Introduction: Water Pollution in the United States
The issue of water scarcity and to following strategy for its sustainable use is quite tricky. While technically being a renewable resource, water should not be viewed as the one that can replenish itself, either – due to the dangerously high rates of water pollution, the existing amounts of freshwater are getting increasingly low.
Although water pollution can hardly be ceased entirely, the current rates of water pollution can be reduced by resorting to the sustainable principle of water use in both the industrial area and the realm of the household. By increasing awareness among the population and developing a sustainable approach towards the usage of the existing water resources, one will be capable of addressing the water pollution rates in the USA.
Discussion: Causes of Water Pollution and the Means of Reducing It
Key Causes: The Dirty Side of Water Use
Unfortunately, there is no single negative factor that contributes to the increase in water pollution rates, and there is no malefactor, either – instead, it is the inconsiderate use of the existing resources that triggers water pollution. Among the key factors that trigger water pollution, its industrial usage seems to be the reason for concern for the most part. However, it is the urban runoff (i.e., the abuse of water resources by the residents of the urban areas) that triggers the so-called nonpoint (i.e., irreversible) source pollution.
Sewage
Along with nutrients and chemicals pollution, the contamination by sewage discharges is an especially huge threat to the American resources of clean water.
Industrial waste
While having to comply with the existing regulations regarding environmental protection, a range of companies resort to unclean practices by dumping their waste into the areas, where the waste becomes a threat to water. The recent Exxon scandal has shown that the estimated $8.9 billion of environmental damages has been made in 2015 (THE EDITORIAL BOARD, 2015).
Underground storage leakages
Underground storage tanks, which traditionally contain petroleum and other harmful substances, often tend to leak, therefore, triggering the release of petrol and the related substances into water, hence the water pollution.
Septic tanks
Contributing to underground storage leaking (), septic tanks contribute to water pollution in the U.S. significantly by discharging around 2 sq. m of waste into the water daily (BELIN, 2015).
Ocean dumping
Another essential factor that defines the rates of water pollution in the USA, ocean dumping needs to be reduced significantly.
Oil pollution
The notorious case of Exxon’s oil spill in 2015 (THE EDITORIAL BOARD, 2015) has shown that oil pollution must be prevented at all costs. The 2013 oil pollution issues have caused the USA 125 miles of coast, affecting the water and the wildlife in the vicinity (Oil spills and disasters, 2014).
Radioactive waste
Much like ocean dumping, radioactive waste disposal is difficult to trace and, therefore, it is easier for organizations dealing with the substances in question to dispose of them improperly.
Fossil fuels burning
Emitting around 117,000, 164,000 and 208,000 billion Btu annually (Comparison against other fossil fuels, 2015), natural gas, oil and coal correspondingly pose a serious threat to the quality of water in the United States.
Landfill leakage
The problem of land pollution and the following contamination of groundwater is a major problem for the United States. According to the 2015 statistics, 56% of trash in the USA is transported to landfills (BRADFORD, 2010). The leakage from the latter, in its turn, poisons the groundwater in the vicinity with detritus from rotten food and the pollutants from plastic items decomposition (BRADFORD, 2010).
Animal waste
Animal droppings also decompose into the elements that, when introduced to the soil, penetrate the groundwater area and, therefore, pollute the water.
Atmospheric deposition
The destruction of atmosphere layers leads to the exposition of water resources to an extreme level of radiation and, therefore, triggers their untimely desiccation.
Global warming
One of the most notorious and, nevertheless, the one of the lengthiest effect, global warming causes the U.S. rivers to overflow; as a result, the sewage contents will pour into clean water, contaminating it. 1.2 trillion gallons of sewage contaminate freshwater annually in the U.S (Water pollution facts, n. d., para. 24).
Death of aquatic animals
Global warming triggers a steady rise in the temperature of the water, thus, causing deaths of numerous aquatic organisms. The decomposition elements of the latter pollute the waters of the Atlantic Ocean coast and the American rivers.
