Category: Pollution

Introduction

In economics terms an externality or a spill-over can be defined as an effect caused by a party that is not directly concerned with making the economic decision. This happens when an economic activity makes a third party incur external costs (or gains) while not directly taking part in the economic transaction. This means that in a given market, the sellers and buyers do not get the all the benefits and incur all the costs of whichever economic activity they engage in. Pollution, which is a negative externality is caused by production or consumption processes. Pollution is divided into several types which in clued water, air, land, radioactive, noise, and thermal pollution.

Air pollution is the sign of disturbances to the normal composition of the components which make up the atmosphere. It can also be said to be the changes to the normal atmospheric composition caused by the introduction of foreign substances both knowingly and unknowingly. Air pollution is mostly caused by the reaction of compounds that are reactive and not biodegradable. It can also occur when the natural gaseous exchange cycles such as nitrogen and carbon cycles are interfered with to an extent that excess gas is removed from or added to the atmosphere. These cycles can be tampered with through human actions such as deforestation and release of gaseous emissions. Source of air pollution include: components of electrical manufacturing, roadway construction, fuel production, volcanic eruption, solvent evaporation, solid waste, building demolition, fertilizers plants, auto manufacturing, industrial processes, heat and power generation facilities, motor vehicle exhaust (Blanchard & Fischer 1990).

Water pollution happens when additional impure materials to the water in high quantities. When this continues to the extent that the water is declared unfit for its intended use, it is hence said that the water is polluted. Water pollution is mostly caused by infiltration of water bodies by fertilizers and sewages that have compounds such as phosphates and nitrate. An excess of these compounds can lead to the overgrowth of aquatic plants and algae which act as a barrier blocking sunlight from reaching other marine life while blocking waterways. This affects marine economic activities such as tourism and fishing (Elson & Cagatay 2000).

The presence of externalities such as pollution in a market-based economy would normally be assumed that its rules will direct us to locative efficiency and probably not being socially efficient. The fact that the externality is there hence gives an example of a market that has failed to accomplish market efficiency. Thus real locative efficiency may not be achieved until the externality for instance pollution is addressed and put into account for correct economic analysis.

Noise pollution also results from production and consumption processes too. This can be reflected from noise from a factory that is located near civilian settlement, and loud music being played by a neighbor next door. Soil pollution is a result of deposition and accumulation of solid, non-biodegradable wastes and toxic substances which eventually change the soil structure and the normal soil pH of a given sample of soil. Soil pollution may lead to devastating effects such as desertification, clogging and swamping, and if not checked the soil structure will be permanently destroyed. Other types of pollution with bad effects include thermal pollution which leads to the overheating in the atmosphere and radioactive or nuclear pollution which involves the release of radioactive substances such as uranium to the environment (Devra 2004).

Possible Solutions to Pollution Externalities

This externality can be resolved or checked with government intervention and to some extent without government intervention. In one way government can control pollution through prohibition of the activities that lead to pollution, and regulation of the quantity of pollution that is allowed. While civilians can counter pollution by putting in place moral codes of conduct, and supporting companies that are anti-pollution by buying more of their products, advertising them through word of mouth. These approaches can be executed as explained below.

Government Intervention Through Prohibition

The government can pass legislation that makes most or all pollution activities illegal with heavy penalties for offenders. This is a highly risky plan and should be implemented mostly as a last resort in order to reduce pollution which may be life-threatening to the population in the area. The risky aspect about it is that most production activities (such as manufacturing) lead to pollution hence this type of law could lead to a large number of people losing the source of their livelihoods.

For example, a paint manufacturing factory that is located upstream on a river that supports a large number of fishermen who live in the area can be dumping its wastes and sludge into the river. With time this will lead to a reduction and eventually death of all the fish which is the fishermens source of livelihood. The fishermen will then be rendered jobless. In this situation the government can come in and ban dumping into the river in order to protect the fishermens source of livelihood (Hoffman & Turley 2002).

Government Intervention Through Regulation Of Pollution

From a different perspective, instead of prohibiting pollution the government can regulate the levels of pollution through regulation of the number of pollutants that can be released into a given environment. Regulation can be by use of dumping tax, setting up production standards such as quality of equipment to be used, and recruiting experts to help in the regulation of pollution.

With reference to the example on the fishermen and the paint manufacturing factory, the government would introduce some sort of payment for the factory on a given amount of waste released into the river. This is because more practical than prohibiting dumping because; prohibition might on the other hand lead to closure of the paint factory hence loss of jobs. Therefore this would be a compromise but the factory will have to pay for it to continue its operation. The government can compensate the fishermen by paying them a percentage of the amount paid by the factory for the damage done to the river (Landsgurg & Feintone, 1997).

There are disadvantages that are associated with this option of regulation to both government and the population. One is that the government will have to employ extra help from experts to help in checking the levels of pollution and how much is paid. Secondly, there is basically no reason for the firms to reduce pollution apart from the penalty of paying for the extra costs, and the finally, firms that make a lot of money would continue dumping because they have can pay for it. Nevertheless, this seems to be the more practicable approach the government could take.

Solution Without Government Intervention

Pollution can also be countered without government intervention as sometimes government is slow to respond to some urgent issues. One way of doing this is through the adoption of some moral codes of conduct, and supporting companies that are anti-pollution by buying more of their products, advertising them through word of mouth (Brugan 2003).

Moral codes which have roots in peoples way of life do not need to be written nor have police in place to look out for offenders. Anti-pollution codes such as littering, smoking in public areas, the use of road-unworthy vehicles among others are just but a few examples that can be used to counter pollution. Bring out citizens who have respect for their environment and have the general goodwill of their environment at heart can go a long way toward reducing the levels of pollution. A manufacturing company that has workers who are environmentally conscious may make the company reconsider its pollution due to being enlightened (Romer 2005).

In addition, social conventions can be used to cope with the negative effects of pollution. They can be used as a tool to make people be accountable and aware of the pollution they cause. This can make them change their behavior and instill in them the responsibility they have towards the environment, this can be done especially to young children so that they grow with these values in them. These conventions can also be used to teach people how to respond to pollution problems at their level.

On the other hand it is difficult to hold individuals accountable for the pollution they have caused. Taking individuals to account involves time and costs; time in the sense that while you are trying to make them answerable, they may be doing it somewhere else or someone else can also be doing it. Costs in the sense that these processes involve lawsuits which are expensive in terms of paying lawyers and the period it may take to for the suit to materialize. The time and money spent will end up being more than the damage that has been caused to the environment.

Conclusion

In a market that is purely private a good or service is usually produced too much or too little. Market failures are caused by externalities; this is because the market players tend to tend to prioritize their personal costs in front of those costs of outsiders. They tend to keep their personal welfare maximum by equating the marginal personal advantage from an action with the marginal private costs. The rationale of this is to categorize and negotiate with any would-be 3^rd parties in order to make it difficult for them to have a reasonable effect in the market (Mankiw 1998).

The problems associated with pollution have a capability to cripple a countrys economy if it spins out of control. The fact that countries such as the U.K., U.S. and majority of the European Union are passing laws to combat pollution send a message that its effects are not good. Therefore it is important for any economy to be educated to increase awareness of these sensitive issues. The environment qualities now and in future are an important aspect globally. Hence, externalities are being considered in major decision making processes. In most cases the social cost of fuel and electricity can basically be related to impacts to the environment and production, the balance of trade, the exhaustion of nonrenewable resources together with many more impacts.

If not checked pollution may lead to an environmental collapse globally. If possible it must be ensured that the 1^st world counties must work together with the 3^rd world countries to ensure that the 1^st world does not add to these environmental problems; this can be done while at the same time coming up with ways of providing cheap technologies that are both efficient and effective to the 3^rd world countries. On the other hand conservation strategies should be brought into play, to protect the little that is remaining in its pure form.

An Analysis of the Role for Macroeconomic Policy That Influence

Unemployment

The main subject in macroeconomics is whether markets can be left alone and without any intervention can regulate themselves in such a way that they run at equilibrium in the long run. When the market forces are independently worked to achieve a level of full employment of the national income with nearly constant prices and a growth in the economy; government intervention would not be necessary hence fiscal monetary exchange rate and supply-side policies would not be needed either. Anyway it is true that all governments get involved using macro-economic policies- such as the different stimulus packages governments are issuing to protect workers from losing jobs. These interventions are all meant to realize certain objectives and in general to improve the health of the economy (Dolan & Lindsey 1991).

The main aims of macro-economic policies are to enable the government to achieve:

• Economic stability
• Inflation and/or recession from going to the extremes
• Equitable distribution of resources
• Long-term social goals (healthcare, education, and jobs).

An economy that is growing enables the creation of jobs for that section of the population that is just entering the labor market and providing employment opportunities for the section that is unemployed and job searching.

