andes, researched Colombia’s middle-class crises. According to the study’s outcome, more than two million Colombian households graduated from poverty but emerged into the middle class over the past ten years. Currently, the middle-class population stands at twenty-eight percent (28%) of the country’s total population. Reviewing the size of the middle-class in Colombia is essential because the data can be used to estimate the financial and business prospects in the country. To understand the economic stability, stock exchange market rates, growth stimulation and social and political growth in Colombia, it is significant to analyze its middle-class population.

Middle-Class Size in Colombia

The size of middle-class people has evolved in Latin America from 2000 to 2018. The percentage median income rates of Latin Americans are distributed on a scale of fifty to one hundred and fifty. Fifty percent of Southern Americans fell in the middle-class category in 2011, with the majority of the countries ranging from 45 to 55 percent. Colombia, for example, has experienced a gradual rise in the number of middle-class populaces. Colombia’s middle-class stagnation of the country’s economy leans on the irregular social class classification in the country. In 2012, the economy of Colombia grew by about six percent due to the rise of the relatively low middle-class population from 2008 to 2011. Dube & Forero (2020) highlight that the average population of wealthy (rich) people in Colombia is 1.4 million; the poor form the more significant bit of the population with a record of 17 million (Rasch, 2017). However, the focus population formulates 14 million of the nation’s total population. Middle-class people are considered to be earning between $1100 and $5500 monthly. The World Bank uses different parameters to group people into various social classes; the financial parameters of citizens indicate the social disparities in Colombia. The minimum wage in the country is set at $380 per month, a figure that translates the high inflation in the country’s stock market on a global scale (Dube & Forero, 2020). Critical features that distinguish the social class from the wealthy and poor characterize middle-class syndrome in Colombia. The heads of middle-class families in Latin America have higher education compared to lower-class family heads. In Colombia, middle-class families are more educated than the people grouped in the lowest social class in the society. Moreover, most middle-class individuals in Colombia work in the private sector: meaning, employees in the social class are not in the public sector.

Stock Market in Colombia

The stock market’s performance in Colombia helps financial analysts determine the country’s social statuses. The business parameters collected in 2020 by the World Bank reported Colombia’s percentage year-on-year stock market return at 10.71% (Uribe et al., 2017). All development indicators compiled from reliable sources in Colombia facilitated the World Bank to determine the social stratification in the region. For easy understanding, Dube & Forero (2020) stress that the growth rates of the annual stock index define the stock market return. In the case study, the World Bank financial analysts and experts took the average of the country’s daily stock indexes to determine the grouping of people according to their income across its major cities. Some of the indicators used in calculating Colombia’s stock Market performance include but are not limited to GDP, labor, health, money trade, housing, government, taxes, prices and business. The GDP per capita and growth from mining, transport, utilities, construction, and agriculture in Colombia stabilize the percentage year-on-year stock market return. The Gross Fixed Capital Formation (GFCF) from 2000 until 2021 is averaged at 32271.64 COP -13824 (Dube & Forero, 2020). The country’s total population stood at 50.88 million as of 2020, and the GDP per capita was $5332. 77 Unlike in Mexico, the Growth Domestic Product in Colombia is $271.3 billion (Rasch, 2017). The annual growth rate of Colombia stands at 6.8%; the indicators of stock market performance report issued by the World Bank in 2020 depicted the probabilities of the country’s GDP annual growth rates. According to Dube & Forero (2020) six-point eight percent increment in the country’s GDP growth rates masked out the benefits of the increasing middle-class population. In 2022 Colombia’s stock market; the corporate tax rate is 31%, while the personal income rate is 39%. Uribe et al. (2017) highlight that Colombia’s consumer confidence reduced from -13.5 points in 2021 to -17.5 points in 2022. Furthermore, the country’s government debt to GDP increased from 52.8 to 62.8 percent between 2021and 2022 (Dube & Forero, 2020). The balance of trade in the state is currently $-1.83 billion; the amount as reduced from $-2.39 billion in 2021. The country’s inflation rates have reduced from 1.67 to 1.63 within the past two years.

Financial and Business Prospects

The convening services, knowledge and packages of financial prospects in Colombia are reliable courtesy of the World Bank. The country’s financial prospects lean on the political preferences of the citizens. President Ivan Marquez, for instance, set entrepreneurship, legality, innovation, and environmental sustainability as the key pillars of cross-cutting the nation’s GDP. According to (Gómez-Navas & Serna-Dimas, 2017), Colombia has a promising record of microeconomic and fiscal management. The government, alongside private investors, is working towards attaining a flexible exchange rate in the stock market. According to the country’s treasury department, implementing rule-based fiscal frameworks will allow the country to achieve steady growth and an uninterrupted economy. The policy space provided by well-wishers, sponsors, and the government will help the country to increase its average annual income. Middle-class families will rise with the attainment of stable economies. An increase in the population of middle-class persons translates to lower poverty rates. Therefore, the gradual growth rate of middle-class persons in the country will help Colombia fight poverty. A rise in middle-class families means an increase in wealthy classes. World Bank fiscal reports highlights that, the business growth rates in Colombia will rise with the changing policy spaces incorporated in growing lower-class families into middle-class categories.

Conclusion

The Colombian government is playing a pivotal role in growing the middle class. First, the country is focusing on providing quality and inclusive education across the country. The gap between low-class and middle-class families originates due to the disparities in education. However, incorporating eligible education systems and programs would help build the middle class. Secondly, the provision of employment to youth in public sectors will help the government of Colombia to grow the middle class. Currently, the private sector dominates employment opportunities; if the government centralizes employment in the public sector, youth will gain more employment and join the middle class. The country will protect the middle-class with the need to stabilize the economy. Creating policy spaces, more employment opportunities, and quality education will help Colombia build the middle-class.

References

Dube, R & Forero, J. (2020). Covid -19 Derails Latin America’s Bid for Middle-Class Prosperity: region faces a record GDP decline this year and will likely lag behind other emerging markets in any recovery. The Wall Street Journal. Web.

Gómez-Navas, D., & Serna-Dimas, A. (2017). From Old Colonial Estates to New Modern Suburbs: The Emergence of the First Middle-Class Neighborhoods in Bogotá, Colombia (1925-1945). Journal of Urban History, 43(6), 979-999. Web.

Rasch, R. (2017). Measuring the middle class in middle-income countries. In Forum for Social Economics (Vol. 46, No. 4, pp. 321-336). Routledge. Web.

Uribe Mallarino, C., Ariza, K. L., & Ramírez, J. (2017). How we got here: the transition of Colombia’s middle class in social mobility perspective. Arts and Social Sciences Journal, 8(5). Web.

