Category: Pollution

Today we are going to dwell on agricultural nutrient pollution that is the result of extensive farming.

The Issue

The nutrients that are contained in fertilizer or manure (mostly nitrates and phosphorus) may reach water basins and cause a dramatic increase in the populations of phytoplankton and algae. As a result of the lifecycle of the two, the contaminated area will be deprived oxygen and become inappropriate for survival (OECD 127).

Apart from endangering the wildlife, nutritional pollution is very costly: it damages commercial fishing and marine farming, and the remedy is expensive. And agriculture is leading reason for this kind of pollution (OECD 68, 127).

Small-scale Farming

• Advantages:
  • effective to an extent;
  • may be used when corresponds to the farmers’ goals.
• Disadvantages:
  • limited applicability (farmer’s goals);
  • not the ultimate solution.

There are several solutions suggested for the issue, and none of them is perfect: there are advantages and disadvantages to every of them. For example, individual farmers have the opportunity of contributing by keeping their farming small-scale in contrast to “factory farms” as suggested in the essay by Jeff Opperman (119). It is a valid solution if it is consistent with the farmer’s goals: smaller farms have a lesser impact on nutritional pollution, but they are also less profitable. Still, it is an intermediate solution only since smaller farms cannot keep up with the Earth’s demand for food. Also, this solution is admittedly extensive: aimed at controlling the scale.

Research

• Advantages:
  • intensive, not extensive;
  • leads to effective agriculture.
• Disadvantages:
  • costly (money, time, efforts);
  • risky;
  • costly to implement.
• Example: catch crops followed by irrigation (Kondo et al. 776).

Extensive measures are typically considered inferior to intensive ones. An example of the intensive approach to the issue is the agriculture research. For example, a new approach to the catch crops usage that was recently tested by Kondo et al. allows catching up to 91% of nitrogen from the soil (Kondo et al. 778-781). Environmentally friendly farming is the key to effective agriculture, but this solution is expensive and risky at the stage of development since the results of research are not guaranteed. Also, the implementation of the results of research requires money and time, and not every farmer is likely to be conscientious enough to be bothered. To help farmers to make the right choice, the government can exert its influence.

Governmental Measures

• Forms:
  • standards;
  • means and incentives to follow them (Bechmann et al. 102).
• Advantages:
  • comprehensive;
  • large-scale.
• Disadvantages:
  • costly;
  • accountability (Herzog et al. 665);
  • limited effectiveness (population; other countries).

The government has several ways of “helping” farmers: through standards and regulations, economic incentives to follow these standards, and the means to follow them. For example, the campaign described by Bechmann et al. that is carried out in Norway includes the economic incentive of subsidies, information campaigns, and the recommendation of tools like soil erosion maps. The government has the resources to carry out a comprehensive and large-scale campaign, but these are very costly and are rarely assessed (Herzog et al. 656). Also, nutrient pollution is a global concern, and the efforts of a single country cannot fully resolve it.

International Level

• Examples:
  • OECD;
  • the North Sea (Bechmann et al. 102).
• Advantage:
  • the most effective.
• Disadvantages:
  • the most difficult to carry out;
  • different level of development;
  • cooperation and consensus required.

There have been attempts to fight nutrient pollution internationally. For example, the countries that have the access to the North Sea have agreed to protect it (Bechmann et al. 102). Similarly, OECD works out plans for the reduction of nutrient pollution produced by its members (127). This solution looks like the most attractive one, but it has limitations and drawbacks as well. Not every country can contribute to the solution since they have different levels of development. Similarly, not every country may be willing to contribute: for this solution to become valid, a certain level of consensus all over the world is necessary, and it is extremely difficult to achieve.

Conclusion

• Three key solutions:
  • extensive means of farming improvement;
  • intensive means of farming improvement;
  • governmental control.
• Best-advocated solution: governmental control (Herzog et al. 656).

Therefore:

• The role of the government is central.
• The cooperation of governments is required for the resolution of the issue.

As you can see, not a single of the proposed solutions is perfect, and as a result, they are not really used on their own. Still, the most well-advocated solution is that of governmental control since the first two offer the means of resolving the problem but do not ensure their implementation. As shown by Herzog et al. farmers do not bother with either extensive or intensive solution if they do not have an extra incentive, which emphasizes the need for the control of solutions implementation (656). It logically follows that the role of the government in the reduction of nutrient pollution is central, and the cooperation of governments is apparently required for the ultimate solution if one is eventually to be achieved.

Discussion Questions

• Does it seem to you that people remain largely indifferent to environmental issues?
• What might be the psychological reasons for the farmers to remain environmentally irresponsible? Could these reasons be manipulated (affected) by the government?
• The accountability and assessment of the results of the governmental campaigns remain problematic (Herzog et al. 665). How to attract public attention to them?
• How can environmentally-savvy countries persuade less responsible ones without harming the relationships or becoming involved in completely unprofitable agreements?

Works Cited

Bechmann, Marianne, Johannes Deelstra, Per Stalnacke, Hans Olav Eggestad, Lillian Øygarden, and Annelene Pengerud. “Monitoring Catchment Scale Agricultural Pollution In Norway: Policy Instruments, Implementation Of Mitigation Methods And Trends In Nutrient And Sediment Losses.” Environmental Science & Policy 11.2 (2008): 102-114. Elsevier. Web.

Herzog, Felix, Volker Prasuhn, Ernst Spiess, and Walter Richner. “Environmental Cross-Compliance Mitigates Nitrogen and Phosphorus Pollution from Swiss Agriculture.” Environmental Science & Policy 11.7 (2008): 655-668. Elsevier. Web.

Kondo, Kamin, Kenta Inoue, Tomi Fujiwara, Shinzo Yamane, Daisuke Yasutake, Morihiro Maeda, Hideaki Nagare, Satoshi Akao, and Kunio Ohtoshi. “Seasonal Changes in the Performance of a Catch Crop for Mitigating Diffuse Agricultural Pollution.” Water Science and Technology: A Journal of the International Association on Water Pollution Research 68.4 (2013): 776-782. EBSCOhost. Web.

OECD. OECD Compendium of Agri-Environmental Indicators. OECD Publications Centre, 2013. Print.

Opperman, Jeff. ” Getting to Know Your Bacon: Hogs, Farms and Clean Water.” Sustainability: A Reader for Writers. Ed. Carl George Herndl. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013. 118-121. Print.

Water and Air Pollution

Brazil has a diverse collection of flora and fauna and is home to numerous animal and plant species. However, the survival of these species is threatened by widespread air and water pollution that has become a national pandemic. Causes of this pollution include mining activities, oil spills, degradation wetlands, agricultural activities, and industrialization. Two main effects of pollution include an increased threat to the survival of endangered species and high mortality rates due to damaging health effects.

An endangered species such as the sea turtle is at risk of extinction. Massive destruction of marine habitat due to water pollution is a contributing factor. Water and air pollution cause adverse health problems that affect the lives of many Brazilians. Also, many animal and plant species face the threat of extinction. The extent of water pollution was evident from the numerous problems experienced during the 2016 Rio Olympic Games (Tracy, 2016). The venues for water sports were severely polluted by raw sewage from surrounding neighborhoods (Tracy, 2016).

Air pollution in Brazil is majorly caused by rapid urbanization and industrial development that has defined the country’s economic growth in the last few decades (Anderson, 2009). The construction of infrastructure was conducted with little regard for the environment. Half of the deaths caused by air pollution originating from outdoor pollution while the rest are caused by household pollution. There is a high concentration of harmful gases and substances such as acetaldehyde, nitrogen oxides, and ethanol in the air (Anderson, 2009).

These substances have negative health impacts on people and animals. Another effect of air pollution is acid rain. High concentrations of toxic gases such as sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxide, and carbon dioxide cause acid rain that kills plant and animal species (Anderson, 2009). Sewage waste, industrial waste, landfill leaks, ethanol, and agricultural activities are major sources of water pollution in Brazil. The main environmental effects of pollution include the destruction of marine habitats, water scarcity, and anoxia.

The sea turtle is under danger of extinction because of habitat destruction by water pollution. In many cities where industrial waste and sewage effluent are directed into rivers and other water bodies, people are facing freshwater scarcity and experiencing incidences of waterborne diseases (Tracy, 2016). Anoxia leads to the death of marine animals because it causes stress due to the low availability of oxygen.

Air and water pollution in Brazil is a pandemic that needs to be addressed. Water scarcity, adverse health effects, high mortality rates, and increased threat to endangered species are some effects of widespread pollution. The situation will continue to worsen if the government does not take speedy action. The issue of water and air pollution in Brazil can be remedied by enacting laws that illegalize the release of toxic substances into water bodies and, that control the release of toxic gases into the atmosphere(Bailey, 2016).

Industrialization and urbanization programs should be micromanaged to ensure that they implement environmental conservation strategies. The government and non-governmental organizations should create awareness regarding the dangers of air and water pollution on the people and animals. Moreover, the government should construct more stations for recycling wastewater.

Response to Discussion Post

The example offered is valid because China is experiencing widespread air and water pollution due to rapid industrialization. The statistics included in the discussion offer insights into the severity of the pollution problem in China. I agree with the ideas presented in the discussion. However, the writer has not discussed the environmental impacts of pollution that the Chinese are experiencing. The discussion contains so many statistics that the main points are excluded. The conclusion is informative because the writer includes strategies to alleviate the problem of air and water pollution in China. The writer could have improved the discussion by providing more information on the strategies mentioned.

References

Anderson, L. G. (2009). Ethanol fuel use in Brazil: air quality Impact. Energy & Environmental Science, 2, 1015-1037.

Bailey, M. (2016). The Olympians can leave. Brazil’s poor live with filthy, reeking water every day. Web.

Tracy, B. (2016). Severe water pollution clouds the Olympic Games in Rio. Web.

Abstract

Although the approaches adopted to manage air pollution in Beijing and the UAE are strikingly different, the rates thereof are getting increasingly high in both states. To manage the problem, it is necessary to address the factors that promote and inhibit the design of the appropriate air pollution management strategies. It is essential that a sustainable approach should be created to resolve the issue successfully. The report at hand describes the research that is aimed at determining the key problems that currently exist in the air pollution field as well as outlining potential strategies for their solution.