The rate of unemployment enables us to determine the number of people in a given economy who are able to work but cannot find jobs. It has been studied that whenever an economy experiences growth from one period to another and these figures are reflected on the GDP growth rate the unemployment rate seems to be the opposite (Low). An explanation for this is that when the real GDP rate is going up, general output also goes up leading to the market needing a larger workforce to meet this demand in production.

In the unemployment policies there tends to be a cyclical (involuntary) fluctuation in unemployment caused by low demand in services and goods produced. This is mostly experienced during an economic slowdown or recession periods such as this, which experiences a growth in unemployment rates a result of business closures and failures which leads to an increase in redundancies and worker lay-offs. This is usually a result of a decline in demand for a given amount of output. These economic slumps act as a stimulus for many industries to reduce their general operation with the starting point being job losses. But if growth is to be realized both monetary and fiscal policies can avoid high negative production gap hence enabling the creation of a stable supply of fresh jobs in the economy (Miners & Samuelson 2001).

For unemployment rates to decline in the long run, supply and demand policies should be able to be made exist in a balance. The main reason for unemployment is the approach of boosting demand whenever it goes low which has proven to be an inefficient method of tackling this problem. When demand keeps on being stimulated, it gives rise to possible inflation which means the trade-off between the two objectives keeps worsening. On the other hand, when an economy registers a full employment rate, it does not mean that there is no unemployment. There will always be a small percentage of unemployed people.

There are some major variances in regional unemployment rates and long-term unemployment is others. These cause costs such as real wage unemployment and hidden unemployment to be incurred. Real wage unemployment is a result of real wages going higher than the market-clearing level making labor availability excessive. While hidden unemployment is when there are people in the economy who are unemployed but cannot be located in the government unemployment statistics. This might be partly because the system is not working for them and they have reduced their efforts in job hunting (Eurostat 2005).

Governments all over the world have laid down policies to help keep down the rates of unemployment. Even though some are more successful than others, effective policies have to address the issues of demand and supply for labor in the long term. In this way there will be adequate jobs with a pool of laborers with skills that match the jobs. On the other hand the incentives given for the jobs will also be adequately matching the skills that are being offered. In relation to the theories of unemployment this will ultimately reduce the effects of unemployment which will be reflected in the whole economy. These effects are felt in the form of losses in output to the economy, tax revenue, profits while increasing government expenditure (Sowell 2007).

Effective unemployment policies enable the stimulation and general improvement in the human resource of the workforce. This will ensure that the unemployed have adequate skills to meet the demand that is available. Occupation mobility of labor is the principal aim of most unemployment policies. With the high dynamism in the unemployment trends, there is need for the workforce in an economy to be equally flexible. This will make it easy for the available workforce to change with the given economical periods over the years hence avoiding the extremes.

Unemployment policies also tend to address the issue of improving the incentives so that people have the drive to look for work and appreciate paid labor. This is usually accompanied by a change in the current taxation and benefits system. In addition, Government can also offer subsidies for firms that accept to employ long-term unemployed individuals. This will act as an incentive for businesses to increase the workforce sizes so as to get higher subsidies. In part of the government of U.K. policy, it provides subsidies for foreign companies relocating into the U.K., this park of the government regional policy (Gartner 2006).

The unemployment policies are also meant to achieve a sustainable phase of growth in the economy. For firms to be encouraged to increase their workforce, it is necessary that the aggregate demand be maintained at high levels. However it does not pass that for every increase in aggregate demand there should be an increase in labor. This is because firms may increase production through the employment of technology and other ways of increasing effectiveness.

References

Blanchard, JO & Fischer, S. NBER Macroeconomics Annual 1990: Macroeconomics Annual 1990, 5^th edition, MIT Press.

Brugan, BR 2003, Pollution of Lakes and Rivers: A Paleo-environmental Perspective, Journal of Paleolimnology, vol. 30, no. 2, pp. 249-250.

Devra, LD 2004, When Smoke Ran Like Water: Tales of Environmental Deception and the Battle against Pollution, Basic Books, New York.

Dolan, E and Lindsey, D 1991, Economics 6^th Edition, University of California, California.

Elson, D & Cagatay, N 2000, The social content of macroeconomic policies, World Development, vol.28, no.7, pp.1347-1363.

Eurostat 2005, Comparable Time Use Statistics: National Tables from 10 European Countries, European Communities Publications office, vol.1, no.4, p.12.

Gartner, M 2006, Macroeconomics, 2^nd Edition, FT Prentice Hall.

Hoffman, KD &Turley, LW 2002, Pricing Retail Services, Business Research Journal, vol. l, no.55, pp. 10 -23.

Landsgurg, SE & Feintone, LJ 1997, Macroeconomics, McGraw-Hill, USA.

Mankiw, G (1998), Principles of macroeconomics, Dryden publishers, New York.

Miners, L & Samuelson, PL 2001, Macroeconomics -17^th edition revised, McGraw Hill publishers, New York.

Romer, D 2005, Advanced macroeconomics 3^rd edition, McGraw-Hill, USA.

Sowell, T 2007, Basic Economics 3^rd edition, Basic Books, New York.

Introduction

In economics terms an externality or a spill-over can be defined as an effect caused by a party that is not directly concerned with making the economic decision. There can be both negative externalities as well as positive externalities. The externalities can also be called spill over effect.This happens when an economic activity makes a third party to incur external costs (or gains) while not directly taking part in the economic transaction. This means that in a given market, the sellers and buyers do not get the all the benefits and incur all the costs of whichever economic activity they engage in. The main aim is to try and internalize this eternality. In this we mean that the decision maker takes into consideration the effect of his or her decision on the third party. Pollution, which is a negative externality are caused by production or consumption processes. Pollution is divided in several types which include water, air, land, radioactive, noise, and thermal pollution.

Air pollution is the sign of disturbances to the normal composition of the components which make up the atmosphere. It can also be said to be the changes to the normal atmospheric composition caused by the introduction of foreign substances both knowingly and unknowingly. Air pollution is mostly caused by the reaction of compounds that are reactive and not biodegradable. It can also occur when the natural gaseous exchange cycles such as nitrogen and carbon cycles are interfered with to an extent that excess gas in removed from or added to the atmosphere. These cycles can be tampered with through human actions such as deforestation and release of gaseous emissions. Source of air pollution include: components of electrical manufacturing, roadway construction, fuel production, volcanic eruption, solvent evaporation, solid waste, building demolition, fertilizers plants, auto manufacturing, industrial processes, heat and power generation facilities, motor vehicle exhaust (Blanchard & Fischer 1990).

Water pollution happens when additional impure materials to the water in high quantities. When this continues to the extent that the water declared unfit for its intended use, it is hence said that the water is polluted. Water pollution is mostly caused by infiltration of water bodies by fertilizers and sewages that have compounds such as phosphates and nitrate. An excess of these compounds can lead to the overgrowth of aquatic plants and algae which act as a barrier blocking sun light from reaching other marine life while blocking waterways. This affects marine economic activities such as tourism and fishing (Elson & Cagatay 2000).

The presence of externalities such as pollution in a market based economy would normally be assumed that its rules will direct us to locative efficiency and probably not being socially efficient. The fact that the externality is there hence give an example of a market which has failed to accomplish market efficiency. Thus real locative efficiency may not be achieved until the externality for instance pollution are addressed and put into account for correct economic analysis. Though externalities are not the only sources of market failure they contribute a large percentage to it.

Noise pollution also results from production and consumption processes too. This can be reflected from noise from a factory that is located near civilian settlement, and loud music being played a neighbour next door. Soil pollution is as a result of deposition and accumulation of solid, non-biodegradable wastes and toxic substances which eventually change the soil structure and the normal soil pH of a given sample of soil. Soil pollution may lead to devastating effects such as desertification, clogging and swamping, and if not checked the soil structure will be permanently destroyed. Other types of pollution with bad effects include thermal pollution which leads to the overheating in the atmosphere and radioactive or nuclear pollution which involves the release of radioactive substances such as uranium to the environment (Devra 2004).

Possible Solutions to Pollution Externalities

This externality can be resolved or checked with government intervention and to some extent without government intervention. In one way government can control pollution through prohibition of the activities that lead to pollution, and regulation of the quantity of pollution that is allowed. While civilians can counter pollution through putting in place moral codes of conduct, and supporting companies that are anti-pollution by buying more of their products, advertising them through word of mouth.

These approaches can be executed as explained below;

Government Intervention Through Prohibition

The government can pass legislations which make most or all pollution activities illegal with heavy penalties for offenders. This is a highly risky plan and should be implemented mostly as a last resort in order to reduce pollution which maybe life threatening to the population in the area. For example the government can prohibited the cutting of trees in the forest by considering it illegal this can reduce the number of trees cut in this forest. The risky aspect about it is that most production activities (such as manufacturing) lead to pollution hence this type of law could lead to a large number of people loosing the source of their livelihoods.