Population density is a universal concept in determination of population with specific focus on unit area and volume. Population density usually suffices in quantification of living organisms within a specific geographical location (Nielsen, 2011). It is an integral pillar in demographic considerations because it offers clear guidelines with regard to population trends in demographic contexts.

Population density is an important aspect because it guides experts in their endeavour to enhance planning and other undertakings that manifest in social contexts. It helps in monitoring and evaluation of population and social trends within society. Through studies on population, experts deduce information and data that helps in formulation of relevant policies and development strategies (Nielsen, 2011).

Population density is a relative concept that varies depending on various contextual parameters. Its manifestation and implication depends on various factors that determine its dichotomy and interpretation. Various social, cultural, and economic factors affect population density. For instance, population density manifests in variant proportions depending on prevailing contextual circumstances (Nielsen, 2011).

Population density in affluent neighbourhoods may not qualify as population density in poor neighbourhoods. People live in poor areas because of social and economic factors. This creates a situation of overcrowding and high population density.

Similarly, areas with high levels of civility experience low population density because of various social and economic dynamics. This reality manifests through various cultural undertakings that determine its occurrence and development in social contexts (Nielsen, 2011).

In future, America will experience an upsurge in population density and other dynamic areas that relate to population growth. Population growth will manifest in various cultural and social aspects that determine existence and propagation of population trends. Population trends in America shall embody various contextual parameters that affect population density.

American population consists of diverse cultural, social, and economic considerations that create a dynamic social entity. Future trends regarding population growth in America shall depend on various factors that may influence its ability to sustain growth and propagation of population (Rae, 2012).

Environments with dense populations present various challenges for people who live within them. In such environments, there is need for order and civility amongst its inhabitants. Such environments are challenging because of difficulties that emanate from people as they relate within such contexts (Rae, 2012). For instance, it is difficult for people to agree on various pertinent issues that affect their welfare within a group setting.

People tend to disagree over matters that require a high level of consensus and consultations. Such situations necessitate rules and regulations to guide people in their undertakings within such environments. Such rules govern and curb overcrowding in such environments (Rae, 2012).

However, such rules do not necessarily meet communal and societal objectives. It is difficult to control people in such environments because of diversity in views and opinions. It is important for people to uphold dignity and civility in dealing with other people within crowded environments (Rae, 2012). Wealthy people deal with congestion by instituting rules and regulations that deter admission of people into their areas of residence.

These rules ensure that people of lower economic dichotomies do not infiltrate their communities. Population density continues to elicit interest among interest groups and scholars. Population density is an important aspect because it guides experts in their endeavour to enhance planning and other undertakings that manifest in social contexts.

It helps in monitoring and evaluation of population and social trends within society (Rae, 2012). Through studies on population, experts deduce information and data that helps in formulation of relevant policies and development strategies.

References

Nielsen, N. (2011). The Dynamics of Population. London: Spear Books Ltd.

Rae, T. (2012). Population Trends in Contemporary Society. London: Folens Limited.

Introduction

Ageism is the natural course of getting old. All living human beings get old after a certain number of years. There are a lot of changes that accompany aging, such as body, appearance, conduct, health, and approach. Ironically, ageism is associated with various biases and inequalities in society as well as the business world.

Due to the incessant innovations in science and technology, life has become very fast, and the human race has become so busy that people don’t have time for anything else other than earning money and sustaining the global competition. In such circumstances, the elderly people, who don’t earn, are left in solitude. The society also doesn’t care for them because they are of no assistance.

This paper consists of four major segments. The first segment consists of the standard research headings such as the research question, problem statement, purpose statement, and hypothesis.

The second segment consists of a question, based on PICO, an acronym used in evidence-based practice. PICO stands for patient population or patient condition of interest (P), the intervention of interest (I), comparison of interest (C), and outcome of interest (O). The third segment is the literature review, and the fourth segment recommends three practices based on the reviewed literature.

Research question: In socially isolated older people, does social networking alleviate loneliness compared to social disengagement?

Problem statement: I would like to investigate the problem of loneliness among the elderly population and how it can be alleviated. Without proper intervention, loneliness tends to lead to other secondary health problems.

Purpose statement: This study aims to determine if the social engagement can alleviate the problem of loneliness among the elderly population.

Hypothesis: There is a positive outcome in engaging the elderly in social activities and alleviation of loneliness among the elderly population.

Independent variable: The independent variable in this study is Social engagement/social activity. This implies that the investigation will be grounded on how social engagement, the independent variable, triggers an effect on the loneliness, the dependent variable.

Dependent variable: The dependent variable is loneliness.

Information Search Critique Paper

General Article

The general article that I will talk about is titled ‘Million elderly people are lonely.’ No online research was required for this article because it was available on BBC News on 31^st October 2008. The article stressed the role of social networks in helping to alleviate loneliness and isolation for senior citizens.

The fact that British Broadcasting Corporation is the financer of this report is an indication that any form of bias is as limited as possible. This is because the organization does not have direct benefits from social networking that the report recommends for the elderly. Baltes and Mayer (2001) observe that social media has affected the mass media’s profitability. The fact that this corporation is supporting the use of social networking for the elderly confirms that this report holds some truth.

I strongly believe that this report is of high quality. Schmidt and Brown (2012) note that the credibility of an article can be determined by analyzing the source of information. The article has been sponsored by a reputable organization, which has a responsibility to provide credible information to the public.

This organization can be held responsible for any information that is released to the public, and therefore, such reports are always thoroughly scrutinized by several editors. Scholarly articles have been used in the report, which enhances its validity. As Glicken (2009) observes, credible reports should always be supported by other scholarly researches, which have been done empirically by other scholars.

Scholarly Articles

The first scholarly article that will be discussed is Loneliness and Health-Related Quality of Life for the Empty Nest Elderly in the Rural Area of a Mountainous County in China, which was published in ‘Quality of Life Research’ in 2010.

Two Chinese scholars, Liu Li-Juan and Guo Qiang, wrote this article. Liu Juan is a community health worker who has been working with the elderly in various cities in China. This author is, therefore, credible enough to write this report. Guo Qiang is a psychologist who has worked in several health institutions in Shanghai, China. The two authors have had several years of experience in dealing with the elderly, especially addressing the issue of their loneliness.

This article was funded by these two authors and was published by Springer. Both the scholars have been working with the elderly for some time, and their decision to write this article and fund it means that they had a conviction that this information was necessary. This means that this article presents no form of bias. The concern of these two individuals was to find the best way of dealing with loneliness among the elderly, and how they could be engaged positively as a way of keeping them away from stress.

The quality of the information presented in this scholarly article is of a high standard. According to Murero and Rice (2013), the best way of determining the quality of a report is to understand the authors of the report. This is because a report can only be valid if the author has authority in that particular field. The two authors of this report have spent years working directly with the elderly on various issues, including the issue of loneliness and some of the consequences that accompany it.