The problem is analyzed from the global perspective; however, a particular emphasis is put on its progress in Beijing and the UAE. The proposed research has a mixed structure and employs both qualitative and quantitative methods of data collection and analysis. The key data collection tool is a survey that is targeted at determining the main factors of air pollution, finding out the social opinion regarding the quality of air in different cities, and estimating the public awareness of the relevant problem. The survey results have revealed two critical findings.

First and foremost, the major part of respondents evaluates the quality of the local air as “highly polluted”. Secondly, the respondents show low awareness of the air pollution problem. Thus, they know little about the ways of reducing air pollution and do not see any prospects for their own contribution. In addition, they express enthusiasm about contributing to the problem solution. As a result, it is recommended that the air pollution problem is initially addressed through increasing the social awareness. Hence, it is proposed that further studies are carried out in order to outline the strategies for the change implementation.

Introduction

Background

The issue of air pollution is not new; however, no efficient solution has been located to address the problem yet (Valipour et al., 2014). The phenomenon of air pollution, which is often viewed as the primary cause of the global warming process, has been addressed for quite long, yet very few outcomes have been achieved so far. The situation in the UAE and Beijing, China, can be viewed as prime examples of the inadequate air pollution management strategies.

Problem Statement

Although there are a plethora of suggestions concerning the improvement of the air cleanness rates, including both the indoor and the outdoor pollution, the state of affairs has not been improving over the past few years. The lack of effects of the increased awareness rates can be explained by the lack of control over the air pollution rates, UAE and Beijing being the prime examples of the subject matter.

Research Question

The given paper aims at answering the following question:

1. What are the most concerning issues in the air pollution management both at the global level and in the UAE and Beijing? What strategy can be used to prevent industrial air pollution?

Literature Review

Air Pollution: Causes

Before detailing the primary causes of air pollution, it is essential to mention the fact that the very phenomenon under analysis exists in two orientations. According to WHO, the subject matter manifests itself as indoor or households, pollution (IAP), and outdoor, or ambient, one (OAP).

The location of the air pollution source is predetermined by the type of the air pollutant that causes the problems. For instance, the IAP phenomenon occurs due to the use of solid fuels as the means of cooking. OAP, in its turn, is caused by the factors that are too many to be count, yet industrial pollution and car emissions (CO2) are often viewed as the key sources for good reasons (Chowdhury, Debsarkar, & Chakrabarty, 2015).

Air Pollution: Effects

The phenomenon under analysis is linked directly to the notion of global warming (Shimadera et al., 2014). Specifically, the ice caps melting process, which was launched with the start of the global warming process, triggers an inevitable and quite drastic climate change across the globe. The aftermath of the alteration is going to be beyond devastating; even at present, a range of unique habitats and species are endangered and even extinguished with no chances for the further repopulation.

In addition, air pollution takes its toll on people as well, especially the residents of urban areas. Numerous respiratory issues, including lung diseases, in general, and lung cancer, in particular, are attributed to the factors such as air pollution (Umoh et al., 2014).

Current Air Pollution Rates

At present, the air pollution rate varies across the globe. The pollution rates are largely predetermined not only by environmental policies but also the economic factors such as the number of factories and plants emitting CO2 and the related gases, the usage of cars running on gas as opposed to the hybrid models, etc. An overview of the current air pollution status globally reveals that the problem is especially topical in Asia and South Africa; whereas West Europe, the United States, and Australia have reasonably low air pollution rates on their record.

Air Pollution in UAE

The recent study carried out by the WHO has not supplied any data concerning the air pollution rates in the target area (Household (indoor) air pollution, 2016). The lack of the data on the issue under analysis can be attributed to the fact that the control tools used to track the air pollution rates have not been fully developed in the UAE area yet. Nevertheless, the reports, on the air-pollution-related problems in the UAE area, indicate that the state has been suffering from the increasing contamination for quite long (Household (indoor) air pollution, 2016).

The supposition concerning the problem being rooted in the lack of control over the pollution rates is mentioned in several sources (Umoh et al., 2014; Shimadera et al., 2014). In addition, when it comes to identifying the problems of the current strategies against pollution in the UAE and, especially, the means of raising awareness among the target tiers of the UAE society about the means of addressing the problem, the corresponding authorities send a wrong message. Instead of representing the phenomenon of air pollution as the contemporary monster that must be dreaded, the local authorities need to make it clear that the subject matter is a serious problem that can be addressed efficiently once simple steps are taken.

In other words, when it comes to identifying the issues that contribute to the further increase in IAP rates in the UAE, one must point out the lack of awareness as the primary cause. The same cannot be said about the OP issues, however. A recent analysis of the problem has revealed that the power plants and the processes involving burning fossil fuels affect the air pollution rates in the designated environment to the greatest degree.

Air Pollution in Beijing

According to the recent report published by WHO, China, in general, and Beijing, in particular, is by far the most contaminated areas on the globe, with the air pollution rates reaching drastic rates in the specified areas (Figure 2). The observed phenomenon can be explained by the specifics of the economic development of the state.

Seeing that industry is a part and parcel of the local economy and a crucial factor that defines China’s success in the global market, the number of plants is huge in China. For the same economic reasons, the resources acquired in the course of the local companies’ operations are allocated in the way that does not imply environmentally sensible approaches.

It is quite remarkable, though, that, despite the issues elucidated above, the air quality in Beijing has, in fact, improved significantly over the past year, according to a recent report (Rao, Rajasekhar, & Rao, 2014). Comparing the environmental issues in Beijing to those in UAE, one must admit that the differences are quite striking. Although the rates of economic growth and, therefore, the opportunities for a proper allocation of resources, are much lower in Beijing than they are in the UAE, the air pollution rates have dropped in China as opposed to the UAE.

The observed phenomenon can be viewed as the direct effect of the choice of the air pollution control strategy adopted. In contrast to the UAE, where little or no information is provided on the subject matter, the concerns voiced regarding China, in general, and Beijing, in particular, are quite well known. Therefore, the tools for controlling the issue in question and registering the slightest changes in the current air pollution rates offer much more accurate results in Beijing.

Possible Solutions

As the evidence provided above has shown, identifying the tools that will help to switch to a different mode of resources consumption, while admittedly adequate, is not enough to create prerequisites for addressing the air pollution issue successfully. Apart from the steps described above, it is essential to design the approach aimed at increasing the mass awareness of the potential threat, convincing people to contribute to the resolution of the problem as opposed to fearing it. As a result, it is expected that the problems related to air pollution will finally be addressed.

In addition, the redesign of the very framework that companies stick to needs to be viewed as an option. There is no need to put a particular emphasis on the fact that the decision to comply with the current standards of environmental safety is a question of ethics rather than the determination to follow regulations. Therefore, it is essential to consider the possibility of creating the environment, within which organizations will be eager to design the approach that will help monitor the air pollution rates. Thus, the tools for reducing the specified indices could be designed in a more elaborate and efficient manner.

Obstacles

While the steps outlined above seem quite legitimate, there is a range of obstacles that are likely to hinder the process of reducing air pollution rates in the outlined areas. The lack of financial resources should be listed at the top of the primary causes of concern list. There is no need to point out that an awareness campaign needs funding.

In addition, it is essential to bring up the fact that questionnaires, when distributed among the members of an organization and aimed at testing the efficacy of the managers’ strategies, tend to bring non-objective results. For obvious reasons, primarily, the fear of being fired, people are likely to be unwilling to share the details concerning the specifics of their companies’ approaches. The possibility of meeting the obstacle above is especially high when addressing an issue as delicate as compliance with the existing principles of environmentally friendly production processes.

Research Importance

Although the problems related to the environment seem to have worn out their welcome as the topics for discussion in the contemporary society and have made way to other issues that are deemed as important nowadays, the need to take care of the subject matter is still quite evident. In terms of the approaches that failed miserably as the tools for keeping the air pollution rates down, new strategies must be designed so that the problem in question should not trigger a rapid increase in the health problems rates, not to mention the number of environmental concerns.

Despite the fact that the study to be carried out might not reinvent the current approach toward managing air pollution rates globally and especially in Beijing and the UAE, it will shed some light on the current approaches adopted in the area and locate the issues that will have to be looked into. Moreover, there is a possibility that the study will serve to be the basis for the further design of a brand-new approach towards the air pollution rates management.

Limitations

As well as any study incorporating both qualitative and quantitative research methods, the paper under analysis is going to have a range of limitations. As a qualitative study, it will be time-consuming and will inevitably incorporate the researcher’s insights related to the problem, therefore, lacking objectivity. The application of a questionnaire as a primary tool for gathering quantitative data is likely to lead to creating premises for the participants to develop a preconceived attitude toward the issue under discussion.

Methodology

Research Design

The study seeks to not only locate the relationships between the key variables, i.e., the causes of air pollution and the strategies aimed at reducing it, but also to evaluate the efficacy thereof and isolate the tools that can be used to create the ultimate approach for improving the current air pollution rates. Therefore, it will be crucial to both consider the qualitative links between the variables identified and quantify the outcomes. Hence, a mixed approach involving the combination of the qualitative and the quantitative method will have to be adopted.

Data Collection Tools

To carry out a qualitative study, it is necessary to consider the existing resources that shed light on the problem of air pollution. In other words, it is recommended that a general research concerning the IAP issues should be conducted. Therefore, the first step is a thorough literature review. Secondly, it will be necessary to carry out the relevant survey in order to identify the key factors that impact air pollution as well as to evaluate the public awareness of the problem.

As soon as the latest data regarding the factors that have been affecting the rates of air pollution, globally, and in the UAE and Beijing, particularly, is identified, a quantitative analysis of their effects will have to be carried out. For these purposes, questionnaires will have to be submitted to 20 employees from different companies in Beijing and the UAE to find out their vision of the problem. It is expected that the steps enumerated above will help locate the dents in the latest methods of improving the air pollution rates, as well as introduce the tools that will incorporate the best sides of the existing management approaches.

Sampling Strategy

In the course of research, 20 managers from the UAE and Beijing will be welcome to participate in the survey. To make the outcomes of the study as objective as possible, it is essential to employ a random sampling technique.

As far as the qualitative study is completed, it will be reasonable to calculate the sample size with the help of the formula that is traditionally adopted in the specified environment. Particularly, the framework suggested by Bartlett, Kortlik, and Higgins (2001) should be viewed as an option. Although this research was conducted comparatively long ago, the credibility of the formula should not be doubted as the premises for its development were substantiated by the authors from a statistically accurate point of view.