Diseases
By introducing wastewater to rivers and oceans, the authorities of the U.S. risk the contamination of the aquatic animals and, therefore, the transfer of pollution by the sick animals to the clean water areas.
Food chains disruption
The effects of wastewater and food chains disruption are, in fact, reciprocal, as the latter trigger an increase in the death toll among the water life forms and, therefore, cause the contamination of water with the decomposition products, the algae, which are no longer consumed by the deceased aquatic animals, etc.
Ecosystems destruction
As a result of the lack of proper food, the inhabitants of the American rivers and seas, as well as the Atlantic, the Pacific and the Arctic Oceans are likely to die out. The lack of certain elements of the ocean food chain, in its turn, will result in higher death tolls among the aquatic animals and, thus, higher decomposition rates.
Reaching the point of no return
Agriculture
To facilitate proper growth of crops, American farmers and farming organizations spend water resources unreasonably. 130 billion gallons being used for irrigation and livestock (ADMIN, 2011), agriculture is the leading cause of water scarcity in some of the regions of the USA.
Municipal point sources
Leading to a significant reduction of dissolved oxygen, MPS also drastically affect the cleanness of water in the U.S.
Urban runoff
Made of impervious materials, pavement does not allow snow and rain to trickle into the ground; as a result, the hydrological water cycle is disrupted.
Stream/habitat changes
Another factor that causes numerous water creatures to die or migrate, stream and habitat changes alter essential characteristics of the environment, thus, causing water to become filled with bacteria, algae, etc.
Means of Control: Starting with Personal Responsibility
Reasonable use of water
Sustainability as the basis towards the use of water resources can be viewed as the strategy that should make the basis for the proper use of water. The specified approach must be deployed at every level of water resources distribution from municipal to agricultural.
Pollution Prevention Act
Adopted in 1990, the Act creates the premises for “reducing the amount of pollution through cost-effective changes in production, operation, and raw materials use” (Summary of the Pollution Prevention Act, 1990, par. 1).
Raising awareness among the citizen
Apart from designing legal ramifications, state authorities should consider the idea of influencing people on a personal level. By promoting the responsible use of resources, one will be capable of reducing water waste rates significantly.
Reducing the number of solids
Solid waste reduction is likely to postpone the process of water supplies exhaustion.
EPA laws enhancement
Although the approaches suggested by EPA are generally reasonable, they seem to have been disregarded when defining the strategies for water resources use in the USA. Thus, there is a need to facilitate compliance with EPA laws. This can be done by imposing fines on the individuals and organizations abusing water resources.
Ocean Dumping Program
The program was designed in 2014 after the Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act (Research project description, 2014) and requires sustainable and responsible disposal of waste.
Oil Pollution Prevention regulation
Designed for addressing the issues such as the case of Exxon and, therefore, preventing the catastrophes related to oil spills, the specified act requires that specific standards for oil tanks design and the storage of oil therein should be complied with.
Solutions to be designed: radioactive waste and direct injection
Even though there is no solution to handling the issue of radioactive waste management, as well as the process of direct injection, measures must be taken to facilitate remoteness of the specified types of waste from any life forms and sources of water.
Abandoning the use of landfills
Although there is no alternative to landfill use for waste management at present, a more appropriate location of landfills can be considered a possibility. Specifically, the regions, where groundwater flows are generally very low, can be viewed as an option (BRADFORD 2010).
Animal waste collection
While the process of collecting animal waste may be rather complicated due to the difficulties related to tracing the locations of stray animals, making people take proper care of their pets and picking up the droppings left by the latter can be carried out comparatively easily by issuing the corresponding laws.
Global warming prevention
A very complex and difficult task, it involves a variety of measures starting from the sustainable use of resources to the transfer to driving hybrid vehicles and refrain from usage of a variety of pollutants including aerosols.