They have also spent time with the elderly and other stakeholders in trying to find the best ways of solving this issue. According to Schmidt and Brown (2012), primary sources of information are always important because the researcher gets to understand the issue under investigation on the first-hand basis.

This means that this report is based on first-hand research; hence, its quality is very high. The fact that these two scholars have had the opportunity to deal directly with the elderly and considering their rich academic backgrounds, the report seems to be valid.

The second scholarly article that will be discussed is ‘The Social Context of Disablement among Older Adults: Does Marital Quality Matter for Loneliness?’ which was published in the Journal of Health and Social Behavior in 2012.

David Warner and Jessica Kelley-Moore are the authors of this article. The two scholars are research assistants at Case Western Reserve University in the department of sociology. They both hold doctorate degrees in relevant fields and have taught for several years. The two are currently working on several projects related to loneliness among the aging population. They are known for their astute skills in research, and this has made this university trust them with this research.

Case Western Reserve University has fully funded this research. According to Phellas (2012), research funded by various organizations should always be scrutinized for possible bias because such an organization could be having personal interests to be achieved by that particular research. Case Western Reserve University has no particular interests that would benefit it unfairly when this report is published. I, therefore, believe that this does not present any bias in the report.

The impression I have in the quality of this report is that it does give the basics on how loneliness can be handled among the elderly, including the use of social engagement. The years these two scholars have taken teaching in this, and other related fields make the quality of the report good.

The information in this report is valid based on the empirical research that the two scholars conducted. Djurup (2010) says that the quality secondary sources of evidence given in a report can help determine its validity. These scholars used reliable secondary sources. The fact that this article is peer-reviewed further enhances its validity (Lewin, 2009).

General Websites

The title of the first general website that I will discuss is ‘The Elder Loneliness Epidemic: The caregiver’s survival guide: Family caring for family.’ Anne-Marie Botek is the author of the information on this website. She graduated from the University of Georgia with a Bachelor of Science degree, specializing in marketing.

However, she has spent a lot of time with the elderly, especially trying to engage them in physical fitness as one of the best ways to spend their time. This makes her a credible source of this information despite her academic specialization. She is also the editor in chief of this online organization.

This article has been fully funded by AgingCare.com, an online organization that seeks to offer a guide to the elderly and those offering care to them on the best practices in this field. This website has other products it is selling to the elderly, and families and other caregivers of the elderly. It is, therefore, possible that most of their publications would be focused on how to market their products, making it possible that they can be biased. However, this particular topic does not relate to any of their products or advertisements in any way. This makes me feel that there is no bias in this article.

The quality of the information presented in this website is just enough to focus some light into this field but from a different perspective. According to Fitzpatrick and Montgomery (2010), people with a sound academic background in that field would always give a quality report. This is because they understand the theoretical and conceptual frameworks relevant to the field. However, Lewis (2010) says that years of experience can enable a person to have a commanding knowledge in that particular field.

The experience that Ann-Marie Botek has gained as a trainer of the elderly gives her the capacity to deliver credible information. When talking about general search strategies, Schmidt and Brown (2012) talk to identify the appropriate sources based on the credentials of the authors. In this research, the experience of Ms. Botek helps in giving a different perspective to this research. Given that she is a physical trainer of the elderly, she knows the benefits of physical training in fighting loneliness.

The second general website that I will discuss is ‘Aging Population: How to tackle the loneliness among older people? Take the children to visit’. Andrew Harrop is the author of this article. He is the current director of Age Concern Group, a non-governmental agency that seeks to address issues concerning the age. Harrop has taken several years working in this field, and the information he has given on this article was based on the realities he met while working with the elderly.

The Guardian Newspaper is the sole financier of this site. The owners of this newspaper could have personal interests over the issue that this may influence the kind of report they give that may constitute bias (Norman, 2008). However, two factors will put this bias under check hence makes me trust the source.

The first factor is that the author is a human rights activist who has been vocal on the need to protect the aging. This means that he would not allow the editors to distort his message. The second factor is that this topic does not raise any direct benefit to this firm, and therefore, the need to distort this information is limited.

The Guardian is one of the leading newspapers in the world, and its editors always believe in the delivery information in a quality manner. Before its publication, this document must have gone through a rigorous review by the editors. Schmidt and Brown (2012) note that synopsis can help determine the quality of research. The synopsis given in this article demonstrates that the author has a great understanding of the topic under research.

The author of this report has also taken time to engage with the elderly through his organization, enabling him to give the true picture of the current state of affairs, and the possible move to address the issues. As MacDonald (2012) observes, it is important to engage all the stakeholders while addressing a particular issue. The author is part of the financiers of various activities for the elderly.

Scholarly Websites

The title of the first scholarly website that I will discuss is ‘Preventing loneliness and social isolation among older people.’ Social Care Institute for Excellence published this information. This is a credible institution. It has been offering training in various fields, including vocational training on how to manage the elderly (Lewinsy, 2009).

Social Care Institute for Excellence funds the article and the site. This may present bias because the organization may attempt to convince the public that its services are the best in the market. However, this distortion would be limited by the fact that the topic raises a lot of interest to the public, and any misinformation can be treated with contempt.

The source of this information is a learning institution. This means that it is based on research conducted by specific scholars. I believe that this makes this research trustworthy in terms of the authority it has in this field.

The summary of this article shows that the researcher had deep knowledge of the issue under investigation, as explained by Schmidt and Brown (2012). As McKenzie (2009) observes, empirical research always yields valid results if they are conducted with people of integrity who understand what it takes to research in the right manner.

The title of the second scholarly website that I will discuss is ‘Loneliness, depression, and sociability in old age.’ Archana Sing and Nishi Misra are the authors of this information. These two are scholars who have spent years of research at the UN National Institute of Health.

US National Institute of Health funds this site through the US National Library of Medicine. The source of funding may influence some form of bias, especially when the government is intending to influence a given lifestyle among the elderly.

I believe that the quality of this information and its validity is high because the public knows this organization for its commitment, including the aging population, in providing reliable information. Schmidt and Brown (2012) have stated the importance of Meta-analysis in the field of medicine, and this research has followed this guideline.

Evidence-based Practice Source

‘Psychotherapeutic treatments for older depressed people’ is the topic of the evidence-based practice source. Wilson, Mottram, and Vassilas are the authors of this information. They are scholars who have published various books of psychology and related field. John Wiley & Sons Limited funds this site as part of its online library. John Wiley & Sons is a large publishing firm, and given its reputation, the fact that it funds this site presents no bias.