For example, a paint manufacturing factory that is located up-stream on a river which supports a large number of fishermen who live in the area can be dumping its wastes and sludge into the river. With time this will lead to a reduction and eventually death of all the fish which is the fishermens source of livelihood. The fishermen will then be rendered jobless. In this situation the government can come in and ban dumping into the river in order to protect the fishermens source of livelihood (Hoffman & Turley 2002).Though it should be noted that it not easy for the government to prohibit all the activities that causes pollution.

The government need to get the information regarding the industry and the externalities that result.To accrue this information may require a lot therefore it may prove difficult. It can also be proved impossible for the government to actually prohibit all the activities that causes pollution. A good example is in transport sector where by all the means of transport actually causes a certain form of pollution. This includes horses because they produce some noise that is referred to as pollution. Sometimes it has been noted that it is very hard to identify the particular source of the pollution. There for the government may not be able to identify the area they want to put restriction on and cannot put full restriction on some sectors.

(Heijman 2007) indicated that is also very difficult to get the monetary value of externality as they are generally very difficult to quantify. This is due to the fact that they may reflect ethical views as preferences of the entire population. another difficulty is that the party involved may try to defend his own interest for his own benefit.In such cases other methods of regulating this can be used.

Government Intervention Through Regulation Of Pollution

From a different perspective, instead of prohibiting pollution the government can regulate the levels of pollution through regulation of the amount of pollutants that can be released into a given environment. Regulation can be by use of pigovian taxes. Pigovian tax is tax that is levied to check the negative impact of the externalities. For example in the case of pollution, this tax can be imposed to the firms that cannot regulate the amount of pollution. At the same time they can fail to tax those firms that find it easy to reduce pollution. Unlike other taxes, pigovian taxdoes not reduce the total surplus of the firms unlike other taxes which do reduce the total turnover of the firms.

Another regulation that the government can have is the issuing of tradable pollution permits. (Roy 1992) indicates that the government can decide to issue this permit to regulate the level of pollution by selling these permits to firms involved in the pollution the environmental protection agency known as E.P.A can limit the amount of pollutant or change for the right to pollute for example emission changes and emission standards. They can also restrict the firm to emit a specific amount of polluting waste. These permits are tradable in the market. In addition the government can use control and command regulation where by they where they issue rules which require use of specific pollution control devices on a particular source of pollution or applying strict emission standards to those who emits particular gases that are harmful to the environment.

The government can offer subsides to pollution reduction technologies by so doing they will be encouraging individuals and firms to reduce the rate of pollution. If possible they should be provided for free. For example the use of polythene paper which has been polluting soil. To curb this, governments can subsidize the other type of papers that easily decays; this will encourage people to use the papers that can easily decay.

Setting up production standards such as quality of equipment to be used, and recruiting experts to help in the regulation of pollution, with reference to the example on the fishermen and the paint manufacturing factory, the government would introduce some sort of payment for the factory on a given amount of waste released into the river. This is because more practical than prohibiting dumping because; prohibition might on the other hand lead to closure of the paint factory hence loss of jobs. Therefore this would be a compromise but the factory will have to pay for it to continue its operation. The government can compensate the fishermen by paying them a percentage of the amount paid by the factory for the damage done to the river (Landsgurg & Feintone, 1997).

There are disadvantages that are associated with this option of regulation to both government and the population. One being that the government will have to employ extra help from experts to help in checking the levels of pollution and how much is paid. Secondly, there is basically no reason for the firms to reduce pollution apart from the penalty of paying for the extra costs, and the finally, firms that make a lot of money would continue dumping because they have can pay for it. Nevertheless, this seems to be the more practicable approach the government could take.

Solution Without Government Intervention

Pollution can also be countered without government intervention as sometimes government is slow to respond to some urgent issues. One way of doing this is through the adoption of some moral codes of conduct, and supporting companies that are anti-pollution by buying more of their products, advertising them through word of mouth (Brugan 2003).

Moral codes which have root in peoples way of life do not need to be written nor have police in place to look out for offenders. Anti-pollution codes such as littering, smoking in public areas, the use of road-unworthy vehicles among other are just but a few examples that can be used to counter pollution. Bring out citizens who have respect for their environment and have the general goodwill of their environment at heart can go a long way into reducing the levels of pollution. A manufacturing company that has workers who are environmentally conscious may make the company to reconsider its pollution due to being enlightened (Romer 2005).

In addition, social conventions can be used to cope with the negative effects of pollution. They can be used as a tool to make people be accountable and aware of the pollution they cause. This can make them change their behaviour and instil in them the responsibility they have towards the environment, this can be done especially to young children so that they grow with these values in them. These conventions can also be used to teach people on how to respond to pollution problems at their level.

On the other had it is difficult to hold individuals accountable to the pollution they have caused. Taking individuals to account involves time and costs; time in the sense that while you are trying to make them answerable, they may be doing it somewhere else or someone else can also be doing it. Costs in the sense that these processes involve lawsuits which are expensive in terms of paying lawyers and the period in may take to for the suit to materialise. The time and money spent will end up being more than the damage that has been caused to the environment.

Due to the above difficulties some non governmental organisations have also come up with various strategies to ensure reduction in the rate of pollution. One of these strategies includes sensitizing people on the dangers of polluting the environment. The carry out campaign that educates then people on these dangers and what should be done to ensure less pollution.an example of this is the global concern about the depreciating ozone layer. They have also participated by contributing to the projects that are wholly meant for the reduction of the pollution.

Conclusion

In a market that is purely private a good or service is usually produced too much or too little. Market failures are caused by externalities; this is because the market players tend to tend to prioritise their personal costs in front of those costs of outsiders. It should be noted that the market failure usually occurs on public goods. Pollution is also common to public goods. They tend to keep their personal welfare maximum through equating the marginal personal advantage from an action with the marginal private costs. The rational of this is to categorise and negotiate with any would be 3^rd parties in order to make it difficult for them to have a reasonable effect in the market (Mankiw 1998).

The problems associated with pollution have a capability to cripple a countrys economy if it spins out of control. The fact that countries such as the U.K., U.S. and majority of the European Union are passing laws to combat pollution send a message that it effects are not good. Therefore it is important for any economy to be educated to increase awareness of these sensitive issues. The environment qualities now and in future are an important aspect globally. Hence, externalities are being considered in major decision making processes. In most cases the social cost of fuel and electricity can basically be related to impacts to the environment and production, the balance of trade, the exhaustion of nonrenewable resources together with many more impacts.

If not checked pollution may lead to an environmental collapse globally. If possible it must be ensured that the 1^st world counties must work together with the 3^rd world countries to ensure that the 1^st worlds do not add to these environmental problems; this can be done while at the same time coming up with ways of providing cheap technologies that are both efficient and effective to the 3^rd world countries. On the other hand conservation strategies should be brought into play, to protect the little that is remaining in its pure form.

It can also be seen that the government has a major law to play in reduction of this externalities caused by pollution. They have the mandate to prohibit pollution as well as set a few regulations that are involved in pollution reduction. Pollution being a spillover effect can be reduced to a considerable amount if the third party takes into account the welfare of the third party. It is usually hard for all the measures to be implemented.The welfare of the third party can be taken into account and also the economic value of the firm.

References

Brugan, BR 2003, Pollution of Lakes and Rivers: A Paleo-environmental Perspective, Journal of Paleolimnology, vol. 30, no. 2, pp. 249-250.

Devra, LD 2004, When Smoke Ran Like Water: Tales of Environmental Deception and the Battle against Pollution, Basic Books, New York.

Heijman, W 2007, Regional Externalities , Springer publishers, London.

Roy, E 1992, Welfare Economics and Externalities in an Open Ended Universe: A Modern Austrian Perspective. Kluwer Academic Press :Boston

Landsgurg, SE & Feintone, LJ 1997, Macroeconomics, McGraw-Hill, USA.

Mankiw, G 1998, Principles of macroeconomics, Dryden publishers, New York.

Olivier Jean Blanchard and Stanley, 1990, Fischer National bureau of economic research: Macroeconomics annual, MIT Press.

Elson, D & Cagatay, Nilufer 2000, The Social Content of Macroeconomic Policies, World Development 28(7): 134764.

Hoffman, K.D., Turley, L.W. (2002), Atmospherics, service encounters and consumer decision making: an integrative perspective, Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice, 10(2), 33-47.

Paul Romer et al, 2005, Macroeconomics, Worth Publication.

Land Contamination Overview

Marina Barrage building presupposes the division of the basin into three areas: industrial, agricultural and recreation. Industrial region will be featured with chemical contamination, and contamination with heavy metals. Agricultural region is featured with pesticide and herbicide contamination, while recreational area is subjected to littering. The prediction techniques are closely linked with the deep analysis of the activity performed, and

Another method is the comparison of foreign experience associated with land contamination prediction. In fact, other countries like Taiwan, Thailand, Indonesia also experience the problem of floods and rainfalls, hence, their experience and contamination rates may be analyzed in order to make general assessments associated with the contamination level in the Marine Bay region. (Dooley, 2005)

The challenges associated with these methods are linked with the presumption that the precise assessment of the contamination level may be performed with the directly aimed chemical analysis of the land samples, while the prediction methods do not offer 100% precision of the analysis. Hence, the problems that are closely linked with these problems should be considered for the precise analysis of the forecasted contamination levels.