Marine sustainability
Introducing a set of more rigid regulations regarding the waste disposal for businesses along with the development of marine sustainability principles may help in not only preventing water pollution but also addressing the negative effects that it has caused.
Sanitation
The U.S. authorities have adopted a range of programs aimed at water sanitation, including the USAID’s Water and Development Strategy (USAID, 2013).
Sustainable use of resources
The introduction of individuals and organizations to a reasonable usage of water has recently been viewed as an opportunity in the United States.
Sustaining ecosystems: green infrastructure
Likewise, the key principles of sustainability should be adopted when allowing the key ecosystems to retain their
Addressing nonpoint source pollution
Clean Water Act
Another suggestion for reconsidering the current rates of water usage, the CWA presupposes that the “basic structure for regulating discharges of pollutants into the waters of the United States” (Summary of the Clean Water Act, 2015) should be established and that similar regulations should be provided for the use of freshwater in the USA.
NPDES Permit Program
A program aimed at regulating the current use of water, it regulates the sources, which discharge pollutants into the ocean (NPDES Stormwater Permit Program, 2015).
Wastewater programs
The phenomenon of wastewater harvesting () has been created for the sake of reducing urban runoff and may have a significant effect on sustainable water use once the awareness regarding the subject matter is increased. Even a more adequate use of water by the residents of the area can be facilitated with the introduction of similar programs. The refusal to use impervious pavement materials for sidewalks and driveways should also be viewed as an option (Urban nonpoint source fact sheet, 2003).
Total maximum daily loads
Seeing that no alternative to waste disposal for major companies have been designed yet, the organizations that dump waste into the ocean have to comply with the existing restrictions on the amount of waste that they can deposit. Unfortunately, not all states follow the requirements set by the TMDL Act (see Appendix A).
Watershed management
Likewise, the watershed management approach, which presupposes that careful studies of the watershed should be carried out with the following location of the problem areas and the measurers designed for addressing the emerging issues in a manner as timely and efficient as possible. There is no secret that watershed management presupposes dealing with not only the issue of water pollution but also the problem of habitat destruction. In other words, watershed management programs adopted in the USA currently allow for handling several issues simultaneously and, therefore, promoting a more sustainable approach towards the consumption and usage of the existing water resource.
Green infrastructure
The aforementioned sustainability issue can be attained through a series of actions that are determined for enhancing habitat recovery. Indeed, as it has been stressed above, the lack of sustainability in the management of the water resources in the USA triggers an immediate decay of the existing variability in American nature. As a result, a range of species faces the threat of extinction, therefore, triggering the overpopulation of water with smaller animals and algae (i.e., the elements that used to be the food of the extinct species). Thus, by restoring the habitats that have been destroyed, the American community will be capable of replenishing water resources or, at the very least, saving the ones that they still have at their disposal.
National Water Quality Initiative
Though having started their activity comparatively recently, the proponents of the NWQI movement have already designated “approximately five percent of EQIP financial assistance to targeted agricultural conservation practice implementation in 165 HUC 12 NWQI watersheds” (Session M5: quantifying agricultural nonpoint sources and controls, 2013, p. 2).
Fostering personal responsibility
Last, but not least, the idea of promoting personal responsibility as the basis for sustainable water use must be viewed as an option.
Conclusion: Spring Cleaning on a Global Scale
Although water is traditionally viewed as a renewable resource, the nonpoint pollution factors in the United States make the threat of water scarcity dangerously high. Therefore, a more sustainable approach towards the use of water not only industrial but also household levels must be introduced into the framework of the U.S. water usage.
Oceans are salient features on earth because they contribute to warming the earth. They are essential components of the water cycle and home to millions of living organisms. In addition, oceans provide a recreation facility and employment to millions of people. Ocean pollution is the unfavorable upshot due to the entrance of chemicals and particulate substances into the ocean. The toxic components combine with plankton and other sea animals, which are not filter feeders. Consequently, these pollutants find their way into animal feeds containing high levels of fish products. Therefore, these toxic compounds are also present in animal products such as milk, eggs, and meat from animals consuming the contaminated feeds (Ocean Planet: Pollution 1, n.d.).