Schmidt and Brown (2012) have described Cochrane Library as one of the most trusted online libraries in the field of medicine. Articles published on this website always go through a rigorous review before they are made available to online users. As Lake (2007) observes, one way of obtaining valid online resources is to determine the authority that the site commands in a particular field. Cochrane Library commands a lot of respect in this field, a fact that confirms the validity of this report.

Three Practice Recommendations

1. To try and strengthen the quality of relationships between the elderly and their spouses as well as with their children.
2. To enhance social networking, through the establishment of support groups that can easily offer the required level of companionship.
3. To ensure constant monitoring of the wellbeing of the elderly, a community-based health worker can be tasked with making regular home visits to select vulnerable individuals.

Practice Recommendations’ Supporting Literature

Quality and quantity: the role of social interactions in individual health by Fiorillo and Sabatini identifies the loss of a spouse and the moving away of children as causes of loneliness (Fiorillo & Sabatini, 2011). In most cases, the elderly normally find themselves abandoned, neglected, or simply become lonely after their children move away, a factor that greatly contributes to their loneliness. This is especially true for elderly persons who also happen to be widows/widowers. Also, helping to rekindle family relationships can lead to the creation of lifelong relationships and support systems.

Preventing loneliness and social isolation: interventions and outcomes, an article by Windle, Francis, and Coomber suggests that by eliminating the risk of loneliness among the elderly, the system will also reduce the number of senior citizens in need of medical attention due to conditions that co-occur with loneliness. Furthermore, social networking events or support groups would cost considerably less to organize compared to any medical costs (Windle et al., 2011).

According to Preventive home visits to older people are cost-effective, an article by Sahlen, Lofgren, Helllner, &. Lindholm, research findings on the cost effectiveness of home visits by nurses are quite encouraging (Sahlen et al., 2008). Such visits, in addition to allowing for the assessment of their state of mind, would also allow for the assessment of the quality of relationships that such individuals are engaged in.

GRADE Ranking

The GRADE approach will be utilized to gauge the value and likely effectiveness of the recommendations made. With the help of this method, the recommendations can be categorized as strong/weak, depending on various factors.

Furthermore, the system classifies evidence provided as high, moderate or low (Grades A, B, and C respectively), depending on the consistency of the results, the precision of estimates, the risk of bias and the directness of the evidence provided (Schmidt & Brown, 2012). Based on the findings, when a tradeoff between the risks and benefits is made, a recommendation can then be considered for implementation as an intervention.

Summary

If the loneliness of the elderly people can be alleviated, most of their physical and mental problems will be minimized. This study has come up with some solutions to alleviate such loneliness. Social engagement is one such aspect that can be helpful. There have been various instances where social engagement has brought relief to elderly people.

Disability is one of the prime reasons of loneliness of the elderly. Disabled elderly people cannot earn and have to depend on their children for sustenance. Regular home visits by nurses can help the elderly in getting some relief. To conclude, we all can contribute our bit towards the alleviation of the elderly people’s loneliness.

References

Baltes, P. B., & Mayer, K. U. (2001). The Berlin aging study: Aging from 70 to 100; a research project of the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Djurup, R. (2010). Your guide to Google Web search: How to find the information you need on the Internet. Boston: Rebidu.

Fiorillo, D., & Sabatini, F. (2011). Quality and quantity: the role of social interactions in individual health. Social Science and Medicine, 73, 1644-1652.

Fitzpatrick, J. J., & Montgomery, K. S. (2010). Internet for nursing research: A guide to strategies, skills, and resources. New York: Springer Publishing Company.

Glicken, M. D. (2009). Evidence-based counseling and psychotherapy for an aging population. Amsterdam: Academic Press.

Lake, J. (2007). Textbook of integrative mental health care. New York: Thieme.

Lewin, D. (2009). Consumer health informatics: Informing consumers and improving health care. New York: Springer.

Lewinsy, J. (2009). Loneliness among the elderly. New York: Springer.

Lewis, D. (2010). Consumer health informatics: Informing consumers and improving health care. New York: Springer.

MacDonald, P. D. M. (2012). Methods in field epidemiology. Burlington: Jones & Bartlett Learning.

McKenzie, B. C. (2009). Medicine and the Internet: the essential guide for doctors. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Murero, M., & Rice, R. (2013). The Internet and Health Care: Theory, Research, and Practice. New York: Springer.

Phellas, C. (2012). Aging in European Societies: Healthy Aging in Europe: Aging in European Societies. Berlin: Springer.

Sahlen, K., Lofgren, B., Helllner, M., & Lindholm, L. (2008). Preventive home visits to older people are cost-effective. Scandinavian Journal of Public Health, 36(3), 265-271.

Schmidt, N. A., & Brown, J. M. (2012). Evidence-based practice for nurses: Appraisal and application of research. Sudbury, MA: Jones & Bartlett Learning.

Windle, K., Francis, J., & Coomber, C. (2011). Preventing loneliness and social isolation: Interventions and outcomes – Research Briefing 39. Web.

Introduction

The less developed country that will be analyzed is Mexico. In 1980, the population pyramid had an evenly flowing triangle with a wide base and a very narrow apex. This shows that persons below the age of 30 were the majority while those about 80 years were just a fraction of the population. In 2050, the shape of the pyramid is that of a triangle with a thin apex and wider trunk than the base as shown in appendix 1.

This means that persons above 20 years and below 70 years were the majority as shown in Appendix 2. Another country is Afghanistan. In 1980, the population pyramid was an even and steep flowing triangle with a wide base and a very narrow apex with the majority age being persons from 0 to 4 years. In 2050, the shape of the pyramid is evenly flowing, but not every step with the population for each age bracket decreasing at a slower rate than in 1890 as indicated in appendix 3 and appendix 4.

Discussion

An example of a developed country is Italy. In 1991, the shape of the pyramid for this country was uneven, with the largest part being in the middle of the triangle. This means that the majority age bracket was 15 to 69 years as indicated in appendix 6. In 2050, the shape of the pyramid is that of an inverted triangle with the largest section being the age bracket between 35 to 80 years as indicated in appendix 5.

The sex ratio between male and female is similar in the three countries for persons above 80 years with a slight difference recorded in the developed country in the case of data for the year 2050 data, where the female gender at 80 years is expected to be more than the male gender as indicated in appendix 2, appendix 4, and appendix 6. However, there is a general trend of increased life expectancy in the three categories of countries with the highest being in developed countries followed by developing countries, and least in the undeveloped country.

The indicator of life expectancy is highest in the developed country followed by developing country and least in the underdeveloped country. However, the fertility rate is lowest in developed countries and highest in developed countries. Apparently, the mortality rate is highest in the least developed country. Generally, the life expectancy is increasing in all the categories of countries, that is, the population is getting older with the highest expectancy in developed countries. The life expectancy has increased by between 15% and 32% for the three countries. From the pyramids, there was a decline in the number of births per woman with the highest decline recorded in developed countries followed by the developing country, and least in the underdeveloped country.