According to the existing formula, the sample size can be determined by incorporating the data such as the value for the selected alpha level (1.96 in the specified case), the population standard deviation, and the acceptable margin of error that can be estimated (0.21 in the case in point). Bartlett, Kortlik, and Higgins (2001) suggest the following formula,

.

Given the specifics of the study, the sample size will be equal to,

Therefore, to carry out a detailed analysis of the information provided by the participants, it will be necessary to consider four samples.

Data Analysis Tools

Taking into account the fact that the present research design can be defined as mixed, it will be necessary to provide the tools for analysing both types of data. The information acquired in the course of the qualitative research will be analysed with the help of a frequency table. The responds provided for the survey will be analysed through a frequency table in order to identify the most typical answers.

Implications

As it has been already mentioned above, addressing the issues related to environmentalism, in general, and air pollution, in particular, is a challenging task, primarily due to the scale of the problem and the scope of factors that needs to be addressed. It should be borne in mind that people’s attitude toward the issue needs to be altered so that the strategies against air pollution could be utilised successfully.

Results

The survey questions have been sent to 20 managers of both Beijing and UAE companies. All the questionnaires have been sent via e-mails, and all the participants submitted the surveys in time. The received responses have been interpreted with the help of a frequency table (Tables 1-4).

Table 1: City Pollution.

Table 2: Pollution Factors.

Table 3: Solution Practices.

Table 4: Alternative Solutions.

The analysis has been carried out within the following dimensions: city pollution, pollution factors, solutions practices, and alternative solutions. The most critical findings are described below:

• The analysis has revealed that 18 respondents out of 20 consider their cities to be highly polluted.
• Among the main pollution factors 10 respondents name transport, 5 – industrial pollution, 3 – smoke, 2 – human activity.
• The major part of respondents – 16 – thinks that the authorities do not perform any activity in order to reduce the air pollution. The 4 respondents that think the opposite have difficulty naming the particular actions that the authorities carry out. 12 respondents admit they do nothing to reduce the air pollution. 8 participants say the contrary; their activity mainly resides in using public transport and avoiding smoking. None of the respondents accused their company of polluting air. In the meantime, none of the respondents could define the activity that the company carries out in this framework.
• All the respondents believe they could do more to reduce the air pollution, although only 5 participants indicate particular methods: energy conservation programs, biking instead of driving, and purchasing low-polluting materials.

Discussion

The data collected through the survey allows drawing a series of critical conclusions. First and foremost, the research has shown that the major part of the participants evaluate the quality of the air in their city as highly polluted. This consensus is rather concerning as it signifies that there is a strong need for effective change.

Secondly, speaking about the impact factors, the research results show that transport and industry are the main causes of the air pollution, according to the public opinion. It means that potential programs targeted at reducing the air pollution should put a particular emphasis on eliminating the harmful effect that these two factors produce.

Moreover, the research has revealed the generally poor activity carried out to reduce the air pollution. The research results show that the respondents do not think that their authorities are enough concerned about implementing the relevant change. Even though they avoid accusing their companies of the lack of activity, they still cannot name the particular measures taken by their organizations.

In addition, the analysis of the research results shows that the general level of air pollution awareness is rather low. Thus, the major part of the respondents can hardly name the particular methods that their authorities and companies employ in their activity aimed at reducing the air pollution. As a result, poor understanding of the alternative solutions might serve to be the core factor that underpins the rapid growth of the air pollution.

As long as people know little about this phenomenon, they are unable to offer effective programs to implement the essential change. In the meantime, the enthusiasm and the willingness to contribute to the common activity are relatively high. Thus, a dominant part of the respondents admits that their effort in terms of reducing the air pollution is insufficient.

As a result, it might be concluded that the key reason of the low efficacy of the current anti-pollution activity resides in the poor social awareness of the particular approaches to the problem solution.

Conclusion and Recommendations

The study has shed some light on the problem of air pollution. Hence, it revealed the low level of the social awareness of the air pollution reasons and the methods of its reduction. From this perspective, a series of recommendations can be offered. First and foremost, it is currently essential to make sure that the issue draws as much public attention as possible.

Educational seminars and workshops should be organized in order to help people learn more about the air pollution and outline the strategy for the common activity. As a result, it is proposed that further research focuses on the alternative solutions of the low awareness problem. It is necessary to carry out a study that would examine the possible ways of raising the level of public awareness and engaging the society in the common activity.

Secondly, it is critical to work out a well-structured program that would address the two pollution factors that turned out to be determinant in the framework of this research: transport and industry. It is necessary to collect statistical data in order to identify whether these factors are as harmful to the quality of air as the research respondents believe. In case their concerns are objective, it is essential to study the mechanisms of this harmful effect and work out a strategy for its elimination.

In addition, it is critical to carry out further research in order to find out the pollution rates in the cities of the respondents in order to receive a clear idea of what rate they think to be high.

In conclusion, it should be noted that the air pollution problem is highly complex and complicated. Its solution requires a well-structured approach that would consider all the impact factors as well as the social awareness and willingness to participate.

Reference List

Bartlett, J. E., Kortlik, J. W., Higgins, C. C. (2001). Organizational research: Determining appropriate sample size in survey research. Information Technology, Learning, and Performance Journal, 19(1), 43-50.

Chowdhury, A. K., Debsarkar, A., & Chakrabarty, S. (2015). Seasonal variation of noise-air quality and state of exposure to noise-air pollution at curbside open-air microenvironment of Kolkata City, India. Columbia International Publishing International Journal of Environmental Pollution and Solutions, 3(1), 16-30.

Household (indoor) air pollution. (2016).

Rao, N. V., Rajasekhar, M., & Rao, G. C. (2014). Detrimental effect of air pollution, corrosion on building materials and historical structures. American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER), 3(3), 359-364.

Shimadera, H., Hayami, H., Ohara, T., Morino, Y., Takami, A., & Irei, S. (2014). Numerical simulation of extreme air pollution by fine particulate matter in China in winter 2013. Asian Journal of Atmospheric Environment, 8(1), 25-34.

Valipour, S. S., Mousavi, M., Valipour, R., & Rezaei, E. (2014).Air, water, and soil pollution study in industrial units using environmental flow diagram. Journal of Basic and Applied Scientific Research, 2(12), 12365-12372,

Umoh, V., Peters, E., Erhabor, G., Ekpe, E., & Ibok, A. (2013).Indoor air pollution and respiratory symptoms among fishermen in the Niger delta of Nigeria. African Journal of Respiratory Medicine, 9(1), 17-21.

Environmental pollution is the unwarranted discharge of mass or energy into the planet’s natural resource pools, such as land, air, or water, which detriments the environment’s ecological stability and the health of the living things that inhabit it. There is an intensified health risk and pollution in middle and low-income countries due to the increased use of pesticides, industrialization, the introduction of nitrogen-based fertilizers, forest fires, urbanization, and inadequate waste management (Appannagari, 2017). Air pollution, lead and chemicals exposure, hazardous waste exposure, and inappropriate e-waste disposal all result in unfavorable living conditions, fatal illnesses, and ecosystem destruction. The essay will provide an overview of pollution and proffer solutions to combating pollution for a sustainable environment and health.

In addition to hindering economic development and considerably accelerating climate change, pollution exacerbates poverty and inequality in urban and rural areas. The most pain is always experienced by the poor, who cannot afford to protect themselves against pollution’s harmful effects. The main environmental factor contributing to sickness and early mortality is pollution due to premature deaths resulting from pollution (Appannagari, 2017). Due to the unacceptably high cost to human capital and health, as well as the resulting GDP losses, pollution must be addressed. Through initiatives like reducing black carbon and methane emissions, which are responsible for air pollution and climate change, pollution management can also significantly contribute to climate change mitigation (Appannagari, 2017). Additionally, pollution control can promote competitiveness through, for instance, job growth, increased energy efficiency, better transportation, and sustainable urban and rural development. Below are the various approaches for solutions to health and pollution problems.

First, governments should evaluate pollution as a national and international priority and integrate it into the city and country planning process. Pollution affects the health and well-being of societies and, as such, cannot be solely viewed as an environmental issue (The Lancet Commission on Pollution and Health, 2017). All levels of government should give pollution prevention a high priority, incorporate it into development planning, and tie it to commitments regarding climate change, SDGs, and the prevention of non-communicable diseases. Some options are both affordable and offer good returns on investment.

Secondly, governments should increase funding for pollution control and prioritize it by health impacts. There should be a significant increase in the financing for pollution management in low- and middle-income nations, both from national budgets and international development organizations (The Lancet Commission on Pollution and Health, 2017). The most effective international support for pollution reduction is when it mobilizes additional actions and funding from others. Examples include helping towns and nations that are quickly industrializing concerning technical capacity building, regulatory and enforcement support, and support for direct actions to save lives. Monitoring financing initiatives are necessary to determine their cost-effectiveness and to raise accountability.

Thirdly, organizations should work to build multicultural partnerships for pollution control. Public-private partnerships and interagency cooperation can be powerful tools in creating clean technology and energy sources that will ultimately prevent pollution at its source (The Lancet Commission on Pollution and Health, 2017). Collaborations between ministries that include the ministries of finance, energy, development, agriculture, and transport, as well as the ministries of health and the environment, are crucial in pollution control. Governments should promote monitoring systems that could identify and apportion pollution sources, measure pollution levels, guide enforcement, and assess progress toward goals. The use of new technology in pollution monitoring, such as data mining and satellite images, can boost effectiveness, broaden the monitoring area, and cut costs.

One of the main issues facing the world in the current period is pollution. Natural resources are depleting daily due to car emissions, new technologies, factories, and chemicals added to food. All of these factors seriously harm the world. However, the problems caused by pollution can be prevented by building multicultural partnerships, increasing funding for pollution control, integrating it into the country’s planning process, and adopting new technology for monitoring pollution. Preventing pollution lowers the cost to the environment and the economy.

References

Appannagari, R. R. (2017). Environmental pollution causes and consequences: A study. North Asian International Research Journal of Social Science and Humanities, 3(8), 151-161. Web.

Excell High School. (2018). Environmental Science. Excel Education Systems, Inc. Web.