Sources of Ocean pollution
The land is the key source of ocean pollution in the form of non-point water pollution. This occurs because of runoff and includes numerous sources such as motor vehicles, boats, forests, septic tanks among many others (What is the biggest source of pollution in the ocean? n.d.). Many sources of ocean pollution such as oil sills, sewage, toxic substances, and mining fall under point pollution.
Oil Pollution
Oil enters sea and oceans accidentally and non-accidentally. Millions of oil gallons get into the ocean through various ways such as offshore drilling, oil spills, natural seeps, routine maintenance, and down the drain (Ocean planet: Pollution 1, n.d.). Used engine oil finds its way into water bodies during oil changes when the used oil is washed into water bodies. In addition, vehicles burn fuels to produce hydrocarbons in the gaseous form. These gases are released into the air, dissolved in rainwater and later drained into the sea. Natural oil seeps are a consequent of oil seepage from eroding sedimentary rocks, which release oil into water bodies from the bottom of the sea (Ocean planet: Pollution 1, n.d.). Accidental large spills contribute only 5 percent of oil pollution. However, one spill can have damaging outcome in a large area.
Toxic Materials
Toxic wastes are poisonous substances deposited into water bodies. They include compounds such as tributyl tin from boat paints, industrial, household cleaning, agricultural (fertilizers and pesticides), and other chemicals from factories (Ocean planet: Pollution 1, n.d.). They dissolve in water, effortlessly move through the food chain and find themselves in seafood (Ocean Pollution, n.d.). Most of the toxic wastes are metal components. According to Lutgens, Tarbuk, and Tasa, the salinity in a water body can never be constant. This is because plants and other water animals use the dissolved mineral elements in strengthening their tissues (2010).
This implies that these organisms can also take up soluble toxic compounds and accumulate them in their tissues. Lead is a common and extremely harmful toxic compound that harms the kidneys, brain and reproductive systems of humans. Lead decelerates growth, causes birth defects, is carcinogenic, and impairs hearing. Lead batteries, paints, fishing lures, ceramics, water pipes, and bullet parts emit lead into the water (Ocean planet: Pollution 1, n.d.). Fertilizers increase the number of algae plantations in water bodies (eutrophication), which exhaust the dissolved oxygen and throttle other marine organisms (Lenzi, 2008).
Dangerous Debris
Improperly disposed solid garbage gets into the ocean. Pieces of glass, plastics, shoes, medical wastes (syringes and used needles), and polythene papers are examples of such debris. Some marine animals such as whales, turtles, seals, puffins, and dolphins mistake plastics for food and eat them (WWF – Marine problems: Pollution, n.d.). This kills them by obstructing their respiratory pathways and digestive tracts. Water can also wash this debris to the shores, which pollutes beaches and creating an eyesore. Polluted beaches send tourists away leading to massive losses in the tourism industry.
Dumping and Mining
Humans consider oceans as dumping sites for their numerous domestic and industrial wastes including compounds with low levels of radioactivity. Man thinks that the seawater can adulterate these substances to harmless concentrations. However, the processes in the ocean concentrate some of these harmful substances leading to ocean pollution.
Oceans, on the other hand, are unexploited sources of some minerals and ores. The building industry, for example, obtains building materials such as sand and gravel from the coast and the surrounding coral reefs (Ocean planet: Pollution 1, n.d.). This is a common phenomenon in island countries with inadequate internal reserves. Mining contributes to water pollution by deposition of particulate matter and erodes coastal beaches. Manganese, nickel, cobalt, and copper are some of the metals available in the “abyssal mud of the ocean’s deepest basins” (Ocean planet: Pollution 1, n.d.). Mining under the water is expensive compared to the conventional mining process on land. However, it is only a matter of time before new technology in mining under the water comes up.