Conclusion

The life expectancy rate was highest in developed counties. This shows that living standards are high in a developed country and low in an underdeveloped country. The high life expectancy is a result of better social and economic factors such as medical cover, social support, income, security, and general well-being in the developed country than the other two categories of countries. Apparently, the mortality rate is high in the least developed country due to a higher level of exposure to risks associated with poor health, pathetic living standards, and inability to attract better income as a result of high unemployment rates.

The unique challenges that the developed country is likely to face are the inability to attract enough labor and excessive expenditure in taking care of the aging population who are expected to work beyond retirement age. The developing country may face the challenge of increased unemployment and competition of limited resources as the life expectancy increases. The underdeveloped countries will face the challenge of increasing unemployment as the population grows and the inability to provide social amenities for the growing number of youths.

Appendices

Appendix 1

Appendix 2

Appendix 3

Appendix 4

Appendix 5

Appendix 6

Introduction

Population movements have been a common feature in the world for a long time. Some of the main reasons that influence population movements in many countries are political, social and economic reasons. For instance population movements came about as people were trying to look for better lives in other lands (economic reason for population movements), others were trying to escape from wars from their own countries and many other reasons. This paper will therefore trace the population movements in the world and some of the factors that contributed to the evolution of the world’s population.

Discussion

During this period a lot of countries were developing politically, economically or socially, this therefore meant that the countries that were not developing as first, the people had to move in search of jobs. For instance in Cuba, a lot of Cubans migrated to the United States after Fidel Castro became their leader. This was a result of the political developments in Cuba. Hence the population in the United States increased significantly. Today Miami Florida where a lot of Cubans settled their influence is still felt, this is especially in terms of language.

The same case applies to Europe whereby, by this time there was a lot of land in Europe and this really encouraged population increase and movements. Many developing countries were characterized by a lot of population growth and movements during this period. Most of these movements were labor movements that is people were migrating to different world in such of labor; this was especially so due to the industrial revolutions that was taking place in the world.

Family structures played an important role in the population movements in the world. For example most of the developing countries required peasant’s laborers to work in their farms, hence the peasant farmers moved in groups that are as families this contributed to growth of the population. In France, for example, the population growth was not very stable because agriculture was not stable. Therefore there was a lot of movement in and of France as peasant families were looking for farmlands.

Through these movements the world’s population has evolved through the different relationships that were formed. Hence by intermarriages between the people of different counties, a more diverse population was formed. In this case a research carried out in Italy helped to show the differences in the intermarriages and the importance of migrations, as the higher the migration rate the more diverse a community is. Therefore population movements helped to diversify the population, this is especially so in terms culture. For example, in Miami the language that is commonly used is Hispanic, this is as a result of the migration of different communities. This is one way in which the population movements have influenced the culture of different people.

The rise of modern medicine has helped in the evolution of the world’s population in that, during this period families were very large and this was seen as one factor that contributed to poverty, thus modern medicine helped to control the population. The high population meant that there were more workers than required and as result the wages paid to these workers were poor and as a whole the communities were poor. Through modern medicine the population was controlled, this was done by the family planning methods that were pit in place and thus the population reduced significantly.

Modern medicine has evolved the world’s population by ensuring that the death rate has significantly reduced. For example the eradication of small pox is one way in which modern medicine has helped evolve the population. Some diseases that used to affect people so much are not a problem any more. The availability of vaccines has also helped to maintain the population; there was also a reduction in the mortality rate. By 1950s most rich countries had recorded reduced death rates due to the modern medicine available. For instance the death rate for Tuberculosis in the United Sates between 1860 and 1960 reduced significantly. Modern medicine improved the lives of the people by reducing the death rate and improving their general welfare.

Women have played a major role in the evolution of the world’s population; this is by taking up responsibilities. During these period women accepted responsibilities that were earlier thought to be held by the men. It is noted that some widows raised their families on their own despite the earlier beliefs that they could not. This was one way of empowering the women in the society. Other women agreed to remarry but the children they had retained their surnames, other women took up leadership positions. In certain areas women intermarried with people from different parts of the community, this brought diversity in the community. Women begun to redefine the gender roles given to them, by doing this they changed the way women are perceived.

Conclusion

Population movements have helped to redefine the population of the world, whether these movements occur because of political, social or economic reasons. Over the years the world’s population has evolved, because it is affected by certain factors. Hence family structures, whereby people migrate to other lands with their families, intermarriages and the integration of different cultures helped to evolve the world’s population. Modern medicine also helped to redefine the world’s population by reducing the death rate and improving the general welfare of the people. The position of women in the community has changed so much in many ways; whereby women are taking up vigorous roles by not only taking care of their families but also being responsible of their community as well.

References

1. Leon, V. Uppity Women of the New World, (New York: Conari Press)
2. Role of Women. Web.
3. World Population.

Introduction

Economic analysts and their political counterparts are yet to concur on the truth of the allegations by the Population Association of Pakistan that effective population control measures have been put in place to reduce the population problems in Pakistan.

Despite the slight decline in the total fertility of Pakistan since the start of this decade, the country still remains one of the most fertile countries in the whole world. Some demographers have associated this decline with the increasing use of methods of contraception in limiting fertility but there still exists a considerable controversy regarding the effectiveness and contribution of contraception in the relatively lower fertility rates seen in Pakistan as this decade ends.

Despite the aforementioned decline in the fertility rate of Pakistan, the country still experiences insurmountable population related-problems and stakeholders have been struggling to find an amicable solution to the problem. The future of Pakistan population therefore depends on the measures that the government and other stakeholders will take to curb the problem. Otherwise, the predictions of future population in Pakistan based on trends in the past and the present are shocking.

If nothing much is done from now on, Pakistan is expected to be one of the three most populated countries in the whole world. This paper investigates the population problem in Pakistan by suggesting the possible reasons for the current population trends, the effects they have on the country, possible solutions to the prevailing population problems and future predictions of population in Pakistan and its implications.

Current population problems in Pakistan

Pakistan’s total population was more than 180 million in the year 2009 with a total fertility rate of 4.0 in the same year (Sathar 7). This can be considered to be exponential population growth if compared to the 1947 figure for total population of 33 million. Currently, more than three million children are born each year adding more people to the already unsustainable population.

Pakistan is currently the second largest contributor to global population after India. The country is estimated to currently have a population of more than 170, 000 and the current population growth rate is believed to be currently standing at a figure above 1.5% (Sathar 8). In addition to the large population that Pakistan has, it is characterized with the fastest rate of urbanization with more than 35% of its total population living in urban areas (Sathar 3).