Methods and techniques for controlling the land contamination levels are defined by the EIA regulations:

• Defining at least six control points (2 in agricultural region, 2 in industrial and two in recreation zone), and periodically take samples of soils. (Alexandre and Barde, 2004)
• Collection of soil samples at 0.5 and 1.5 m below the ground level.
• Analysis of the samples for contaminants, including Cadmium, Chromium, Copper, Mercury, Lead, and Zinc. (El-Ahraf, Qayoumi, 2004)

Contamination matrix is as follows:

(Nuckols, 2007; Weber, 2006).

The values are given in mg m³ units, and the classification is divided into three classes, depending on the concentration of the contaminants in the soil. In accordance to LaDuke (2007), Class A is close to normal levels of metals and other contaminants, Class B means awareness, and Class C signifies that ecological catastrophe is inevitable. Considering the quantitative approach towards assessing the marina barrage building, the coefficients of land contamination depend on the operations performed. The quantitative index of soil contamination will be defined by the chemical analysis of the samples; though, the contamination parameters should be defined in accordance with the plan chart of the Marina Barrage building process:

(Weber, 2006; Brockett, 2008).

As for the control for polluted waters, which is a part of land contamination control, it should be emphasized that the actual control for contamination level would depend on the population density in the region. Another aspect of land contamination is linked with public health issues. In accordance with Nebel and Wright (2004). The effects of land contamination for public health may be closely linked with the pollution of water with various wastes described above. Hence, the medical inspection services should constantly control the pollution and contamination levels and inform the agencies and organizations responsible for tourism development as well as recreation control and public health monitoring.

Noise Pollution Overview

First, it should be stated that noise pollution sources may be of various origins. This may be originated by construction, monitoring measures and work of the measuring machinery, increase of the tourist flows, work of filtration system etc. In accordance with Prasher and SuBkowski (2002, p. 190), it should be emphasized that the effects of noise pollution are various:

Noise health effects are both health and behavioral in nature. The unwanted sound is called noise. This unwanted sound can damage physiological and psychological health. Noise pollution can cause annoyance and aggression, hypertension, high stress levels, tinnitus, hearing loss, sleep disturbances, and other harmful effects. Furthermore, stress and hypertension are the leading causes to health problems, whereas tinnitus can lead to forgetfulness, severe depression, and at times panic attacks.

Additionally, noise may cause increased vibration levels, which is harmful both for health and for constructions, as materials may be subjected to erosion and destruction under the effect of vibration. As for the environment and biosphere, Harris (2006) claimed that noise may have a negative impact on flora and fauna of the environment, and it may cause birds, animals and representatives of sea fauna migrate as far as possible from the noise source. The same may be stated of insects which pollinate plants. Hence, the noise levels should be decreased in order to prevent the ecological disaster and misbalance in flora and fauna migration. The mitigation measures may cause gaps in a State budget, as these measures involve creation of noise barriers, restriction of speeds, and reconstruction of roads for decreasing vibration levels, improvement of traffic control. As for the Barrage building and fresh water supply, sound isolation materials, and barriers will be required for the equipment, as well as strict schedule of works. Considering the fact that the largest level of noise pollution is registered after the rainfalls, the pumping machinery should be properly isolated in order not to cause discomfort for visitors of the recreation zone.

Methods and techniques of noise pollution control involve measuring the noise level for several times during the non-rainy season, when the pumping machinery is off, and during the rainy season, when it is on. The several measuring points should be defined: in industrial area, in recreation and agricultural areas as well. The pollution levels should be defined for the comfortable recreation and living. Hence, the norms of pollution are as follows

If the norms are exceeded, there are several solutions: minimize the power of the pumping machinery, decrease the amount of vehicles involved, and improve noise isolation measurers.

The implementation of noise regulation system in legislation of the State will inevitably cause the necessity to improve the existing legislative basis, as some norms of noise reduction may contradict the existing civil, administrative, criminal, environmental, and commercial legislations. Thus, as Harris (2006, p. 188) emphasizes:

Noise laws and ordinances vary widely among municipalities and indeed do not even exist in some cities. Numerous conflicts over noise pollution are handled by negotiation between the emitter and the receiver. Escalation procedures vary by country, and may include action in conjunction with local authorities, in particular the police. Noise pollution often persists because only five to ten percent of people affected by noise will lodge a formal complaint.

In the light of this statement, it should be emphasized that the actual importance of noise regulation should be legally stated, as it may be the reliable basis for environmental protection measures, as well as public heath control and monitoring.

Checklists

Land Contamination Monitoring and Mitigation Project

Inspection Control Checklist

Noise Pollution Monitoring and Mitigation Project

Inspection Control Checklist

Reference List

Alexandre, Ariel, and Jean-Philippe Barde. Land Pollution?. OECD Observer a.167 2004: 23-26.

Brockett, Charles D. Land, Power, and Poverty: Agrarian Transformation and Political Conflict in Asia. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 2008.

Dooley, Erin E. Land Pollution Clearinghouse. Environmental Health Perspectives 113.1 (2005): 27.

El-Ahraf, Amer, Mohammad Qayoumi, and Ron Dowd. The Impact of Public Policy on Environmental Quality and Health: The Case of Land Use Management and Planning. Westport, CT: Quorum Books, 2004.

Harris, Cyril M., ed. Handbook of Noise Control. McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 2006.

LaDuke, Winona. All Our Relations: Native Struggles for Land and Life. Cambridge, MA: South End Press, 2007.

Nebel, Bernard J., and Wright, Richard T. Environmental Science: The Way the World Works. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. 2004.

Nuckols, John R., et al. Linkage of Pesticide Use Reporting Database with Spatial Land Use Data for Exposure Assessment. Environmental Health Perspectives 115.5 (2007): 684.

Prasher D, SuBkowski W. The role of otoacoustic emissions in screening and evaluation of noise damage. Int J Occup Med Environ Health. 12(2): 183-192. 2002.

Weber, Bruce R. The Valuation of Contaminated Land. The Journal of Real Estate Research 14.3 (2006): 379.

Introduction

Have you experienced the situation when you turn on the water and the next thing you get is a crackling sound from the pipe with no water supply or, whats more distressing, muddy unsanitary non-potable water? If the government continues to stay aside from the problem of water contamination and excessive use of water resources in Washington, this might be the prospective future of the Washington water supply system. Do you want this to happen to your children? Do you want such a future for yourself? The probable answer, I assume, is not.

Variety of general environmental campaigns

I am not going to deny that a lot of environmental campaigns on the state scale aimed at arousing peoples awareness of contamination issues have been done and continue to be promoted. I appreciate all the work that the officials do to encourage different associations to contribute to ecological issues. I also understand that my convictions may raise a lot of opposite views that I highly respect. What I am going to do is try to explain to you the importance of immediate actions in the sphere of water treatment.

Some of you might know that as far as water pollution in Washington is concerned, general campaigns appear to be not sufficient. However, many of you may contradict that there are a lot more vital issues on the agenda that need immediate attention and action. But I am firmly convinced that solving this problem as soon as we can improve not only health state but overall economic conditions.

Triggers of water pollution

I would like to point out that water pollution is triggered by various factors, such as hazardous industrial wastes, sewage, different chemical substances. As far as drinking water is concerned, it can be polluted by additives that are used to clear the water in pipes and change water chemical qualities, which results in the formation of dangerous compounds in the drinking water. Unfortunately, environmental officials who have to deal with the problems of water pollution take into account only separate triggers. What is necessary to do is to face the situation on the whole and reduce the amount of all the pollutants in the water (Biswas 2006).

Obstacles of the environmental campaigns

One of the many obstacles in the way of environmental campaigns is a small number of budget allocations to the solution of water pollution problems. The economic downfall gravely affected ecological work and research. Significant reductions in the Water Resources Program were made reducing allocations for about $5 million down from the previous years (National Research Council 2004). Reduction triggered the increase in water rights permit applications, the decrease in the development of safety projects, the amounts of hazardous elements, such as lead, in drinking water considerably raised.

The deficiencies of the Clean Water Act

The arguments provided by officials that the Clean Water Act hampers the work of enterprises and corporations that comprise a major part of revenues are very convincing. But let us look at this problem from another angle. My true conviction is that money spent on preventing the horrendous consequences of water contamination may be pennies on the dollar compared to the true costs of solving the results of our neglectful behavior with water.