Sewage
Untreated and under-treated sewage flows into oceans causing pollution. For example, in the Mediterranean Sea receives about 80% of untreated sewage (Marine problems: Pollution, n.d.). This causes outbreaks of water-borne human diseases and eutrophication. Wastewater from the land drains into water bodies such as rivers and lakes, which drain into seas and oceans.
Ways of Preventing Ocean Pollution
Boat engines pollute oceans from the gasoline emitted. However, boating is an inevitable practice in some instances. Some precautions can help minimize boating pollution such as turning on the boat engine when it is necessary. Gasoline ought to be stored away from direct sunlight to minimize evaporation and air pollution, which comes back to the ocean as rainwater. It is also essential to replace boat engines regularly and ensure that they are in a good working condition. Ensuring that only clean water gets into the oceans goes a long way in limiting wastewater pollution. This is possible by creating tanks with the capability of harvesting all rainwater runoffs and treating it before discharging it into water bodies.
Setting up rules and regulations that restrict dumping of wastes is an effective way of preventing pollution. The “London Convention,” a United Nations directed pact prevents dumping of wastes and regulates the deposition of certain substances (Ocean planet: Pollution 1, n.d.). In addition, the federal and international regulations forbid discarding plastic trash overboard. Consequently, the United States Navy ensures that no trash is discarded overboard by providing onboard processors that compress and disinfect plastic rubbish. The establishment of cleaning programs can help get rid of debris from water bodies. A good example is the Center for Marine Conservation’s International Coastal Cleanup, a program that unites various volunteers worldwide in cleaning up water bodies (Ocean planet: Pollution 1, n.d.).
Conclusion
Ocean pollution is a serious problem that ought to be controlled because water is an extremely essential component for the sustenance of life. Some sources of pollution are controllable, whereas the natural sources are uncontrollable. It is, therefore, necessary for humankind to do everything to minimize ocean pollution due to the controllable sources.
References
Lenzi, M. (2008). Resuspension of sediment as a method of managing eutrophic lagoons. In Hofer, N. T. (Ed.), Marine Pollution: New research (pp. 15-23). New York: Nova Science Publishers.
Lutgens, F. K., Tarbuk, E.J., & Tasa, D. (2010). Foundations of earth science (6th ed.). New Jersey: Pearson College Division.
The past two centuries have been characterized by vast technological advances that have had a significant effect on man and his environment. One of these advances has been in the form of increased industrialization by man.
Industrialization has resulted in detrimental practices such as deforestation, air and water pollution which have all threatened the fragile balance that exists between man and the environment. The consequences that have risen as a result of neglecting to take care of the environment have now become a reality to the whole of mankind.
This has forced environmental issues to take a center stage in man’s life as nations have come together and put a valuable effort to restore, maintain and manage their respective eco systems. This paper shall present a concise yet informative research on the issue of environmental pollution. A definition of pollution shall be offered as well as a discussion on the major causes of pollution. Possible solutions to this problem shall be reviewed and the most suitable solutions offered.
What is Pollution?
The United Nations Environmental Programme defines pollution as the “undesirable state of the natural environment being contaminated with harmful substances as a consequence of human activities”. Pollution of the environment can occur naturally but it is man-made pollution that is mostly degenerative in nature. Pollution occurs in the air, soil and water as a result of substances which are harmful being released into them.
Causes of pollution
Waste disposal has been noted to be one of the main means by which water bodies are polluted. Most human beings have a tendency of throwing their rubbish and dirt into the water bodies and drainage systems assuming that they will be drained away to a better place. This results in the creation of rubbish hills which are not only an eye sore but they also pollute the air and the soil.
Fishermen and other members of the shipping industry pollute the waters by disposing cargo waste, plastic as well as noise emanating from their ships and machineries. The presence of such pollutants has serious impacts on the environment since some of the disposed substances are toxic.