The above mentioned population problems coupled with problems brought about by urbanization have made Pakistan to be among the countries that are most affected by population growth. This is because, large population and rapid population growth has brought problems in virtually all realms of life in this country. Examples of such problems include poverty, unemployment, political instability, illiteracy, terrorism and religious extremism etc.

Poverty is believed to have increased by 10% in the past decade hitting a total of 40% of total population (Sathar 3). This means that 40% of Pakistan residents live below the poverty line (Sathar 3). It is also estimated that virtually a half of the population in Pakistan is illiterate. This implies that in the future, poverty and child labor are expected to increase since education is the only tool that can be used to predict a better future for these people.

Additionally, those in the elite class have only acquired minimal education and they are unable to bring innovative ideas to the country. The country is thus painfully slow in its adoption of new technologies and ideas. This has led to economic degeneration and the country is, seemingly, unable to come up with measures to counteract the effects that large population size has had on its economy. The country as also suffered significant corruption and political instability due to its system of using establishments in organizations.

The country has also experienced an establishment of criminal and terrorist networks that have made it fail to qualify for investments and tourism. This is mainly due to the religious fanatics that make the most of Pakistan population. This is very unfortunate for Pakistan especially considering the fact that other countries like China are getting billions of dollars in form of foreign investment while other small countries like Philippines have a substantial amount of tourism activity and foreign investments.

Given the repercussions that these problems have had on the population of Pakistan, there is need to look into the causes of population growth and the cause of such problems in order to form effective policies that will help to end these problems. The discussion below investigates the root cause of the problems that Pakistan if facing and suggests a number of solutions that can be implemented to reduce the effects these problems have had on the people of Pakistan.

Causes of population problems

The main reason why Pakistan is facing the above mentioned problems is due to the inability of the government and the population of Pakistan to effectively reduce their population growth rate.

Therefore, the main causes of the problem are the causes of inefficiency in combating population growth. The stated inability of the government and the Pakistan population to reduce their rate of population growth is due to their lack of effectiveness in implementing family planning programmes which were started in this country in the 1950’s (Hagen 1).

The stated planning programmes failed in Pakistan because of a weakness in the administrative structure these programmes were subjected to. It can be deduced from the failure of these programmes that the government did not adequately educate the public about the crucial importance of family planning and the grave repercussions of ignorance of the same.

The government therefore needs to engage itself in public awareness campaigns aimed at educating the public about the importance of small families. The government also needs to be vigilant to identify populist politicians and deal with them accordingly before they derail efforts to educate the public and eventually reduce the population growth rates.

Despite the fact that Pakistan started fighting its population growth in the 1950’s with the implementation of population control programmes, nothing much has been achieved since then.

In comparison with other countries like Bangladesh and Iran, where family planning programmes like the use of contraceptives had a dramatic effect, Pakistan has not been serious with their family planning programmes. This is because Iran started its family programme in the 1980’s while Bangladesh started their in the 1970’s and both countries realized exponential declines their fertility rates unlike Pakistan (Hagen 1).

The people of Pakistan also have a role to play in the fight against population growth. They should listen to the government and ensure that they follow the instructions they are given in order to reduce their fertility rates. This is because one of the main reasons why family planning has been ineffective in this country is the fact that the citizens of this country cling to the religious and cultural values such that they forget to mind about their welfare.

For instance, it is a religious belief in Pakistan that engaging in family planning practices is going against the will of God (Hagen 1). The ineffectiveness of family planning programmes caused by these beliefs has been the reason why population in Pakistan is always growing and bringing the myriad of problems stated in the discussion above.

Solutions to the population problems in Pakistan

In order to effectively combat the population problem in Pakistan, there is need for a coherent approach aimed at removing the socio-cultural and religious stigma attached to the fight against population growth. This will help to prepare the people in Pakistan for a change to their normal life in order to achieve a productive change in the growth rate of their population.

There is also the need for implementation of a service delivery plan bound to achieve effective results throughout the entire country. The service delivery plan should be structured such that every Pakistan citizen who needs to plan his/her family will be able to access the necessary services. This is because it will be pointless to run advertisements on the television if there are no effective networks of workers on the ground to provide effective information and if there are no outreach activities (Sathar 4).

Up to today, the main reason for the failure of family planning programmes is the lack of political commitment to the issue and the lack of continuity of efforts after political transitions. If the prevailing lack of commitment to this important issue remains, change will always be evasive and Pakistan will continue to suffer the problems it currently suffers.

The government can also launch a programme to mitigate the effects that high population growth rates have had on the country by diverting some resources to alleviation of poverty, investing in agricultural activities to feed its citizens by increasing food security and coming up with policies to avoid formation of poor urban areas that increase poverty and crime.

To achieve this objective, the government needs to be objective since it has limited resources. For instance, to increase food security, the government may invest negligible resources in environmental conservation campaigns that will automatically lead to more agricultural activities. On the other hand, the government could alleviate poverty by subsidizing activities that lead to provision of food and educating the public on viable methods of investment.

Future population problems in Pakistan

If the prevailing population growth rate in Pakistan, 2.1 percent per year, persists, Pakistan is expected to have a population of between 220 million and 250 million between the years 2020 and 2025 (Hagen 1). This will inevitably be coupled with indicators of poor human development which include low rates of economic growth, high rates of infant mortality and an amazing decline in the levels of literacy in the country.

All these poor human development indicators will be partly or fully brought by the uncontrolled population growth. It is thus deducible that a the predicted population will be very effective in undermining poverty alleviation efforts and the efforts being taken in the country to improve the standard under which the country’s population live by provision of basic necessities like water, electricity and the like.

During the same five-year period, the total fertility rate, the infant mortality rate, the crude death rate and the crude birth rate are expected to reduce to figures close to 2.7, 42.2, 5.6, and 21.4 respectively (Sathar 7). The population growth rate is also expected to reduce to 1.52 while the life expectancy of the population will be close to 72 years (Sathar 9).

The discussion above implies that there will be no pronounced effect of the drop in the population growth rate since the life expectancy has increased and the negligible increase in population growth rate will be neutralized by the aging population to keep population problems virtually constant.

This stresses the highly needed commitment to contraceptive methods and other population control methods in order to reduce the population growth rate substantially. It is only when a major reduction in the rate of population growth will be realized that we can be hopeful that population problems in Pakistan will reduce in the future.

Strategies to avoid future population problems

Due to the above stated concern, the government of Pakistan has come up with population reduction policies aimed at gradually reducing the population growth rate. The government priority among its policies is the attainment of ensuring that, ten years from now, it will reach the replacement fertility level.

The above paragraph describes the intention of the government of Pakistan to reach a replacement fertility level in the year 2020 (Hagen 1). This is just a statement of what the government desires to do and without proper planning and commitment to the programmes concerned, the gravely desired decrease in the population of Pakistan will forever remain evasive.