The Lancet Commission on Pollution and Health. (2017). Pollution and health: Six problems and six solutions. Knowledge, Evidence, and Learning for Development.

Types of Air Pollution

• The book “Environmental Science” identifies the major substances that are released into the nature atmosphere.
• Primary pollutants include gases and volcanic ash. Carbon oxides such as CO2 and CO are colorless.
• Carbon monoxide (CO) is usually toxic and affects animals and plants.
• Nitrogen oxides such as NO2 and NO are greenhouses gases capable of producing acidic rain.
• Some particulates such as dust and volcano ash can result in smog (Enger & Smith, 2016).
• The second category includes secondary pollutants.
• Smog occurs when “car exhausts are exposed to direct sunlight” (Hitchcook, Conlan, Kay, Brannigan, & Newman, 2014, p. 17).
• Enger and Smith (2016) identify hazardous compounds as potential sources of pollution.
• Some of these compounds include chemicals and toxic compounds (Enger & Smith, 2016).
• Cleaners, glues, and gasoline also pollute the atmosphere.
• Perchloroethylene is released from cleaning agents.

The first group or type include primary pollutants and emerge from natural processes or human activities. These primary pollutants include gases and volcanic ash. Carbon oxides such as CO2 and CO are colorless. Carbon monoxide (CO) is usually toxic and affects both animals and plants. These greenhouse gases affect the global climate. Nitrogen oxides such as NO2 and NO are greenhouses gases capable of producing acidic rain.

The second category includes secondary pollutants. The components of secondary air pollution include ozone and nitrogen oxides. Smog occurs when “car exhausts are exposed to direct sunlight” (Hitchcook, Conlan, Kay, Brannigan, & Newman, 2014, p. 17). Enger and Smith (2016) identify hazardous compounds as potential sources of pollution. Cleaners, glues, and gasoline also pollute the atmosphere. Perchloroethylene is a poisonous pollutant released from cleaning agents.

Problems Caused by Poor Air Quality

• The WHO “estimates that urban air pollution accounts for over 3 million deaths annually” (Enger & Smith, 2016, p. 373).
• Unhealthy people die prematurely due to poor air quality.
• Enger and Smith (2016) indicate “that 20-30 percent of all respiratory diseases arises from air pollution” (p. 373).
• During summer periods, smog can become a major problem due to a condition referred to as thermal inversion (Hitchcook et al., 2014).
• The accumulation of harmful chemicals affects people’s quality of health.
• Acid precipitation occurs due to poor air quality.
• Terrestrial ecosystems also suffer due to acid rains.
• Forests have declined significantly due to the connection between air quality and acidic rain.
• Measurements “in the Arctic indicate that the ozone layer has been thinning” (Enger & Smith, 2016, p. 382).

The World Health Organization (WHO) “estimates that urban air pollution accounts for over 3 million deaths annually” (Enger & Smith, 2016, p. 373). Unhealthy, elderly, and young people die prematurely due to poor air quality. The quality of air is affected by the increasing number of industrial plants and motor vehicles. Enger and Smith (2016) go further to indicate “that 20-30 percent of all respiratory diseases arises from air pollution” (p. 373).

Cities with many vehicles are usually associated with smog. During summer periods, smog can become a major problem due to a condition referred to as thermal inversion (Hitchcook et al., 2014). The accumulation of harmful chemicals affects the residents’ quality of health. Acid precipitation occurs due to poor air quality. Terrestrial ecosystems also suffer due to the problem of acid rain. Forests have declined significantly due to the connection between air quality and acidic rain.

How Human Activity Affects Quality of Air

• Human activities play a significant role towards determining the quality of air.
• Such activities continue to affect the quality of the natural atmosphere.
• Industrial activities produce primary pollutants such as CO2, CO, NO, and NO2 (Enger & Smith, 2016).
• Greenhouses gases are also emitted by industrial processes and vehicles.
• Agricultural and construction activities have led to depletion of natural ecosystems.
• Urbanization and emission of air pollutants have led poor quality of air.
• Agricultural practices have changed within the past five decades.
• Land use and agricultural practices “account for 24 percent of greenhouse gases” (Maji, Ahmed, & Siddiqui, 2015, p. 905).
• For very many years, people have been depending on fossil fuels for energy.
• Some of these fuel sources include coal and crude oil.
• These energy sources affect the cleanliness of the natural environment.
• Human activity therefore remains the leading contributor of air pollution (Enger & Smith, 2016).
• Experts believe strongly that human activities will continue to worsen the problem of air pollution in the near future.

Human activities play a significant role towards determining the quality of air. Man has been engaging in numerous activities that have continued to affect the quality of the natural atmosphere. For example, human economic and industrial activities produce pollutant gases such as CO2, CO, NO, and NO2 (Enger & Smith, 2016). Urbanization and emission of air pollutants have led poor quality of air. Agricultural practices have changed within the past five decades.

Land use and agricultural practices “have been observed to account for 24 percent of greenhouse gases” (Maji, Ahmed, & Siddiqui, 2015, p. 905). For very many years, people have been depending on fossil fuels for energy. These statistics indicate clearly that human activity still remains the leading contributor of air pollution (Enger & Smith, 2016).

How Human Health is Affected by Air Quality

• Air pollution is associated with both short-term and long-term health complications that can cause sudden death.
• The WHO indicates that SO2 and NO2 can cause eye irritation and damage the respiratory system.
• Prolonged exposure can cause lung or cardiovascular problems.
• Lung cancer is also associated with poor air quality (Enger & Smith, 2016).
• Over 2 million human beings die annually due to air pollution.
• Individuals living in polluted homes have increased chances of developing health complications.
• Indoor pollutants such as paints and household cleaners can cause asthma in children.
• Prolonged exposure to indoor pollutants is capable of causing cardiovascular disease, asthma, pulmonary problems, and cancer (Maji et al., 2015).
• Individuals who have preexisting diseases such as cancer or pulmonary conditions are also vulnerable.
• Regions that are identified as green have also been associated with reduced life expectancy (Currie, 2013).
• According to the WHO, life expectancies will be shortened by around 8 months due to air pollution.

Air pollution is associated with both short-term and long-term health complications that can cause sudden death. The WHO indicates that SO2 and NO2 can cause eye irritation and damage the respiratory system. Prolonged exposure can result in various lung or cardiovascular problems. Lung cancer is also associated with poor air quality (Enger & Smith, 2016). A study conducted by the WHO indicated that over 2 million human beings were dying annually due to air pollution.

Prolonged exposure to indoor pollutants is capable of causing cardiovascular disease, asthma, pulmonary problems, and cancer (Maji et al., 2015). Individuals who have preexisting diseases such as cancer or pulmonary conditions are vulnerable to the above effects of poor air quality (Currie, 2013). According to the WHO, life expectancies will be shortened by around 8 months due to the major problems arising from air pollution.

Plausible Suggestions to Improve Air Quality

• Legislation:
  • The government can implement stringent laws to dictate various human activities (Egondi et al., 2013).
  • Companies should engage in environmentally-friendly manufacturing processes.
  • Vehicle manufacturers should ensure their cars do not pollute the environment.
  • Chemical manufacturers should produce detergents and cleaners that do not emit poisonous compounds (Vallero, 2014).
• Sustainability:
  • Green practices can guide more people to recycle different materials and minimize their ecological footprints.
  • Energy saving tips can minimize the quantities of gases emitted through various human activities (Maji et al., 2015).
  • Farmers should embrace the use of biodegradable and organic compounds.
  • Pesticides and fertilizers should be environmentally-friendly (Egondi et al., 2013).
  • New campaigns should be used to promote greener and sustainable practices.

The government can implement stringent laws to dictate various human activities (Egondi et al., 2013). For instance, companies should be required to engage in environmentally-friendly manufacturing processes. Vehicle manufacturers should ensure their cars do not pollute the environment. Chemical manufacturers should be monitored in order to produce detergents and cleaners that do not emit poisonous compounds.

Enger and Smith (2016) believe that green practices can guide more people to recycle different materials and minimize their ecological footprints. Energy saving tips can minimize the quantities of gases emitted through various human activities (Maji et al., 2015). Farmers should embrace the use of biodegradable and organic compounds. Pesticides and fertilizers, for instance, should be environmentally-friendly.

References

Currie, J. (2013). Pollution and infant health. Child Development Perspectives, 7(4), 237-242.

Egondi, T., Kyobutungi, C., Ng, N., Muindi, K., Oti, S., de Vijver, S., & Rocklov, J. (2013). Community perceptions of air pollution and related health risks in Nairobi slums. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 10(1), 4851-4868.

Enger, E., & Smith, B. (2016). Environmental Science. New York, NY: McGraw Hill.

Hitchcook, G., Conlan, B., Kay, D., Brannigan, C., & Newman, D. (2014). Air quality and road transport: Impacts and solutions. RAC Foundation, 1(1), 1-45.

Maji, S., Ahmed, S., & Siddiqui, W. (2015). Air quality assessment and its relation to potential health impacts in Delhi, India. Current Science, 109(5), 902-909.

Vallero, D. (2014). Fundamentals of Air Pollution. New York, NY: Academic Press.

Environmental pollution is one of the fundamental factors directly affecting climate change. Due to the active production and human use of fossil fuel products, industrial enterprises’ activities exert intense pressure on the environment. Air pollution has a direct negative impact not only on the climatic situation but also on people’s health throughout the country. The most vulnerable category of the population to climate change is adults over 65 since external factors most strongly influence their health.

Industrial enterprises for the extraction and processing of fossil fuels are located throughout the United States of America. Moreover, agricultural activities and natural disasters, such as seasonal forest fires, substantially impact the ecological situation. Moreover, given the air masses’ movement and the cyclical nature of many biological processes, it is fair to conclude that air pollution problems are national. First of all, the increased content of heavy particles such as CO2, N2O, and NH3 has a severe impact on the human respiratory system. The lungs receive additional stress due to respiratory diseases such as asthma and chronic objective pulmonary illness.

Furthermore, the lack of pure oxygen in the body harms other human organs: the brain, heart, and digestive system. According to new data from the World Health Organization (WHO) (2018), 9 out of 10 people breathe air with an increased concentration of pollutants. The WHO estimates that 7 million people die each year from the effects of inhaling air-containing particulate matter causing diseases such as stroke, heart disease, lung cancer, and pneumonia (World Health Organization, 2018). Older people are most vulnerable to environmental pollution, as their level of immunity weakens with age.