Nuclear power has been exploited to provide power for running industries and cities. However, this power plants results in the production of radioactive waste which must be disposed off. If not properly disposed, radioactive waste can pollute the soil or water bodies if it is allowed to seep into the water table or into an ocean (Harrison 45). This form of waste is not only harmful to human beings but also to other animals, fishes and marine life. In a water body that is contaminated, the radioactive substances affect the fish and kills them leading to the decreased amounts of fish in the water body.
Another source of soil pollution is the excessive chemicals that are used in the agricultural sector, and homes. Mooney et al demonstrates that the weed killers used by individuals to tend to their gardens end up contaminating the soil (23). However this pollution does not end here for the contaminants often drain into the ground where they contaminate the underground waters. While this type of pollution is not visible, it still presents a serious threat to life resources. This pollution also extends to rivers in which the underground waters drain into.
Air pollution is mostly caused by the burning of fossil fuels which results in the emission of green house gases. Fossil fuels are needed to run most industries and for this reason, Harrison claims that rapid population growth which led to increased industrialization, globalization and the need for more room for expansion is to blame for most of the pollution cases (23). Air pollution by green house gasses is especially troublesome since it has been seen to cause global warming.
These gas emissions also lead to atmospheric pollution which in turn contributes to acid rain. This type of pollution is wide spread and very problematic because if it is not stopped at the source, the chain reaction that follows cannot be prevented or stopped. The acid rain pours into soil making them acidic and therefore nonproductive and into oceans contaminating the water therein.
Solutions to pollution problems
The government has continued to play a significant role in reduction of pollution levels by adopting various strategies aimed at reducing pollution. A significant policy is that of Tax rebates which is offered to all industries that adopt eco friendly practices. This move by the government will reduce industrial emissions into the air as well as the level of toxic wastes that get into our water bodies by a wide margin since industrial fumes are some of the biggest causes of air pollution (UNEP).
In addition to this, all industries should be encouraged by law to plant trees which acts as carbon sinks thus reducing pollution levels. An increase in taxation on vehicles that are “gas guzzlers” can also aid in the battle to reduce green house gases emissions. In so doing, the adverse effects that air and water pollution by the industries have on our environment will greatly be reduced.
Over the years, it has been suggested that new architectural designs can help retard global warming. As such, the government must enforce the set laws which stipulate that new industrial, commercial and residential houses should be built using materials compliant with the new environmental laws.
More effective and efficient water and waste treatment methods have also been developed and it is a prerequisite to have them installed before starting up any industry. Citizens are also encouraged to use the 3R’s (reduce, reuse, recycle) model as part of their contribution towards a greener State.
Individuals can do a lot on their own to reduce the carbon footprint. Throughout the world, the level of electricity consumption is increasing every day (UNEP). It is therefore important that they adjust their lifestyle if they are to meet the stipulated limits. This can be done by switching to less energy consuming light bulbs, using public means of transport as compared to personal vehicles, switching back to fans rather than using air conditioners, using LCD and plasma screens instead of tube televisions.
To curb water pollution, dish washers can be employed instead of hand washing thereby reducing water wastage. Using the shower instead of the bath tub has been known to reduce Co2 emissions. In so doing, the level of pollution will have reduced significantly and the effects of these pollutants on our environment minimized.
The industrial sector is notable the chief polluter in almost all countries. As such, any change in this sector no matter how small can spell a big difference to the overall reduction of carbon emission. Shifting to more eco friendly equipments that use less fuel is one of the notable ways in which industries can make a difference.
Industries that employ the use of boilers should install smoke density meters which check on the levels of smoke emitted into the air thereby creating a means through which these harmful emissions can be regulated (Mooney et al 89). Implementation of a decentralization program can also help greatly reduce both vehicular and industrial pollution. This is because decentralization calls for the spreading out of industries as opposed to having them concentrated in one area.