The government of Pakistan therefore needs to integrate awareness programs with proper service delivery programs in a bid to be assured of improving the population situation in their country substantially.

The awareness programs should be aimed at ensuring that every Pakistan citizen understands that smaller families are better than larger families and helping every Pakistan citizen break cultural and social chains tying them to high fertility. The programme should be implemented to touch every part of the country and it should run for as long as the government will be assured that a family planning program will achieve substantial results.

The government should thus dedicate the minimal resources it has in this program and ensure the effectiveness of a family planning programme (Sathar 3). On the other hand, the family planning programme should be such that there is an efficient network of service delivery centers throughout the country to ensure that every part of the country participates in the efforts to reduce the population of the country.

There is also the need for the Pakistan government and public to begin realizing the importance of literacy to the alleviation of population related problem. It can, in fact, be argued that high fertility problems and problems encountered in implementing family planning programmes are due to the high level of illiteracy in the country.

If the government and its people prioritize improvement of education institutions, there can be a guarantee that the population problem and some of its resultant effects will reduce in the future. It is therefore of essence that, as it implements other solutions, the government considers revolutionizing the education system of the country since this will have positive effects on the problems the country is currently facing.

Conclusion

The Pakistan government and population have encountered insurmountable problems related to their high population growth rates since the fifties. Currently, forty per cent of the people in Pakistan are below the poverty line and illiteracy and low standards of living have engulfed the country’s population for decades.

The Pakistan government and population can no longer be ignorant of the fact that the situation can be improved sacrificing their religious and cultural beliefs to have small families. For instance, if the Pakistan people abandon their belief that family planning amounts to going against the will of God, better results can be seen from family planning efforts and this will substantially reduce the population growth rate.

The government and the population need to realize that small families are needed in order to realize personal and national health. The government therefore needs to develop strategic programmes aimed at creating extensive public awareness that will make the population in Pakistan realize the importance of family planning.

This should be followed by family planning programmes which will definitely have an impact on the population growth rate since the Pakistan population will have gained an understanding of the grave importance of low birth rates. Otherwise, the existing problems of poverty, unemployment, illiteracy, etc will worsen and with time the country will fall under the weight of its sheer population size.

Works Cited

Hagen, Catherine. “Pakistan Population.” Web.

Sathar, Zeba. “Fertility in Pakistan: Past, Present and Future.” 2001. Web.

Introduction

There has been a general trend of increase in the life expectancy of the population of many countries. This has been brought about by the governments taking measures to improve the quality of healthcare. Diseases which used to kill people in large numbers are now much more reduced; thus, the reduced mortality may be a factor that contributes to the increase in the proportion of the aged group.

However, there has also been reduced fertility of the people who live in most developed countries. Though in most developing countries the fertility rate is still high, these countries are expected to experience reduced fertility rates gradually until they reach a point where most of the population will comprise of mainly the aged.

Improvement in the healthcare systems of developing nations also leads to reduced mortality, thereby making the aged to comprise a sizeable population of the nations. However, increase in the aged population creates many economic and social conditions which government must be able to anticipate and devise mechanisms to help solve the issues.

Challenges posed by an aging population

The aging population poses many different challenges. Here we discuss the challenges posed by an aging population with four perspectives in mind.

• Impacts on labour
• Impacts on healthcare
• Impacts on government spending

Impacts on labour

The increase in the proportion of the people who are old leads to a decrease of the number of people who are within the working age. This greatly affects the labour market of the concerned countries. Generally, the working age is approximately 15-64 years; and as the ratio of the aged population increases, the number of people who are retiring increases. However, the number of people who join employment to fill the vacancy left by the retired people is less than the number of people who have left employment.

This decline is due to the low fertility rates of the population (Groshen and Kliitgaard, 2002, p 2). This leads to a reduction of the workforce which is available to for economic development. Another important dimension to the problem is the fact that since most of the workforce is occupied by the aged leads to reduced output. This reduced output of the workers ultimately leads to reduced economic growth

Impacts on government spending

The aged population does not normally work for the government; they mainly depend on the social services provided by the government. These social services provided by the government are mainly the social security services and pension schemes as well as medical insurance cover targeting mainly the old population.

The pension given to the old is normally funded by the people who are in active employment; that is, the contribution that the working population makes to the scheme is used to pay the benefits of the retired people, a system known as the Pay-As-You-Go (PAYG). Therefore, reduction in the number of people who join employment leads to a reduction in the funds available to cater for pension fund payments.

Given that the proportion of people who are leaving employment through retirement is expected to increase greatly especially when the population which was born during the baby boom (1946-1964) reaches the retirement age (Zaidi, 2008, p 7), the government would be forced to look for funds from alternative sources. Therefore, the increased ageing increases the number of people who depend on the government to cater for expenses.

Medical insurance provided for the old is mainly categorized into two groups; Medicare and Medicaid. Medicare is specifically designed to help the provision of healthcare to people who are 65 years and above, and covers the cost of in-patient healthcare. Medicaid covers medical expenses of the poor regardless of whether they are aged or not.

It mainly covers for long-term and severe ailments of them. However, the main burden of the government due to Medicaid is the fact that most of the citizens in the middle-class do not have a sizeable saving to protect them from any health eventuality when they are old. These people will use all their assets in case of any eventuality, making them to qualify for Medicaid and leading them to be admitted into nursing homes.

However the increase in the cost of social insurance for the aged specifically medicare an medicaid has attracted so much political debate with the government being urged to curtail the increase so as to reduce the financial burden of the policies.

Impact of an aging population on healthcare

The aged people are usually faced with many ailments due to reduced ability of the body to fight against certain diseases. The diseases of old age are mainly due to the physiological and psychological changes which have occurred over time. These diseases include depression and certain types of cancer, among others; therefore, these people will occupy more bed space in hospitals. In addition, the aged population requires specialized care and hence more attention to be provided by the nurse or doctor.

Increase in the population of this people will therefore demand the deployment of more doctors and nurses in the hospitals; however, some of the aged people can be taken care of in nursing homes for the elderly. But due to the shortage of nursing homes, these people end up being hospitalized; leading to overstretching of the available facilities (Willis, 2008, p 26) .This increases the government spending on healthcare issues if it does not take appropriate measures.

Nevertheless, increase in the government spending in order to meet financial obligation posed by the increased aged population will lead to increased government debt if the government does not take effective measures to avert the problem.

Government measures

In order to address the problem of reduced workforce due to an aging population, most governments enacted policies which encourage people to work longer. This measure will help in increasing the number of people who retire late and thereby help in reducing the government’s financial obligations towards the old (Groshen and Kliitgaard 2002 p 3). Moreover, increased dependency also makes the government to increase taxes so as to cater for its financial obligations towards the old.