The negative impact of human-made pollution sources is actively affecting climate change. First of all, the above factors affect the increase in temperature in the atmosphere. According to the Lancet Countdown, temperature-related deaths in people over 65 have increased by 50% in the past twenty years (Watts et al., 2020). In the southern regions, there is an increased risk associated with an increase in atmospheric temperature, which in the long term will lead to droughts, floods, and, as a result, food crises. In addition, high temperatures increase the rate at which infectious diseases such as malaria spread, which also poses additional risks in some countries (Fairweather, 2020). Thus, the problem of climate change is not only national but also goes to the global level.

To solve this problem, a systematic and comprehensive approach is required, the application of which will take a relatively long period. In climate change, due to air pollution, the main force to prevent environmental disasters need to change the approach to the production of substances from fossil fuels. First of all, increased taxation and legislative acts limiting the number of harmful products will reduce the burden on the environment. Recent technological solutions allow the use of renewable energy sources with increasing efficiency. Large companies gradually lose the need to use coal or petroleum products. Conglomerates continue to use them due to low prices. Therefore, government intervention is needed, aimed not to adjusting the market as a harmful environmental consequence.

Due to the rapid development and massive use of modern technologies by the population, people’s way of life has changed. In the twenty-first century, the world community is ready to actively assist the government by applying the principles of conscious consumption and reducing the emissions of solid and gaseous waste into nature. People are beginning to use public transport, bicycles, and other transportation, emitting several times fewer emissions than cars.

Moreover, the environmental agenda is growing: citizens choose special packaging of products, strive to sort waste into categories, and the state needs to support private initiatives at the federal and local levels (Akhtar & Palagiano, 2018). First of all, it is necessary to create all the conditions to make it easier for people to choose environmentally friendly products, create additional waste sorting centers, and raise citizens’ education in environmental matters. This can be done both by legislative acts, there and by local decisions.

The problem of climate change and air pollution is global. Accordingly, a considerable number of people are subject to changes that affect their daily life. Consequently, there is an additional burden on the health care system. If the current trend continues, the situation runs the risk of spiraling out of control due to medical institutions’ limited capacity. The pandemic of the COVID-19 virus, which has spread worldwide, has demonstrated the existence of vulnerabilities in the healthcare system (Richardson, 2020). In cases where many people need the qualified help, medical institutions may not cope with the load. In the event of critical climate changes, implying global cataclysms, the healthcare system will not be able to cope with the task.

To sum up, climate change is primarily due to the high level of harmful substances emissions into the atmosphere. According to statistics, every year, more and more people over 65 years old directly feel the consequences of the changes. First of all, to reduce environmental change, it is necessary to introduce stringent measures for large industrial enterprises and agricultural centers. Increasing ecological awareness of the population also favorably contributes to curbing global warming and, as a result, reduces people’s vulnerability to disease.

References

Akhtar, R., & Palagiano, C. (2018). Climate change and air pollution. Switzerland: Springer International Publishing.

Watts, N., Amann, M., Arnell, N., Ayeb-Karlsson, S., Beagley, J., Belesova, K.,… & Capstick, S. (2020). The 2020 report of The Lancet Countdown on health and climate change: Responding to converging crises. The Lancet. Web.

World Health Organization. (2018). Air pollution and child health: Prescribing clean air: Summary (WHO Reference Number WHO/CED/PHE/18.01). Web.

Richardson, S. J., et al. (2020). Research with older people in a world with COVID-19: identification of current and future priorities, challenges and opportunities. Age and Ageing, 49(6), 901-906.

Fairweather, V., Hertig, E., and Traidl‐Hoffmann, C. (2020). A brief introduction to climate change and health. Allergy, 75(9), 2352-2354. Web.

Severe air pollution in Beijing did not become a subject of worldwide concern and discussion until the 2008 Beijing Olympics, which brought the issue to the attention of the global public due to the immense amount of publicity associated with the event (BBC). Ever since then, both the local government and international organizations, such as Greenpeace and WHO have tried to implement various tactics in order to achieve a decrease in air pollution levels. Most of the efforts, however, have shown temporary results (BBC). Latest studies suggest that the lack of substantial effect is due to the wrong approach to the issue.

For instance, most of the efforts are focused solely on eliminating pollution in Beijing, whereas research suggests that “air quality in the Beijing region would substantially benefit from reducing residential sector emissions from both within Beijing and within surrounding provinces” (Liu et al. 7760). Moreover, despite the fact that many of the government’s strategies are aimed at reducing the damage from motor vehicles and power plants, household emissions remain one of the leading causes of air pollution in Beijing: “Household emissions, mostly from space heating and cooking with solid fuels, are an important and generally unrecognized source of ambient air pollution in China and other developing countries” (Liu et al. 7556).

The aim of an effective strategy for decreasing the pollution, therefore, would be to target the households as the primary source of emissions: “particles such as smoke, soot and dust floating in air – could be cut by almost half if houses were considered in regional emission plans” (Ritchie par. 3). The involvement of households with the proposed environmental management tactics would be impossible to achieve without addressing decision-making biases that cause the people to contribute to the issues; effective strategy would involve promoting awareness, introducing new sources of fuel at discounted rates, compromising on the heating temperatures with the citizens, as well as offering new, environmentally-friendly heating options.

Background and the History of Air Pollution in Beijing

The main reason for China’s air pollution is the rapid urbanization which started in the late twentieth century: “Over the past 30 years, China has experienced rapid economic growth, accompanied by accelerating urbanization, which has increased consumption of fossil fuels and worsened air quality” (Liu et al. 7556). The development of large factories and the industry sector caused a massive increase in the use of coal, which, along with the popularization of cars, affected the air quality: “In 1998, Beijing was highly dependent on coal for its energy needs, with the annual coal consumption reaching as high as 28 million tonnes” (UNEP ix).

Ever since then, the government has been trying to limit the use of coal by the industry sector to decrease the pollution, and the efforts achieved some success. For instance, “The proportion of coal consumption in total energy consumption decreased from 54 per cent in 1998 to 25 per cent in 2012 […] the proportion of natural gas, imported electricity and other clean sources of energy in total energy consumption increased from 19 per cent to 44 per cent” (UNEP x), which helped to the lower level of pollution overall: “In 2013, annual concentrations of SO2, NO2, and PM10 were 26.5 μg/m3, 56.0 μg/m3, and 108 μg/m respectively, which was equivalent to respective reductions of 78 per cent, 24 per cent and 42 per cent, when compared with the levels in 1998” (UNEP 7).

However, the level of fine particles PM2.5 stays critically high despite these improvements, especially in the winter season: “the average daily concentration of the smallest particulates – those that can lodge deeply in the lungs and trigger chronic and acute respiratory illness, heart disease and lung cancer – is more than six times what the World Health Organization regards as safe” (PHYS par. 3). The primary cause for this is the use of dirty fuels, including coal, for space heating and cooking, a source of pollution that has been overlooked by most of the government’s pollution management policies until recently (Climate Home), even though “residential sources contribute far more to primary PM2.5 emissions annually in Beijing and the surrounding region than the transportation and power sectors combined and, in winter, more than industry” (Liu et al. 7760).

Many scholars agree that it would be impossible to address the air pollution in Beijing without paying particular attention to the control of household emissions (Ritchie par. 1), as this factor would lead to a steep decrease in particulate levels: “eliminating household emissions alone would reduce levels of small particulate pollution in the air over Beijing in winter by about 22 percent” (PHYS par. 10). It is, therefore, essential to include the residents of Beijing in the pollution management in order to change the heating schemes and to reduce emissions. An effective policy targeting the households, however, has to acknowledge the biases in people’s decision-making that cause the residents to contribute to the pollution problem in the first place.

Decision-Making Biases Involved

There are several significant biases that affect the way people think about the pollution itself and, most importantly, about their influence on the issue. Perhaps the most important bias is the present bias, which causes the people to attribute more value to the present than to the long-term effects of their actions. When applied to the issue of house emissions in Beijing, this bias affects the decision of the people to set higher temperatures in their residences for the winter heating season. People choose their immediate comfort over the option of keeping a lower temperature setting and hence decreasing the pollution. Secondly, the anchoring bias affects the people’s perception of the issue. The initial opinion on the sources of pollution, as shown above, was that the major contributors are motor vehicles and the industry sector, whereas the importance of the dangerous effect of residential emissions has not been discussed till the recent years (Liu et al. 7556).

The anchoring bias causes the people to focus on the initial information and disregard the importance of the new research, thus affecting their decision to keep high-temperature settings and use dirty fuels. Finally, optimism bias is another factor contributing to the decision-making failures of Beijing residents. The people underestimate their contribution to the issue of air pollution, as well as the influence of air pollution on their health and safety, thinking that it is not as bad as it is said to be. Finally, the Ostrich effect is a phenomenon that causes the people to deny the issues, even if they are serious. A lot of the citizens in Beijing do not address the air pollution in any way, preferring to leave it up to the government and environmental organizations to deal with it. All of these factors, therefore, not only cause the people to contribute to the pollution but also make it more difficult for the government and private structures to combat the issue of household emissions. The efficiency of the solutions proposed by both parties, therefore, depends on whether or not they address the residents’ decision-making process and the biases that contribute to the issue.

Government Policy: Raise Awareness to Compromise on Temperature Levels

The policy for the government would consist of two steps. Firstly, it would be essential to raise awareness both of the actual impact of the household fuel use on the levels of pollution and on the health dangers posed by the air pollution, both immediate and long-term. For instance, according to Liu et al., exposure to pollution causes more premature deaths than smoking and is the second highest risk factor: “direct household exposure to air pollution from solid fuels was responsible for ∼0.8 million premature deaths in China in 2013, about equal to the number of premature deaths from ambient particle pollution. Together, they make up the second largest risk factor in the country, ranked between high blood pressure and smoking” (7556).