There exists a widely held view that the Clean Water Act covers all points of water protection. I am afraid I could not agree with this point of view. Even though the statute claims to employ a variety of regulatory and non-regulatory tools to sharply reduce direct pollutant discharges into waterways, finance municipal wastewater treatment facilities, and manage polluted runoff to achieve the broader goal of restoring and maintaining the chemical, physical, and biological integrity (Ryan 2003), the investigation into the issue show that less than over one year more than 500 enforcement cases have been dropped by the federal Environmental Protection Agency and Justice Department (Bast 2002). This means that toxic waste products, sewage, chemical pollutant fill the waters of the rivers and add to the general deterioration of water conditions.

The connections between water pollution and industry

I fear that industrial enterprises may affect officials decisions on this problem or stand in the way of its implementation. The point is that heavy industry adds greatly to the contamination of water through sewage damaging biodiversity and affecting the water condition. But on the other hand, these enterprises are one of the most important contributors to the state budget. Of course, I could be wrong and I wish to be wrong but the connection between these two assumptions is very obvious. I am sure you do not want to support the position of industrial enterprises as I know that you care for yourself, for your children, and all the citizens of Washington.

The consequences of neglecting polluted water problems

I would also like to draw your attention to one more important detail that threatens everybodys health in the city. It is excess levels of very dangerous chemical elements in drinking water, in the particular lead. According to Marc Edwards, a leading and much-renowned professor of Virginia Tech, the levels of lead in water are elevated for a long period. Allegedly, the steps were taken by the officials, such as US Environmental Protection Agency, should have been reduced the level of lead in the water. But from Marc Edwards point of view EPA has failed to provide adequate protection for consumers from the chemical contained in the water (National Research Council 2004).

I am not going to suppress the fact that the health officials have acknowledged that the citys drinking water contained unsafe lead levels (Edwards and Best 2009). But can this acknowledgment save the citizens from non-potable water? I am sure you could agree with me that officials claim that the negative influence of water over general public health is not evident yet is not a solution. Certainly, slightly reduced levels might not affect the present generation but as far as various chemicals are concerned, it is a well-known fact that they tend to accumulate in a body having long-lasting negative effects (Buschmann, Berg, Stengel, and Sampson 2007). That is why I call for your concern to future generations.

Apart from this, I can not leave the new legislation of John DeCock, Clean Water Action President, about government intention to identify and get read of chemicals in the polluted water without my attention. From one point of view, it could be interpreted as an advance and a major step forward. But havent you considered the fact that this act is slightly late? The dramatic increase in health problems associated with toxic chemical exposure and renewed concern over chemicals in drinking water tell us that it is time to get serious about water pollution, Mr. DeCock says (Edwards and Best 2009). Following the words of the President of CWA, it becomes obvious that we cannot procrastinate with immediate actions as we have already become witnesses of the sharp increase in health problems.

Do you know the major threats that could follow the neglect of water-related problems? Do you think it is only some minor talks? I assure you that it is a very grave problem and the appalling consequences of this situation may be further deterioration of general health state and various unsanitary water provoked diseases, the distress of biodiversity, and further aggravation of the water condition. To support my assumption I would like to say that contaminated water nowadays could become a weapon of mass destruction (Regenstein 1982).

I would also like to appeal to your feeling of patriotism and dignity, I am certain that you are proud of your city and country, that you respect the citizens of our city. I am sure you know about the immense importance of the Columbia River, the Pacific Ocean, and many other small rivers, lakes, and streams that form the identity of Washington, its character, and daily life (Ryan 65). It fully depends on us whether we take an active part in solving the problems of water pollution or let it take its course. My only wish is to bring you the truth about the state of water in Washington. I believe that you can not stay aside from this burning problem.

Probable solutions

Investigating this problem, I came across many people who held opposite views and tried to mislead me. That is why I tried to tell you every aspect of the current state of affairs, to present the whole picture so that you could see both sides of the coin. Whats more, I would like to encourage you to think of possible solutions to the problem. I came up with some solutions that are very efficient and fit a tight budget that is available for Water Department at the moment. First and foremost, I believe citizens must cooperate and join environmental campaigns. I know that when you are confronted by various impediments it is difficult to move further but together we can achieve invaluable success. I am aware that an individual can do little to improve the situation but what he/she can do is to try not to pollute more (MacDonald 1994).

I firmly believe that the problem of polluted drinking water in Washington should be solved immediately despite various obstacles, such as pressure for money, the oppression of the industrial enterprises to reduce sewage and toxic wastes, because permanent exposure to contaminated water can lead to horrible consequences, such as deteriorating of the health state of present and future generations.

Conclusion

Concluding I would like to say that the importance of clean water to people should never be underrated. I appeal to all citizens of Washington to take care of the water they drink and to prove their ability to stand their ground and change their lives for the better.

Reference List

Bast, Elizabeth. U.S. and Canadian Water Pollution Jumps 26 Percent. World Watch. 2002: 11.

Biswas, Asit K. 2006. Water quality management in the Americas. Boston: Birkhäuser.

Buschmann, Johanna, Berg, Michael, Stengel, Caroline, and Sampson, Mickey L. 2007. Arsenic and Manganese Contamination of Drinking Water Resources. Environmental Science and Technology 41 (7): 21462152.

Edwards, Marc, and Best, Dana. 2009. Elevated Blood Lead in Young Children Due to Lead-Contaminated Drinking Water: Washington, DC, 20012004. Environmental Science and Technology 43 (5): 16181623.

MacDonald, Lynn. 1994. Water pollution solution: build a marsh. American Forests.36 (2): 4352.

National Research Council (U.S.). Committee on Assessment of Water Resources. 2004. Research Confronting the nations water problems: the role of research. Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press.

Regenstein, Lewis. 1982. America the poisoned: how deadly chemicals are destroying our environment, our wildlife, ourselves andhow we can survive! Acropolis Books. Washington, D.C.: Acropolis Books.

Ryan, Mark. 2003. The Clean Water Act handbook. US: American Bar Association.

I decided to select the problem of plastic pollution for my final project. Therefore, today, I want to discuss a social ad made by the World Wildlife Fund (WWF, 2018). The video discusses the drastic effect plastic has on wildlife, the environment, and peoples health. In particular, it shows that millions of fish, sea animals, and birds die every year from plastic, people are forced to drink, eat, and breathe microplastic, which leads to adverse health conditions, and plastic contributes to climate change (WWF, 2018). Thus, people, governments, and NGOs need to unite to address the problem of plastic pollution today.

The artifact directly relates to the concept of wellness. In particular, it affects at least two dimensions of wellness: physical health and the environment. The problem of plastic pollution affects biodiversity and human wellness. In particular, birds, animals, and fish die from entanglement and starvation. As for humans, microplastic can become a source of a wide variety of health conditions, including cancer, cardiovascular diseases, chronic inflammation, auto-immune conditions, and neurodegenerative diseases (Center of International Environmental Law, 2015).

The social implications of the artifact are evident. People need to become aware of the problem of plastic pollution and begin to act actively to address the problem. First, people need to consciously use less plastic in their daily life. Second, citizens of all countries need to support laws that address the problem of plastic pollution. Finally, people need to support companies that use eco-friendly materials for the productions and packaging of their products. Even though this may be associated with a myriad of issues, we need to change our lifestyles to allow future generations to be healthy.

Reference

Center of International Environmental Law. (2015). Plastic and human health: A lifecycle approach to plastic pollution. CIEL.

World Wildlife Fund. (2018). Plastic pollution [Video File]. YouTube.

The topic of the project for the wellness class is plastic pollution and associated health problem. For discussion, presented a captivating article written by Laura Parker (2020) in National Geographic. The article describes the recent findings of plastic pollution and current ways to respond to the problem. The article is both pessimistic and optimistic simultaneously. On the one hand, it describes how horrible the problem of plastic waste has become. It comes up with an analogy that every minute a football field of plastic is dumped into the oceans. Recent research findings demonstrate that the central strategy to fight plastic pollution is to limit the production of virgin plastic; however, corporations disregard the idea as counterproductive. Thus, the problem of plastic pollution seems to be growing very fast. On the other hand, the article gives hope that the problem can be solved. In particular, it describes the Alliance to End Plastic Waste, which contributed significant resources to addressing the problem of plastic pollution. The article reminds us that humanity managed to resolve the problem of the ozone layer hole, and the same can be done with the plastic problem.

The article contributes to wellness studies in two ways. First, it provides a summary of the current state of the plastic problem. Parker (2020) emphasizes the importance of resolving the problem, as plastic can contaminate marine life. Second, the article provides an overview of possible strategies for addressing the problem of plastic pollution. In particular, it describes that current technology can recycle the majority of plastic if humanity starts viewing it as a valuable resource and limits the production of virgin plastic. In other words, it demonstrates that the problem of plastic can be solved using administrative methods if the world turns to a circular plastic economy.

Reference

Parker, L. (2020). Plastic pollution is a huge problemand its not too late to fix it. National Geographic. Web.