The government has set up measures to ensure that the aged continue to enjoy quality lifestyles even after retirement. These measures include setting up Medicaid, Medicare, Disability, Welfare and Supplemental Security Income.

Due to the extra financial burden of meeting the cost of social security of people, the government has proposed an increase in the age that the social security fund can be fully accessed. This reduces the term that a person will receive the benefits, thereby reducing the money that the government spends on social security (Aaron and Orszag, n.d).

Most governments have devised methods to reduce the money paid to the old as social security. This may be in the form of changing the methods used to increase the social security of the old so as to protect them from the effects of inflation. Some governments have also increased the retirement age so that people work longer, hence reducing the dependency on the government’s social welfare services.

The governments have also devised methods of improving the fertility rates so as to counter the challenge of reduced labour force posed by increase in old age population. The government does so in various ways; for instance, the government may give cash bonuses to encourage people to have more children, as well as encouraging immigration. These immigrants should be young than the mean age of the current population, who will be able to enhance the existing workforce (Foot, 2008, p 3).

Benefits of an aging population

Despite the fact that the aging population poses real economic problems to the government, the impacts of an aging population are somehow exaggerated. The aging population may indeed be of benefit to the government if government is able to cope properly with the problems and put appropriate measures.

The older generation who are richer than the rest of the community can get involved in community voluntary activities hence helping in improving the quality of life of the society. In addition, older generation people are also more law abiding than the young people; therefore, the increase in the population will lead to reduced crime as the older generation does not get involved in crime per se (Quadagno, 2010)

Due to the fact that an older generation leads to general reduction in population, the presence of a large proportion helps to combat high population growth and hence reduce the effects of uncontrolled population growth. There will be a reduction in the problems of poor housing due to overcrowding as the aged population will be able to afford decent housing.

This will have reduced impact of the problems that overcrowding causes on the environment. Moreover the aged population is also likely to get involved in voluntary activities some of which may be of benefit to the environment (Quadagno, 2010)

Lack of enough manpower in the labour market is also likely to lead to a reduction in the levels of unemployment and hence reduces the problems associated with unemployment. These include the reduction of poverty levels and crime associated with unemployed population. The increase in the aged population may also lead to reduced government spending on education, a major expense of that the government always foots (Quadagno, 2010).

Conclusion

The economic recession made governments to think of ways to cut back on their spending pattern. Therefore, since increase in ageing population increases the financial burden of the government, the government must devise appropriate mechanisms to deal with the problem.

Moreover, if the government properly understands the problems, it can be able to turn around the phenomenon so that it may be of more benefit to the whole nation. This is mainly through the enactment of proper legislation to help cope with the risks posed by the problems. Moreover, the most effective way of combating the problem would be through the gradual increase in the retirement age of the workforce to cope with the problem.

References

Aaron, H. J. and Orszag, P. R. (N.d). The impact of an aging population. Web.

Foot, D. K. (2008). Some economic and social consequences of population ageing. Web.

Groshen, L. E. and Kliitgaard, T. (2002). Live long and prosper: challenges ahead for an aging population. Current issues in economics and finance, Vol. 8, No. 2. Web.

Quadagno, J. (2011). Aging and the life course: An introduction to social gerontology. Boston: MA: McGraw-Hill.

Willis, E. and Reynolds, L. (2008). Understanding the Australian Health Care System. NSW: Elsevier.

Zaidi, A. (2008). Features and challenges of population ageing: the European perspective. Web.

China is the world’s most densely populated country and makes up one-fifth of today’s world’s total population. The country’s large population, rapidly changing demographic patterns and future uncertainties has caught the attention of policy makers worldwide (Riley 3).

The country’s rapidly growing economy and its demographics are a proof that China will be in the global spotlight for years. China has endured several socio-economic challenges over the past few decades; however, most of the problems that the country faces today are related to recent demographic changes.

A census taken recently has revealed that population increased to 1.34 billion in 2010 as compared to 1.27 billion in 2000. Annual population growth rate averaged to 0.57% in the past 10 years. This is a significant decrease compared to 1.07% for the previous ten years. The census statistics also revealed the emergence of a rapidly aging population. People over the age of 60 years comprised 13.3% of the total population in 2010.

This is an increase in comparison to 10.3% for the year 2000. Part of the population under the age of 14 years was 16.6%, a decline down from 23% in the year 2000 (United Nations Population Fund 18).

The Chinese government has been implementing a one child policy law since 1979. This law limits the number of children that a married couple can have to one child. It was a policy created to mitigate environmental and socio-economic problems in the Country (Riley 9).

Authorities concerned with population matters claim that prevention of over 400 million births occurred since the implementation of the one child policy. The policy makers have further claimed that the law has led to decreased pollution levels and decreased pressure on global food supplies.

In spite of the preventing millions of births, the one child policy has created immense socio-economic challenges for China and caused irremediable interference in the structure of Population Growth in China. A projection by The United Nations Population Division has revealed that the population of people above 60 years old in China will be 31% of the country’s total population by 2050 (United Nations Population Fund 25).

This is a challenge for the country’s policy makers. It has already been evidenced that the constantly growing percentage of the elderly in China is straining the country’s resources.

Over the past decades, family compositions and marriages in China suffered due to changes in government policies, reduced fertility rates and marriage laws. China just like other Asian nations has a custom for son predilection.

This can be observed with the followers of Confucianism who openly prefer sons over daughters. They consider a son to be more helpful in the farms than a daughter. They believe that having a son is better because he will provide monetary support to his parents later in life when they retire.

These Confucian beliefs and the one child law have created a shortage of females in the Country. The male to female ratio in China is the highest in the world and stands at 1.13 male to 1 female. Projections show that China will have approximately 30 million more males than females in China by 2020; this may lead to social volatility (Riley 22).

Conclusion

Vast demographic changes in China’s recent history affect a country’s development and operational policies. Considering China’s economic, political and demographic importance to the world, the country’s future population is of immense significance worldwide (Riley 32). Predicting what exactly will happen in China over the next decades seems to be impossible.

However, the effects of the government policies on reproduction, family size, fertility rates and marriages will almost certainly continue to affect the country in the predictable future.

Problems brought about by reduced population growth rates and the one child policy, for example, a dwindling labor force; are sufficient reasons for policy makers in China to be concerned about the Country’s future development and social status in the world.

Works Cited

Riley, Nancy 2004, China’s Population:New Trends and Challenges, Population Bulletin 59, no. 2. Washington, DC: Population Reference Bureau. Web.

United Nations Population Fund. Report on Population Dynamics in the LDCs: Challenges and Opportunities for Development and Poverty Reduction. Web.