The data of the World Health Organization (WHO) also shows significant dangers of the exposure to the indoor pollution all around the world. For instance, “the new data reveal a stronger link between both indoor and outdoor air pollution exposure and cardiovascular diseases, such as strokes and ischaemic heart disease, as well as between air pollution and cancer” (WHO). Specifically, deaths from ischaemic heart disease account for 40% of the total deaths caused by outdoor pollution and for 26% of the deaths resulting from indoor pollution. The figures are 40% and 34% for stroke, 11% and 22% for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and 6% in both cases for lung cancer (WHO). Moreover, exposure to household emissions is also one of the leading causes of childhood pneumonia: “Over half of deaths among children less than 5 years old from acute lower respiratory infections (ALRI) are due to particulate matter inhaled from indoor air pollution from household solid fuels” (WHO).

It might seem that the present bias would cause the people to disregard such long-term effects, which is why it is important to explain that the benefits from the decrease in pollution are actually immediate. For example, “several studies demonstrating that if you do a temporary intervention to bring the air pollution down, [and] measure cardiovascular and respiratory health indicators in young healthy people, all those indicators significantly improve” (BBC par. 10). Furthermore, “Women whose pregnancy was during those eight weeks of improved air quality got babies with a significantly higher birth weight, and we have a large database to show that in general if your birth weight is higher, your later life is healthier” (BBC par. 11). Overall, it is essential to state that the effects of challenging the household emissions would be seen very shortly after the action is taken.

Once the public understands the effect of pollution on their health, it would be much easier to get the people to cooperate with the government on addressing the issue. The second step of the policy would be to negotiate with the households to set a maximum temperature level allowed during the winter heating season. This would have a substantial effect on the emissions as the needs for heating are overestimated in many households. As Cai et al. argue, during the four-month heating season the outside air temperature in Beijing is not that low (2), meaning that there is no need for the considerable use of heating. The government can set a heating level at which the indoor temperature is at a comfortably low level and offer the households to sign a contract which would make it obligatory for them to keep the stipulated heating level and therefore not to waste heat where it is not necessary. Additional benefits for those who sign the contract could include discounts on power or other services, as well as encouragement from local communities, such as special door badges.

The primary advantage of such policy is that it can help to address the very reason of the pollution caused by households, which is the existence of certain biases in people’s decision-making process. For instance, the rise of awareness would emphasize the impact of the household emissions, thus proving the negative effect of people’s actions to those affected by the positivity and anchoring biases. By highlighting the immediate effects of pollution control, on the other hand, the government would address the present bias, whereas the engagement of the community would make it hard for people to avoid the topic, decreasing the Ostrich effect. Moreover, the position of the government would not be paternalist, and all the contracts would be signed out of the people’s own will, which would reduce the possibility of a negative response from the society.

One significant disadvantage, on the other hand, is the difficulty of implementation. As BBC notes, “The Chinese system is very decentralised: the provincial and local city authorities have a lot of power. And it is not a simple matter of the central government in Beijing pressing a button and all the laws are enforced” (par. 29). Therefore, the realization of the policy would be passed from the central to local governments, making it harder to control its implementation. Another limitation would be the cost of the policy: in order to motivate the people to sign the contracts, the benefits offered should be substantial. And thus, even though the policy would be “more economical in the long term due to health-care cost savings as well as climate gains” (WHO), the initial costs of the policy might be quite high. Finally, the decrease in temperature would not eliminate the dangers posed by the pollutions; this policy is a way of mitigating the negative effects of the issue rather than of solving it.

Private Policy: Achieving Long-Term Results by Changing the Energy Source

The end goal, therefore, would be to eliminate the use of coal in space heating altogether. As Wang and Hao note, “the total coal consumption should be limited in heavily polluted regions such as Beijing and surrounding areas intensive coal combustion emits a large amount of air pollutants and results in the regional air pollution complex” (8). However, this can only be achieved by the introduction of a new, safer energy source to be used by the households: “Adjusting energy structure and speeding up the development of solar energy, wind energy, nuclear power, hydropower and other clean energies, will significantly reduce emissions of air pollutants” (Wang & Hao 8). Private construction companies and environmental organizations could collaborate to develop the necessary technology and to make it available for the households.

According to some studies, the most cost-effective option out of the proposed sources would be the solar heating: “Using solar energy for active heating in rural areas of northern China, the combination of passive solar energy house and solar energy floor radiant heating system could enhance utilization efficiency of solar energy and save non-renewable energy as much as possible” (Cai et al. 1). Eventually, the use of solar heating could help to stop the use of coal completely without affecting the comfort and the needs of the population: there would be no need for a temperature limit for the solar heating systems, and thus the residents would be able to decide on the comfortable heating level with no adverse effect on the environment, even in case of overheating. Moreover, as some of the research suggests, “Floor heating systems are becoming increasingly popular since they could provide a more comfortable indoor thermal environment than convective heating systems. Furthermore, the floor heating systems provide the same comfort when the indoor temperature is 2-3°C lower than convective heating systems, which gets a good compromise between energy consumption and thermal comfort” (Zhihua et al. 1-2).

The crucial advantage of this approach is the elimination of household emissions forever, which would significantly improve the air quality: “climate-friendly measures, e.g., energy efficiency improvements, co-generation of heat and power, fuel substitution, integrated coal gasification combined cycle (IGCC) plants, result in lower emissions of SO2, NOx and PM2.5 at no additional costs” (Wang & Hao 12). Another advantage is the possibility of integrating solar heating into the design of the building to ensure coherency: “When building and solar equipments work together in a harmony relationship, it will do nothing bad to the beauty of building, and also save energy, make the building develop to the direction of functionalization and ecologicalization” (Cai et al. 3).

There are, however, some serious drawbacks to the policy. First of all, despite the fact that “Over the past ten years, an integrated system of large solar heating including district heating has had a rapid development in engineering applications” (Zhihua et al. 1), there are still no successful examples of the implementation of solar heating in cities on a large scale. Furthermore, whereas the inclusion of solar heating systems into the new building structures is readily achievable, it is still unclear whether it would be possible to apply solar heating systems to the existing buildings without damaging the city’s appearance. In addition, more incentives either from the building companies or the government would be required to compensate for the high price of new technology and its installation.

Conclusion

Overall, it is clear that the household emissions contribute to the air pollution in Beijing and therefore have to be addressed through a proper policy which would take into account the decision-making issues that led to the problem. However, it is also important that any measures taken would be applied not only to Beijing but also to the surrounding areas: “A comprehensive control policy focused on multiple source categories at both the local and regional levels is necessary to mitigate the regional air pollution issue in China” (Wang & Hao 5). The combination of public and private strategies would ensure the decrease in the level of emissions, thus helping China to reach its goal of lowering the air pollution level in the upcoming years (Climate Home par. 2) by significantly reducing the overall pollution and its damaging effects on health and environment.

Works Cited

Cai, Wei, Lina Zhang, Xubo Yu, and Danjun Wang. “A Study on Solar Energy Heating for Residential Buildings in Small Village.” Asia-Pacific Power and Energy Engineering Conference, 2010, pp. 1-4. IEEE Xplore Digital Library. Web.

“China’s Five Year Plan to Radically Tighten Air Pollution Targets.” Climate Home. 2016. Web.

“Household Fuels a Major Contributor to Beijing’s Infamous Air Pollution.”PHYS, 2016. Web.

Li, Wanxin, Jieyan Liu, and Duoduo Li. “Getting Their Voices Heard: Three Cases of Public Participation in Environmental Protection in China.” Journal of Environmental Management, vol. 98, 2012: pp. 65-72.

Liu, Jun, Denise L. Mauzerall, Qi Chen, Qiang Zhang, Yu Songa, Wei Peng, Zbigniew Klimont, Xinghua Qiu, Shiqiu Zhang, Min Hu, Weili Lin, Kirk R. Smith, and Tong Zhu. “Air Pollutant Emissions from Chinese Households: A Major and Underappreciated Ambient Pollution Source.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 113.28 (2016): 7756-7761.

Ritchie, Phil. “Stamp Out Household Fuels to Help Fix China’s Air Pollution Woes.” Cosmos Magazine, 2016. Web.

UNEP. “A Review of Air Pollution Control in Beijing: 1998-2013.” United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), 2016. Web.

Wang, Shuxiao, and Jiming Hao. “Air Quality Management in China: Issues, Challenges, and Options.” Journal of Environmental Sciences, vol. 24, no. 1, 2012: pp. 2–13.

“World Health Organization. WHO, 2016. Web.

Zhihua, Zhou, Zhang Xinmiao, Tan Zichao, and Liang Mengkuan. “Practical Study on Heating by Solar in China.” International Conference on Advances in Energy Engineering, 2010, pp. 65-68. IEEE Xplore Digital Library. Web.

Summary

The article by McDiarmid (2017) discusses the severe pollution of air that appeared due to a wildfire. The fire broke out in Fort McMurray (Canada) and spread across vast territories causing air contamination. According to the text, the environmental hazard can also affect some New England states. It means that the wildfire and the smoke from it have covered more than 4000 kilometers (McDiarmid, 2017). Air quality meteorologists claimed that the smoke had shaped a huge circle in the atmosphere.

Experts in the field stated that this environmental hazard had a strong influence on the quality of air in Canada and caused severe pollution of territories. The air had very high levels of ozone, which was not typical for this country (McDiarmid, 2017). As a rule, the air in Canada is clean and rich in oxygen; however, when the wildfire burst, it affected the ozone layer to a significant degree.

Other countries are also in jeopardy of air contamination. Given the fact that the pollution from the wildfire spreads quickly, some of the American states have applied “to the country’s federal Environmental Protection Agency for a special exemption for pollution levels that exceeded the National Ambient Air Quality Standards” (McDiarmid, 2017, para. 4). Therefore, the threat of severe air contamination is rather intense, and other countries also have to take immediate measures to prevent negative consequences to the environment.

The wildfire has affected the state significantly. According to the article, it destroyed 590,000 hectares of land as well as the facilities and premises located on it (McDiarmid, 2017). The fire was taken under control in July; nevertheless, its consequences are experienced until the present moment. It became possible to localize the fire a month after it broke out; therefore, it can be assumed that the effects of air pollution will be difficult to eliminate. The wildfire and its fumes have created their environment, which resulted in the fact that pollutants can be easily spread with the plume across vast territories. A team has been established to check the way emissions affect the environment, and a special website has been created so that country residents can observe “smoke forecast maps” in their area (McDiarmid, 2017, para. 21). Despite the efforts made, 100 wildfires are still burning. New England is also at risk of fires; however, the temperatures there are rather low. Nonetheless, ozone levels should constantly be monitored to avoid developing further consequences to the environment.