Before humanity manages to clean up the ocean floor of plastic straws that kill innocent turtles, all marine biodiversity will die, and there will be no one to save. As global consumers focus on quick fixes of switching to metal straws, the planet continues to heat up to sustain the modern focus on the oversimplified solutions to complex issues.

While plastic pollution is a legitimate concern, it mostly serves as a distraction for more significant environmental problems. Firstly, modern societies have expressed the unwillingness to tackle climate change because of the economic, financial, and political implications. More specifically, top New Zealand companies regard little to no attention to climate change problems that they contribute to.

Secondly, the public tends to focus on what is easier rather than effective. One of the most recent articles on plastic pollution states that there are 8-14 million tons of microplastic in the oceans depths. The article conveniently frames the needed immediate action as merely stopping the use of so much plastic. Promoting paper bags, reusable cups, and biodegradable packaging is more convenient than working on an illusory solution to climate change. By weaponizing smaller ideas and oversimplifying solutions, people find comfort in tackling minor environmental problems through semi-conscious consumerism, while the bigger ones remain.

Thirdly, media creates overt publicity for plastic pollution, blowing the problem out of proportion through sensationalism, which distracts the population from more pressing issues. For instance, a popular article reported that by 2050, close to 99% of seabirds will have plastic in them. However, the claims of the initial researchers were completely different: the data showed that all animals will ingest plastic at least once, which is true for humans too. Despite being incomparable to climate changes impact and scale, media forces the plastic pollution agenda through misleading facts.

However, at the same time, people who adopt an anti-plastic mentality should not be villainized. Despite falling for the informational manipulation, people passionate about plastic reduction and zero-waste have good intentions, which could easily be transformed into more actionable activism with the right climate change awareness campaigns. It is also worth noting that the publics attention on plastic is justifiable: for a regular reader, ten tons of plastic in the ocean sound more alarming than seemingly minuscule heating of the planet. Consequently, an ultimate solution to the misinterpretation of the marine ecology catastrophe is combining the already adopted anti-plastic agenda with strategies to minimize more pressing climate change tendencies.

Thus, the environmental activism that targets plastic pollution should not be entirely disregarded. On the other end of the spectrum, some researchers claim that plastic is an underreported issue. It continually harms marine biodiversity through entering the marine food web at low levels and moving up the food chain as bigger species eat smaller ones. More than that, if the public would momentarily shift all of their efforts to the issue of overfishing, ocean pollution would go out of control and become as global as climate change is now. At the same time, it is also essential to recognize the apparent bias, exaggeration, and overt simplicity that issue of plastic pollution urges for and eventually realize the bigger scale of the environmental emergency.

People should not pick battles in the global war on ecology. There are numerous issues to tackle, and, according to researchers, humanity does not have a lot of time. However, current media efforts aim to divert attention from the global issues that extend the planetary boundary threshold since they appear to be too complex to tackle. In their turn, individual consumers should make conscious environmental decisions not only via purchasing non-plastic alternatives. Conversely, they should vote for candidates who focus on climate change, support manufacturers who minimize carbon imprint, and choose the challenging yet practical path to the clean oceans.

References

Stafford, R, & Jones, P. S. (2019). Viewpoint  Ocean plastic pollution: A convenient but distracting truth? Marine Policy, 103(1), 187-191. Web.

Ryan, P. (2019). Plastic poses a major environmental threat: But is it being over-stated? The Conversation. Web.

Thaker, J. (2020). New Zealand companies lag behind others in their reporting on climate change, and thats a risk to their reputation. The Conversation. Web.

Hardesty, B. T., Wilcox, C., & Barett, J. (2020). We estimate up to 14 million tonnes of microplastics lie on the seafloor. The Conversation. Web.

Introduction

One of the central issues that affect the wellness of the Earths population is plastic pollution. Today, almost every person knows that plastic kills millions of animals every year by entanglement or starvation (Parker, 2019). However, a rare person realizes that plastic is a source of significant problems with wellness. According to the Center of International Environmental Law (CIEL, 2015), microplastics entering the human body can cause severe health problems, including inflammation, genotoxicity, oxidative stress, apoptosis, and necrosis. Additionally, the production of plastic is associated with the release of harmful toxins to the atmosphere and water, which also negatively affects human health. Thus, the problem needs to be addressed systematically to avoid deaths of animals and the deterioration of human wellness.

Issue Description

Plastic pollution is a global issue that affects every person on our planet directly or indirectly. The problem of plastic pollution became evident in the late 1960s when people noticed that albatrosses began ingesting plastic items and northern fur seals becoming entangled in netting (Science History Institute, n.d.). However, the problem did encourage society to reduce the production of plastics due to its economic benefits (Gomez & Rima, 2019). Instead, marketers began to inform the public about the rational use of plastic and recycling methods (Ryan, 2015). This proved ineffective, as the production of plastic kept growing, while there were no economic incentives to recycle, as virgin material was of higher quality and cheaper (Gomez & Rima, 2019). By 2025, scientists expect to have 1 ton of plastic per three tons of fish in the oceans (Ryan, 2015). Thus, the problem of plastic pollution is evident.

Effect on Society

Originally, plastic was supposed to be bliss, as it revolutionized medicine with life-saving devices, allowed space travel, and lightened cars and jets, which decreased pollution by improving fuel efficiency (Parker, 2019). Plastics also saved millions of lives by helmets, incubators, and equipment for clean drinking water (Parker, 2019). However, soon it became evident that plastic pollution negatively affects human health, as it leads to numerous chronic conditions. Plastic contaminates seafood, soil, and oceans. Moreover, plastic pollution forces humanity to spend significant resources on trying to resolve the problem and find substitutes for the material.

Societys Effect on the Problem

Society has both a positive and negative effect on the problem. On the one hand, the emergence of NGOs raises awareness about the problem of plastic pollution. This leads to shifting the minds of peoples towards sustainable development. Additionally, progressive government started to ban single-use plastic to decrease the impact of plastic on the environment. Even though this response is insufficient, it still contributes to mitigating the negative effects of plastic pollution. On the other hand, societys effect on the problem is negative. The central problem is the linear economy, which is designed to generate enormous amounts of waste. Additionally, the culture of consumerism is harmful to the environment. There are two primary concerns about the consumeristic culture: depletion of natural resources and plastic pollution. Throwaway culture is the product of the linear economy, which does no reuse the resources and depends upon excavating natural resources. The key solution is to turn to a circular economy, which will be based on the culture based on the philosophy of five Rs, which are refuse, reduce, reuse, recycle, rot.

Effect on Individual Perception

Researching the topic of plastic pollution had a significant effect on my individual perception. Before starting working on the project, I was indifferent to plastic pollution. I realized that the problem was there; however, I did not think it was very important. However, after finishing the project, I became a strong supporter of plastic waste reduction. I started collecting waste separately, supporting local food producers, and buying used things to reduce the impact on the environment. In general, I accepted the Zero Waste philosophy, which is based on the 5R principles: refuse buying unneeded products, reduce utilization of resources, reuse products by giving them a second life, recycle the unneeded materials, and rot.

Professional Effect

Working on the project also affected me as a professional. As it has been mentioned earlier, plastic has a negative effect on human health. In particular, it causes chronic conditions, including cancer. As a healthcare professional, I understand that the issue of the effect of plastic on human health is understudied. Thus, additional research is needed to understand what other effects plastic has on human health. Moreover, I need to know how to help my patients avoid the negative effects of plastic pollution. This implies that research should focus on elaborating effective prevention strategies to avoid health-related problems.

Analysis of Wellness and Interaction

Critical analysis of wellness adds value to interaction with people and understand social or global issues. Analysis of wellness issues incorporates looking at a problem through different lenses, such as history, social sciences, humanities, and natural sciences. Such analyses help to have an informed opinion about an issue, which is crucial during professional interactions. For instance, knowing about the problem of plastic pollution and the effects of plastic on human health helped me to become a strong supporter of the zero waste concept, which I can promote during professional communication. Additionally, analyses of issues help to enhance the effectiveness of professional communication. For instance, if a professional conversation touches upon the strategies to reduce the effect of plastic on human health, the person I am talking to will not need to explain to me what the negative effects of plastic are.

Strategies for Wellness Analysis

It is crucial to utilize efficient analysis strategies to meet ones professional goal. The central idea behind the analysis of issues is that it should never stop. If a person starts believing that she or he has achieved an understanding of the problem, the improvement stops. Thus, all professionals should constantly be analyzing issues that are important to them. In my practice, I found it effective to review scholarly literature systematically. In particular, I often read systematic reviews of advances in preventive medicine. I also follow Greenpeace on Twitter and Facebook to ensure that I have the latest updates about sustainability issues. Finally, I often ask questions to authorities in my spheres of interest to receive specific answers.

Conclusion

In conclusion, analysis of wellness issues is associated with several benefits and challenges. In particular, analysis of wellness issues helps to acquire a deeper understanding of problems. At the same time, an in-depth assessment of wellness issues helps to develop strategies for addressing them. As for the challenges, the process of analysis may be time-consuming. Today, professionals are pressured with multiple obligations and often fail to find time for activities, which are not immediately beneficial. Additionally, analysis of wellness issues will never be completed, which may lead to frustration. As it was mentioned earlier, assessment of wellness issues is a never-ending process associated with the acquisition of a nuanced understanding of problems.

In addition to the mentioned benefits, analysis of wellness issues adds value to professional communication as it emphasizes professionalism and increases trust among the participants of the conversation. Thus, it is crucial to assess wellness problems through different lenses.

References

Center of International Environmental Law. (2015). Plastic and human health: A lifecycle approach to plastic pollution. CIEL. Web.

Clark, C., & Alford, H. (2019). The throwaway culture in the economy of exclusion: Pope Francis and economists on waste. American Journal of Economics and Sociology, 78(4), 973-1008. Web.

Gomez, F., & Rima, S. (2019). Setting the facts straight on plastics. World Economic Forum. Web.

Parker, L. (2019). The worlds plastic pollution crisis explained. National Geographic. Web.

Ryan, P. G. (2015). Marine anthropogenic litter. Springer, Cham.

Sharma, M. D., Elangickal, A. I., Mankar, J. S., & Krupadam, R. J. (2020). Assessment of cancer risk of microplastics enriched with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 122994.

Introduction

Water pollution is a significant decrease in water resources quality due to the ingress of various chemicals and solid waste into streams, rivers, lakes, seas, and oceans, or the multiplication of microscopic living organisms. The causes of water pollution are related to human activities. After observing the Drinking Water Supply and Quality Report 2018 and 2019, it has become clear that tap water in New York is considered one of the worlds highest quality. New York City receives drinking water from 19 reservoirs and three controlled lakes, located in a watershed of almost 2,000 square miles (NYC Environmental Protection, 2018). This drainage basin is located 125 miles north of New York City, in the Hudson Valley and the Catskills (NYC Environmental Protection, 2018). Drinking water does not require cleaning; however, to comply with all sanitary standards, it still disinfects with chlorine and ultraviolet radiation.

Meanwhile, despite all positive features of the NYC water supply system, several issues exist, including the changes in water quality and the chemical substances found after investigation provided by the Environmental Working Group (EWG). The specific reason for the difference in water condition is the closure for repairs of one of the two aqueducts through which water from the Catskill watershed enters New York. In October 2018, the reservoirs of Westchester and Dutchess counties were involved in the citys uninterrupted supply (NYC Environmental Protection, 2019). The water in these reservoirs is saturated with minerals  particularly calcium and magnesium  and therefore has a characteristic smell and taste (Hoang et al., 2019). This water is considered moderately heavy and leaves a residue on dishes and can clog sewer pipes. Previously, the share of its use in the water supply in New York City did not exceed ten percent, after this, the figure is twenty to thirty percent. Most of the water is supplied to Manhattan and parts of the Bronx.

The nonprofit Environmental Working Group (EWG) has released details on toxic chemicals present in water systems. Data from the EWG study materials show that drinking water in New York City does not meet health guidelines (New York City System, n.d). Six different pollutants associated with cancer have been found in the water (New York City System, n.d). Their level significantly exceeds the recommendations established by the health authorities but does not go beyond the legal norms. There are chemicals in the water, including chloroform, bromodichloromethane, and dichloroacetic acid (New York City System, n.d). Health authorities recommend that the amount of chloroform in water should not exceed the proportion of one in a billion. According to the EWG, it corresponds to one case of cancer in a million inhabitants, while New York Citys water level is 30.9 per billion (New York City System, n.d). Meanwhile, even this amount poses health risks to New Yorkers.

Impact on the Environment and Human Health

The contamination of potable water with chemicals turned out to be much worse than previously thought. The substances that are resistant to environmental degradation are known as perfluoroalkyl (PFAS) (Jayaswal et al., 2018). This factor leads to the overuse of chlorine; consequently, it has several adverse outcomes of its high content in water. In addition to reducing the species diversity of marine and river flora and fauna, as chlorine does not disappear from the water circulation, these substances also accumulate in organisms and circulate in food chains, destroying tissues and leading to infertility and genetic mutations.

Concerning human health, frequent drinking of chlorinate water can increase the number of cancer cases, liver damage, low birth weight in babies, and other health problems. Chlorine interacts with other substances to form trihalomethanes; the most dangerous of these is chloroform, which leads to liver cancer. Moreover, epidemiologists compared a map of the distribution of tumors of the bladder and intestines in the United States with a plan of water chlorination. It turned out that where people drink this water, tumor cases are wide-spread (Li & Wu, 2019). The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has explored that water pollution could affect more than 110 million Americans (Li & Wu, 2019). If people live in a region where potable water has been contaminated, it will become impossible to avoid contact with chemicals.

Management Practices

Although the depletion and water pollution have been going on for years, an acceptable problem solution has not yet been found. Thus, the policy against water pollution prohibits the discharge of untreated wastewater into open water bodies, promotes natural self-purification processes, and creates clean water protection zones. The sequential wastewater treatment system, which is being implemented today in many modern enterprises, consists of two main stages. The first management practice is a mechanical process during which floating and rapidly settling substances are removed from the water. The second is biological management when the abatement with biologically degradable biologically active materials is carried out (Pires et al., 2017). Currently, the crucial way to combat pollution is wastewater treatment, but the fact is that up to 20 percent of the most persistent contamination remains in it (Alcamo, 2019). Finally, consumption and water pollution can be significantly reduced by introducing more closed cycles, such as reusing water in the same production cycle without discharging it into water bodies, restate wastewater, and switching to technologies based on lower consumption water.

Each person needs to master practical ways to conserve and improve water quality. The peoples ability to provide themselves with clean water for health and life consists of environmentally sound actions in everyday life. Citizens can support those public organizations that seek from the authorities concrete efforts to strengthen state control over discharges, reduce the burden on urban treatment facilities, and development of cleaner production.

References

Alcamo, J. (2019). Water quality and its interlinkages with the sustainable development goals. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, 36, 126-140. Web.

Hoang, L., Mukundan, R., Moore, K. E., Owens, E. M., & Steenhuis, T. S. (2019). Phosphorus reduction in the New York City water supply system: A water-quality success story confirmed with data and modeling. Ecological Engineering, 135, 75-88. Web.

Jayaswal, K., Sahu, V., & Gurjar, B. R. (2018). Water pollution, human health, and remediation. In Water Remediation (pp. 11-27). Springer.

Li, P., & Wu, J. (2019). Drinking water quality and public health. Exposure and Health, 11(2), 73-79. Web.

New York City System. (n.d.). Environmental working group. Web.

NYC Environmental Protection. (2018). New York City: Drinking water supply and quality report. Web.

NYC Environmental Protection. (2019). New York City: Drinking water supply and quality report. Web.

Pires, A., Morato, J., Peixoto, H., Botero, V., Zuluaga, L., & Figueroa, A. (2017). Sustainability assessment of indicators for integrated water resources management. Science of the Total Environment, 578, 139-147. Web.

Introduction

The current global problem of climate change is affecting human life in different ways. For instance, the extreme weather patterns recorded in different parts of the world within the past six decades have resulted in underproduction, heavy downpours, and global warming. The sustainability question is more relevant today than at any other time if people are to continue pursuing their personal and professional goals. Unfortunately, some corporations, emerging businesses, and citizens still do not appreciate the importance of protecting the integrity of the natural environment for the purpose of posterity. This paper gives a detailed analysis of plastic pollution and proposals that different stakeholders and governments can implement to mitigate this predicament since it is one of the leading contributors to climate change.

Background Information

Pollution is a major concern today due to the forces of industrialization, globalization, urbanization, and consumption. Many companies produce a wide range of materials that they utilize for packaging various consumer goods or items depending on the expectations of the final consumer. Plastic remains the favorite choice since it is durable, rigid, easy to handle, and capable of withstanding increased heat conditions (Ritchie and Roser). Corporations and emerging firms find it useful due to its availability and malleability. Unfortunately, plastic pollution is presently one of the leading causes of environmental degeneration and loss of habitats. The accumulation rate of plastic particles, objects, and compounds in rivers and urban centers has increased significantly in the developing world (Moore). The absence of stringent measures to hold those who produce them accountable has triggered this challenge. Stakeholders are doing very little to overcome this predicament and protect natural habitats and minimize the impacts of climate changes.

Plastic pollution is capable of affecting all oceans, landscapes, and rivers that support the integrity of the natural environment. The United States is one of the leading contributors to this malpractice in the world today (Prata et al. 2412). For instance, this country produced and released over 100 million pounds of plastic in 2018 (Ritchie and Roser). In 2017, the International Coastal Cleanup exercise conducted annually indicated that over 3.7 million pounds of plastic-related trash were retrieved from the U.S. coasts in a single day (Ritchie and Roser). Most of the efforts undertaken occasionally have failed to deliver positive outcomes. A good example is that of Chattanooga River despite the fact that different people try to clean and remove debris and minimize the chances of pollution.