Relation to the Course

The article relates to the course directly because wildfires strongly affect not only flora and fauna by ruining natural animal habitats but also humans. Wildfire smoke exposure can lead to severe health impacts especially in individuals suffering from lung diseases and other conditions (McDiarmid, 2017). Thus, since wildfires and their emissions affect the environment and public health, they should be paid particular attention from the side of the scientific community and general society so that people are aware of their consequences and can take measures to prevent such occurrences in the future.

Personal Opinion

A wildfire is an uncontrolled process in which a large number of pollutants are formed. When forest fires become extensive and occupy populated areas, this makes the situation more difficult as the facilities made of synthetic and polymeric materials start producing toxic combustion products when burning. The ecological danger of fires is related to changes in water, soil, air, and other elements of the system. For these reasons, it is important to understand the degree of hazard and realize the types and amount of emissions to nature to reduce the risk of their consequences and increase the level of environmental safety.

Reference

McDiarmid, M. (2017). Fort McMurray fires cause air pollution spike on other side of continent.CBC News. Web.

Introduction

A general health survey was carried out by investigators with the main objective of determining why so many people in Trinidad’s major towns were infected with respiratory and skin disorders. The studies showed that a majority of those who were infected were living or working in landfills within the cities in question. The investigators decided to give statistics on the number of infected people in these regions after which a study of possible pollutants in these landfills was done.

The following is a report that has been compiled after an environmental research team did an extensive case study on the effects on the health of living in close proximity to a landfill. The case study in several towns in Trinidad including Forres Park and Guanapo gave enlightening evidence of health hazards caused by the pollutants in the respective landfills. The researchers have deduced that even the smallest exposure (in contact, through the air or in form of water) over a period of time has a debilitating effect on human health.

In the investigations, the presence of pollutants in industrial waste for example affects the entire environment by introducing extra chemical content to surroundings that were once alienated from the colossal amounts of chemicals. In this particular report, a study was done on the chemical content contained in most of the industrial wastes present in the landfills. Chemicals such as Vinyl Chloride that cause human liver cancer and damage the immune system may be present in landfills. Benzene is another chemical found in the environment. It also causes cancer, leukemia and anemia. It is well-known for causing drowsiness and excessive bleeding. At higher concentrations, dichloromethane damages the liver and also affects the lungs. Another chemical present in the landfill might be Methylene chloride, which is a primary cause of convulsion and a change in the rate of the heartbeat. Tetrachloroethene causes diseases and conditions to the kidney, excessive headaches and eventual unconsciousness. Finally, mercury-related diseases include tremors and eye irritation. It also damages the central nervous system and increases the person’s blood pressure (The Alliance for a Clean Environment, n.d. para.3).

The significance of analyzing these findings is to bring awareness on the dangers of exposing oneself to these kinds of chemicals without adequate protection. Many people who live in the environment close to the dumping sites are exposed to the daily combustion of the refuse, coupled with the inhalation of the emissions from the combusted material. These pose enormous health hazards to the people living in these places. Underlying waters in these sites are also sources of disease and ailments, especially when the water is ingested either through drinking or cooking. The report therefore gives an in-depth analysis on the findings of various research works done in these towns. It gives reasons why certain diseases such as skin irritation and ailments are so evident in the regions that harbor landfills. It also handles the impact of air pollution on the respiratory system of the human being, and why environmental degradation is responsible in causing major increases in respiratory diseases.

Approach

The following approach has been used to make the report as open and understandable as possible. First and foremost, the results obtained from the investigation are well documented to portray an extract of what effect landfill pollutants are having on the young and the old in these towns. Next, a deep analysis of the different harmful chemical contents in many of the waste products of the landfills is done. The chemical contents are linked with their consequent skin and respiratory diseases in order to reveal the hazardous effect of the pollutants to human beings. A summery, in terms of suggestions is given towards ways in which to curb these vices, most of which involve government measures that are needed to prevent the pollution of the environment.

Findings

Findings from studies done showed that, children compared to adults, who directly or indirectly came into contact with the materials present in the landfills, were the minority of those affected by the pollutants. This was due to the fact that more adults came into closer contact with the materials in the landfills. Out the overall outcome of 356 samples taken for the children illnesses, a large percentage of them were cancer related diseases. 70 to 75% of the children who were sampled were at risk of acquiring cancerous diseases occasioned by the effects of the chemical exposure that they are subjected to. The elderly were the most affected, with 924 out of a possible 1200 people having skin diseases. The people who were mostly affected had come into close contact with the materials that present in the sites. This sample was a percentage of 85% of the population which was put under investigation. In Foress Park, an industry has actually been set up in the landfill to help contain the waste that piles up on the outskirts of the town. Most of the workers in these industries put under investigation showed cancerous related skin diseases.

Just like the analysis on skin diseases, it was found that more adults out of the cities’ population were affected compared with the percentage of children. In the 250 samples analyzed among the adult records in the hospitals in Trinidad, 72% of the patients who complained of respiratory disorders lived near or worked in or in the surrounding of these landfills. The analysis was carried out taking into consideration the people aged between 15 to 75 years of age. More respiratory disorders were found in people who worked in the landfills, and further reports that more people were under questionable arguments of the level of protection or cover they are usually under while they work in the field sites.

Discussions of Results

Analysis of the Skin Diseases caused by Waste Materials in Landfills

One of the causes of the skin disease is found in pollutants that contain contents of benzene in them. Materials such as heavy industrial metals, metallic tin containers, and a wide range of chemical wastes found in the landfills are rich in traces of benzene. The carbon and hydrogen mixture in the benzene compound is an instant irritant to the skin. Recognition of traces of the compound is through detection of sweet aroma from the effluence released from its combustion. It is a volatile liquid which accumulates mostly in low lying areas. Skin contact causes redness and constant irritation, a symptom found vividly in the skin observation of the workers of the landfill industries (Ellen , 2003).

Another cause of skin disease is found in materials containing Methylene chloride. This compound is largely present in plastic and carbon made containers in landfills. Deposits of the compound are also found in industrial waste products dumped in the sites. When this compound is burnt up, traces of the gaseous products released get to the skin and just like benzene, cause extensive irritation of the external. Its accidental ingestion has also been known skin cancer after it has done extensive damages on ones kidneys.

Tetracloroethene is another cause of skin disease. It is also found as part of the chemical content in industrial wastes, and has its own severe damages. Amongst others, the chemical has been known to causes an irritation in the eyes, followed by severe eye surface pains. This happens immediately one comes into direct contact with extensive combustion of the same. Afterwards, the person will have a burning feeling in his mouth and throat, which can become fatal if one is not shown immediate medical care. Degreasing of the skin and blistering are other impacts occasioned by direct contact with the chemical. Moreover, redness and scaling also occur when the body comes into close contact with tetracloroethane.

Dichloroethene can be absorbed directly by the skin. This is a compound that is massively contained in most of the industrial drums and containers that are found damped in these landfills. Whenever one comes into contact with this compound, he will without notice absorb its content through skin transmission or through inhalation. Dichloroethene has only been known to have major effects on human beings in big amounts. Indirect skin damages emerge from liver ailments caused by this compound.

Analysis of Respiratory Diseases caused by Waste Materials in Landfills

Apparently, similar chemicals emitted as gaseous effluents in the landfills cause skin problems that are almost the same with those that cause skin disorders. In general, studies have found them to be more fatal when absorbed into the body than when one comes into contact with them (Med Prev, 1997, para.2). A chemical like benzene, when inhaled in excessive amounts or ingested through the mouth will make the victim have acute effects of irritation of the membranes of the mucus, convulsions and eventually unconsciousness due to lack of sufficient amounts of oxygen supply in the blood. Most of the industries use benzene as a solvent and without proper disposal mechanisms; the chemical releases the sweet smelling vapor that causes these problems after combustion.

Dichloroethylene is one of the solvents used in manufacturing industries that may be harmful to humans. As much as it is useful in the rubber, waxing, and resins manufacturing plants, mishandling of the product will cause a number of health hazards. One of the most common ailments that it causes is severe sore throats especially when the compound is inhaled excessively. Other long term effects may include pneumonia and chest pains caused by Pseudomonas Aeruginosa.

Methyl Chloride is another pollutant that has proved to cause dangerous effects to the human being. It is commonly used in solvents that clean metals to remove traces of grease and other stubborn stains. It is also an ingredient in foam manufacturing and in chemical processing. Scientist have done experiments and have found that tumors in mice have been traced under continuous exposure to this chemical. These traces have been especially concentrated on the lung area and the liver, which will further cause respiratory diseases.

In addition, another pollutant that can cause damage to the respiratory system of a human being may be found in land fill materials that are rich in Trichloroethene (TCE). At small portions, it irritates breathing mildly, but after it is broken down thermally, the constituent compounds of hydrogen chloride may cause infections ranging from pulmonary irritations, since it contains suffocating agents. It is more harmful to children since their sensitive lungs are recipe for immediate suffocation and also pneumonic diseases caused by hydrocarbons. Combustion of this compound is therefore highly advised against because of the immediate effects it may have on the people who inhale the bi-products.

One of the most dangerous pollutants when it comes to landfill pollutant examinations is mercury. The health hazards caused by the consumption of certain dozes of mercury, depending on the type of mercury, will more often be reversible than not be irreversible. Mercury is naturally derived from volcanic activity, but organic mercury can be created with its effects being as damaging as in natural mercury. Although it is mostly in manufacturing of button batteries, certain alloys of metals and the common mercury thermometer, it is easy to find its traces in such damping fields as landfills. Apart from permanent nervous breakdown of the human being, certain concentrations of mercury in the human body will more often than not cause respiratory damages. The compound affects the lungs to the point of having the victim lacking breathing ability. In addition, the nervous system imbalance will also cause breathing complications due to the close relation it has with the respiratory system of the human body (Larry, 1984, 39).