The problem of plastic pollution threatens many aquatic animals since some of them eat plastic materials, thereby increasing the chances of developing complications or dying (see Fig. 1). Additionally, every American family will take home over 1,500 plastic carrier bags annually (Prata et al. 2417). However, less than one percent of such plastic materials tend to be recycled. Human beings usually allow the remaining ones to pollute and disorient the integrity of the natural environment.

Most of the measures different states and regions have put in place to minimize this problem have failed to produce meaningful results. Plastic pollution is directly linked to the nature of this countrys consumption and production patterns. Most companies and small firms consider plastic as an essential packaging material that minimizes costs of operations while maximizing profits (Prata et al, p. 2418). Its convenience and physical properties explain why many stakeholders and customers find them useful and capable of meeting their demands (Sandipan, p. 4). However, such a trend has affected the planet negatively and continued to threaten the lives of different creatures, including aquatic life. For instance, the Great Pacific Garbage Patch, which appears hard to clean, is a good example of what unmanaged plastics can do to the environment (see Figure 2). These issues explain why a multifaceted approach is needed to reduce plastic pollution protect the integrity of the natural environment.

Reduction of Plastic Pollution

The above section has identified the current rate of plastic pollution as alarming and capable of triggering additional challenges in the future if global partners fail to implement evidence-based measures to deal with it. The best strategy will be to examine what might have worked well in different countries across the globe and introduce it in the United States (Howard et al.). The use of credible facts from economic and environmental studies will deliver legitimate efforts or strategies to reduce the challenge of pollution and make the natural environment more sustainable. Some of the best initiatives that the government can consider are outlined below.

The first powerful approach for reducing the current rate of pollution from plastics is the introduction of policies aimed at banning the possession, handling, production, and use of bags that are capable of protecting the environment. Such laws need to be designed in such a way that there are punitive measures and fines for those who break them. This strategy will compel more citizens and corporations to stop producing or handling plastic bags (Rhodes, p. 221). Such a development will ensure that plastic materials are no longer available in the supply chain. Consequently, the current level of pollution will decrease significantly. The relevant agencies and organizations will need to work collaboratively to support the implementation and effectiveness of such laws (Prata et al, p. 2419). The success stories recorded in Bangladesh, Italy, and South Africa reveal that bans on plastic or disposable carrier bags can deliver positive results.

The second initiative that different stakeholders need to consider is that of improving the level of efficiency regarding its applicability. The ban on some plastic containers might be problematic due to the fact that other available materials might be impractical due to the health hazards they pose, such as metal cans. This reality explains why companies can produce better plastic designs characterized by low quantities of materials while making them reusable or recyclable (Bullock). The extended life of the packaging container means that it will not have a direct impact on the environment. Business entities can go further to embrace the idea of collecting such plastic materials and reusing them to ensure that they do not contribute to the increasing level of pollution.

The third practical approach for dealing with this problem is to reduce the current rate of plastic consumption. Rhodes indicates that double-packaging still remains a common practice in different regions across the United States (p. 223). Stakeholders and convenience stores can consider the importance of choosing eco-friendly or sustainable materials or practices to minimize the quantities of plastics that are disposed of at the end of the supply chain. This initiative needs to be expanded to maximize the level of awareness and encourage more citizens to avoid the use of plastics and recycle them when necessary. The consideration of available alternatives can become an evidence-based approach for overcoming this challenge. Companies can go a step further to embrace the idea of corporate social responsibility (CSR) to remain involved in the lifecycle of their plastic materials (Sandipan, p. 6). They can also consider the importance of undertaking cleanup exercises to minimize the potential impacts of plastic materials on the environment.

The fourth strategy that different organizations, users, and governments need to take seriously is that of litter or waste management. At an individual level, citizens can ensure that they dispose of plastics conveniently without allowing them to damage the integrity of the environment. Different agencies should guide more members of the public to recycle or reuse most of the materials efficiently and recycle them when necessary (Christensen). The implementation of sanctions might become counterproductive since constant monitoring will be needed (Rhodes, p. 224). When more people understand the potential dangers of plastic pollution, chances are high that they will start to handle and dispose them in a proper manner and contribute to their reduction.

The fifth initiative to tackle this environmental problem can borrow the measures the European Union (EU) has put in place. According to Ritchie and Roser, Europe has been producing plastic waste amounting to over 2.58 million tons annually. Around 30 percent of these materials will be recycled to minimize their impacts on the ecosystem (Engler). The problem of ocean plastic pollution has become a major challenge since over 150,000 tons of waste are allowed into the oceans every year (Ritchie and Roser). With these statistics, the EU chose to implement a superior strategy to address the challenge of plastics since they had the potential to affect human, animal, and aquatic life. This initiative is characterized by different procedures and rules that all countries need to implement. Some of these measures include minimizing plastics intended for single-use, improving the packaging and recyclability of such materials, protecting fishing areas, and reducing micro-plastics contained in detergents and other products (Ritchie and Roser). These measures are capable of minimizing the current level of pollution and protecting all ecosystems and habitats.

The sixth possible solution to this environmental predicament is the decision to carry personal water bottles. A study by Engler revealed that plastic water bottles were a leading cause of plastic pollution in different countries. Such containers were hard to reuse due to the nature of business models different companies had implemented. With a reusable bottle, more people would contribute to the initiative of reducing the quantities of plastic materials that have the potential to affect the integrity of the environment. Water companies can consider the importance of providing recyclable containers and refill centers that can meet the demands of more people at an individual level. Such a model is evidence-based and capable of reducing the percentage of plastic containers tossed in trash containers every single day.

The seventh initiative is for people to take the challenge of plastic pollution as a personal issue they can mitigate through the adoption of various measures. When every individual is willing to try, the global community will make meaningful progress and protect all threatened species (Goncalves and Faure, p. 875). Most of the items people use in their houses tend to contribute to the increased levels of plastic pollution, including straws, disposable utensils and cutlery, plastic wrappers, and grocery bags (Prata et al, p. 2412). Individuals can consider this issue and start to rely on reusable versions to ensure that their personal ecological footprints reduce significantly. The use of recyclable mugs and bottles will eventually make it easier for the United States to minimize the current rate of plastic pollution significantly. Similarly, individuals can embrace the idea of buying products and goods in bulk since the practice will minimize the number of disposable materials.

The eighth strategy revolves around the current number of non-governmental agencies and private initiatives aimed at tackling the problem of plastic pollution. Most of these efforts have the potential to compel companies and members of the community to be involved and consider superior measures to deal with this problem. Those in leadership positions can consider the importance of supporting such organizations to achieve their goals much faster. They can provide the relevant resources and ideas to engage in campaigns, training programs, and clean-up exercises that can deliver meaningful results in this area (Tibbetts, p. A92). Citizens can give their donations to support such agencies successful and capable of pursuing their goals diligently. Individuals can consider the importance of volunteering and collecting the current wastes that are affecting different habitats and ecosystems. Such organizations can also collaborate and focus on this problem to present more practical solutions.

Finally, all countries need to view this challenge from an international perspective due to globalization. Some of the plastic materials produced in country A would eventually become an environmental hazard in country B (Sandipan, p. 5). This fact explains why a coordinated approach will make it possible for the world to find evidence-based solutions to this problem, maximize recycling programs, and eventually make environmental issues a priority. All partners will pursue cleanup exercises at the international level in order to help different ecosystems become sustainable again and sensitize more people about this predicament. Countries will share their experiences and lessons from their existing strategies and how they have delivered positive outcomes in this area.

When these measures are put in place, the global community will record desirable results and maintain the integrity of all habitats, hydrological cycles, and protect aquatic life. More people will not have to burn plastics since they contribute to the destruction of the ozone layer (Prata et al, p. 2419). A coordinated approach will also emerge whereby superior laws and guidelines will be implemented effectively to tackle this problem and all the other problems associated with climate change. Some of the best practices recorded in different regions or communities can be replicated at the international level to deliver positive results and make it easier for more countries to overcome this challenge of pollution (Sandipan, p. 5). A sustainable world will become a new opportunity for protecting all at risk species. Consequently, such efforts will work synergistically to protect this planet for the sake of posterity.

Conclusion

The above analysis has identified plastic pollution as a major environmental concern that can affect human beings and aquatic life. The established global economic system has maximized the use of plastic for the packaging of various products and items. With waste management procedures and initiatives, the planet has become overwhelmed by the increasing quantities of plastics in different rivers and oceans. The above proposals have the potential to work synergistically to reduce plastic pollution and protect every affected ecosystem and habitat in different regions or continents. Individuals and governments need to play their specific roles diligently if positive results are to be recorded across the globe.

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