Summery

It is important to understand that most of these compounds are not found explicitly on their own in the landfills. In many cases, these compounds are found manly in reagents and chemical combinations used in industries and household products. When these reagents are damped in landfills, they still are not at major risk to the human being. The problems for the human being begin in his quest in trying to contain the amounts of materials that are dumped in these fields. Burning up of solid materials causes the effective combustion of these compounds, with releases of dangerous compounds. Inhalation of these compounds cause serious lung damages and respiratory disorders. When dumped into waters and rivers, these compounds, many of which are absorbent, will find their way into people’s tap water. Ingestion of the same brings harmful effects. People working in these landfills fail to realize that over time, these materials get to decompose. Having done so, new compounds and chemical components are released, and when they come into contact with human skin, cause serious skin conditions.

Conclusion

Having surveyed the three towns in Trinidad, taken samples of the health conditions of the residents that live in or work in areas that surround the landfills, and effectively analyzed the numbers and the rate at which health is deteriorating, we may have to terminate our analysis by reiterating certain facts from our findings. Landfills contain compounds within themselves that are by the minute causing serious health hazards to the people surrounding these areas. Another conclusion is that wrong methods are being used to contain the constantly increasing amounts of industrial and household waste products in these landfills. In addition, it has been found out that the compounds and chemical contents in these sites are useful for other purposes and can be controlled in a better way in order to bring certain amounts of economic value, instead of simply burning the materials away.

Suggestions that may be given in order to contain, and in effect reduce the amounts of fatalities that can be caused by these landfills include pushing more funds into the recycling industry, in order to not only reduce the amount of garbage in these fields but also provide better protection to the workers who work in these fields. Another suggestion is to enact tighter policies against the wasteful and risky methods of dumping of industrial waste products into rivers and water bodies. Strict measures should be taken to manufacturers who are found guilty in engaging in such practices.

It is inherent that the population is informed and advised on the importance of keeping our environment clean, not just for the sake of our generation but also for the sake of the future generations that are to come.

References

Jackson, Larry. 1984. Assessment on Environmental Damage. Hazardous and industrial waste management and testing: third symposium, 336-339. Williamsburg, Virginia. ASTM International.

Prev, J. Med. 1997. Health Assessment for Glass Fiber Landfill. Journal for Preventive Medicine and Public Health. Web.

Szarleta, Ellen. 2003. Landfills and your Health. Landfills, August. Web.

The Alliance for a Clean Environment. N. d. Sources for Health Effects: EPA, ATSDR, OSHA, NIOSH. Web.

Introduction

Egypt’s Nile River is on record as the world’s largest river; it spans within a total length of 6,625 km and possesses a width of 7.8 km. The river discharges to the Mediterranean Sea, which is 1,350 km from the Aswan High Dam, whose annual discharge of water is approximately 90km³.The catchment area of the river is said to host over 75 million people. This has played a major role in recognizing the importance of river Nile as one of the world’s largest river and the environmental assessment that comes with it. Human pressures on the Nile River have resulted to deterioration of the river, hence shifting the focus on systematic environmental assessment (Fishar & Williams Para. 3).

The river Nile is perceived as the substitute of the rain that rarely falls in Egypt. The source of the river originates from the Abyssinia’s mountains and arrives in Egypt after a precipitation of seven cataracts. The secret to the overflowing waters of the Nile is linked to the five months in a year of rain experienced in Ethiopia. The overflowing waters carry with them precious sand that is rich in nutrients, thus making the lands in Egypt fertile.

Causes of pollution in river Nile

The pollution of the Nile River is caused by various sources of pollution. These sources include municipal sewerage, oil spills, wastewater from industries, and agricultural wastewater.

Presence of heavy metal

These heavy metals have their origins from agricultural and municipal wastewater. Heavy metals have a major significance in ecological effects affecting the Nile River, as they are identified by their accumulative behavior and toxicity. Some of these metals include Cu, Pb, and Cd. The main compartment used for storage of these metals in aquatic surroundings is the sediments. The concentration of metal in sediments is reliable in attaining the levels of contamination but not the levels of toxicity in aquatic life (Miller Para 2). Ecotoxicological effects of contaminated sediment will mainly be determined by the metal’s presence and the living organism’s ability to assimilate metals. According to a research study conducted, there were presence of Cu, Pb, and Cd in the waters of river Nile (Gawad Para 3).

Oil spills

In September 11 2010, there was a diesel oil spill on the waters of river Nile. The captain of the barge purportedly indicated that the drop in water levels was the main cause of the oil spill, as the vessel could have tilted on one side, thus spilling the oil. Such kinds of tragedies have extensive and devastating effects that include shutting of the water purification industries that could result to contamination of drinking water and deaths of aquatic life (Index to 2010 Issues of Oil Spill Intelligence Report Para 3).

According to Dumont, Nile River is used for different purposes that include transportation of oil and oil products thus creating origins of oil pollution. Apart from this, a lot of factories and oil distributing centers have been established along the Nile River (Dumont 398).

Industrial wastewater

Industrial waste has been identified as one of the major contributor of pollutants to the river Nile. Egypt, being the most industrialized country that uses the Nile River, is faced with a decrease of its ground water and surface, which is caused by discharge of industrial and domestic effluents that are polluted. In fact, big industrial industries located in Cairo and Alexandria are the major contributors of Nile pollution although small upcoming industries in Upper Egypt have started contributing too to pollution. Generally, chemical industries have been attributed to 60% of heavy metal pollution into the Nile River (Dumont 396).

Municipal wastewater

The high levels of population increase and urbanization along river Nile are some of the causes of Municipal wastewater pollution of the river. Egypt is one of the major contributors of municipal discharge, and this calls for the government to establish more treatment plants to deal with the municipal effluent. Not only do these effluent contain parasites and pathogens, but also toxic heavy metals. On discharge to the Nile River without treatment, this effluent may have severe consequences, as the Nile River is used for irrigation purposes (Dumont 400).

Protecting the Nile River from pollution

Protection of the waters of river Nile has become a major priority in Egypt (Vasagar 1). This is due to the numerous negative consequences that results from water pollution that range from destruction of crops to lack of drinking water among others.

Enhancement of environmental laws

In Egypt, laws that concern protection of river Nile should be enforced in order to reduce pollution. Various government departments vested with the powers of administering these legislations should be relocated closer to the river itself as opposed to Cairo where the departments seemed to lax in their mandate. Indeed, the comprehensive law of 1993 should be implemented to the latter (Kirkwood and Longley 112).

On-site treatment of wastewater (recycling)

On-site treatment is determined by a number of factors that include the type of pollutants and the quality of wastewater. This kind of treatment goes hand in hand with the CP application of recycling the water. In recycling, water is reused thus bringing down costs that could have been incurred in attaining, treating, and later on disposing the water. The systems involved in recycling consolidate the contaminants for the sole reason of preventing them from accessing the ground water and soil. In addition to this, recycling will result to accumulation of savings (Yanful 144 & 145).

Wastewater treatment

This is a process whereby, wastewater is treated before it is discharged to the river. This is a process that has been adapted by some of the industries but either way, the Egyptian government should be keen and strict in ensuring that all the industries discharging their effluent to the river have undertaken the wastewater treatment process. The wastewater treatment process involves removal of solid wastes, while any traces of grease or oil are then removed before the separation of the sand and water is finally undertaken (Yanful 147).

International and regional laws

Emphasis should be given to international and regional laws that deal with the environmental issues. According to Joyner, these laws regulate activities that result to pollution of the environment. Under the 1982 UN Convention law, countries are obliged to protect their territorial waters as well as offshore jurisdiction waters. Acting contrary to these laws may result to legal action on international levels (Owino 2004). On the other hand, regional agreements are said to be the pioneer of international laws. For instance, regional treaties signed between countries from the same region help to keep in check the parties involved (Joyner 214).

Sensitizing citizens on pollution

The group of people perpetrating these pollution activities is the same citizens of Egypt. Therefore, by sensitizing citizens on the importance of the Nile River, the Egyptian government will be tackling the polluting menace from its root source. The importance of Nile river pollution having been given the first priority, the Egyptian government went on to produce a monthly magazine by the name of “development and environment” through the Egyptian Environment Affairs Agency (Jabbra, Dwivedi, IASIA & International Association of Schools and Institutes of Administration 133).

Conclusion

River Nile has been identified as the major source of drinking water in Egypt. Apart from this, Nile River has been facing major pollutant issues over the past years. The effluents causing pollution have been attributed to agricultural, industrial, and municipal industries that are located along the river. Problems pertaining to manganese and iron pollution are also on the rise as chemical industries are associated with this menace. The increasing demand of drinking water has not made it easier in tackling Nile pollution issue; it has made it more difficult.

Various methods of dealing with the Nile pollution menace have been introduced by the Egyptian government. Government departments dealing with the river Nile have been constituted in Egypt although they have had their fair share of not resolving the pollution problem. Apart from this, other pollution control methods should be emphasized which include recycling of the industrial water, water treatment processes, and strict enforcing of the already existing environmental laws. In addition, sensitization of the citizens is of great importance, as the problem will be tackled from the origin.

Works Cited

Dumont, Henri J. The Nile: origins, environments, limnology and human use. NY: Springer Science + Business Media. 2009.

Fishar, Reda and Williams, Peter W. The development of a Biotic Pollution Index for the River Nile in Egypt. NY: Springer Science + Business Media. 2007.

Gawad, Abd S. “The Mollusk Gastropod Lanistes carinatus (Olivier, 1804) as Abiomonitor for Some Trace Metals in the Nile River.” International Journal of Zoological Research, 5(3), 115-125. 2009. Web.

“Index to 2010 Issues of Oil Spill Intelligence Report.” Oil Spill Intelligence Report, Vol. 34, No. 2, p. 1-4. 2010. Web.

Jabbra, Joseph G. et al. Governmental response to environmental challenges in global perspective. Amsterdam: IOS Press. 1998.

Joyner, Christopher N. International law in the 21st century: rules for global governance. MD: Rowman & Littlefield publishers, Inc. 2005.

Kirkwood, Ralph C. and Longley, Anita J. Clean technology and the environment. NY: Blackle Academic and Professional. 1995.

Miller, Alexandra. Historical treaties cause modern dispute in negotiations over Nile water distribution. The Guilfordian. 2010. Web.

Owino, Arthur O. THE NILE TREATY. Nairobi: Konrad Adenauer Foundation. 2004. Web.

Vasagar, Jeevan. Nile Water Agreement. London: Guardian. 2004. Web.

Yanful, Ernest K. Appropriate Technologies for Environmental Protection in the Developing World. NY: Springer Science + Business Media. 2009.