Most suitable Solution
Knowledge based solutions are so far the best technique to tackle the problems of pollution that continue to affect our world. This is because an informed society is likely to understand the consequences of its actions and as such use this knowledge to solve its challenges that it faces daily.
As such, individuals must raise their level of interest in environmental issues to a level that is higher than it stands today. The reality is that few people know about some forms of pollution let alone their negative effect on our lives and the earth. If people were enlightened, it is likely that they would avoid activities that further pollution such as use of chemicals. Education and awareness therefore are the best ways to ensure that the environment is secured for future generations.
Conclusion
This paper set out to provide an informative research on pollution, its major causes and solutions that can be utilized to ensure a reduction in pollution. To this end, this paper has outlined the major forms of pollution. The paper has then proceeded to discuss the major ways in which pollution occurs.
It has been noted that most of the toxic wastes that invade our environment are human-made. The paper has also revealed that while there is no single solution to dealing with the problem of pollution, there are a number of actions which can be taken to mitigate pollution. If implemented, these changes no matter how little will at the end make a vast difference in the lives of many people as well as the ecological balance that supports such existence.
Works Cited
Harrison, Roy. Pollution: causes, effects and control. USA: Royal Society of Chemistry, 2001. Print.
Mooney, Linda Knox, David and Schacht, Caroline. Understanding Social Problems. NY: Cengage Learning, 2008. Print.
United Nations Environment Program (UNEP). Urban Environment Unit: Urban Air Pollution. 2010. Web.
The article under review is titled “Nebraska Pollution Prevention Project: Engineering Education through Technical Assistance” written by Dvorak, Woldt, Hygnstrom, Dahab and Schulte (2003). The article is about Nebraska’s Partners in Pollution Prevention program and the benefits it has brought to the state in the reduction of pollution caused by small businesses. This program essentially recruits Engineering students who are trained in pollution prevention and work as interns in selected businesses and provide the businesses with technical assistance.
Analysis of the key points in the article
Nebraska’s Partners in Pollution Prevention (P3) program has had significant positive outcomes not only on environmental preservation in the state but also on the interns. To begin with, the program has enhanced its efforts in recommending cost-effective pollution prevention strategies to its clients. It has also broadened the range of technical assistance provided by the interns to the clients, for instance, through the inclusion of energy conservation strategies (Dvorak et al., 2003).
Second, the P3 program has enhanced the level of awareness creation in the communities through public education. The interns educate the public on pollution prevention through workshops, presentations and media channels such as newspapers, television, and the radio. Third, the interns involved in the P3 program have gained valuable knowledge about pollution prevention and business communication through the hands-on experience made possible by the program. Fourth, the P3 program involves graduate students who not only assist the undergraduate interns in complex matters but also conduct their research on pollution issues. The research studies undertaken by graduate students are used as case studies and also help them in creating new modeling tools for life-cycle analysis (Dvorak et al., 2003).
Application and comparison of some points in the article that might be applied to the company you work for, or have worked for
Several points can be applied to the company I have worked for. The first is conducting a waste evaluation of the company’s operations to determine the chemical components of the waste and whether or not the waste can be utilized in further production. The second is identifying the technological innovations invented by the company and comparing them with the latest technologies in the market and recommending which latest technology the company should implement to minimize waste. Lastly, conducting an economic evaluation of the company’s current operations and the proposed operations to determine the cost-effectiveness of both operations and recommend which operation the company should adopt.
Summary of the article’s conclusions
Dvorak et al. (2003) conclude by arguing that the success of Nebraska’s P3 program is dependent on many factors which include the stipend provided to the interns, the mentoring opportunity, the technical nature of the tasks given, the logistical support granted. Another important element of the program is the two-week intensive training course which equips interns with knowledge and minimized the need to supervise the interns.
Summary of the article using your own opinions
The article by Dvorak et al. (2003) has valuable information about how one program can go a long way in preserving the environment by reducing the rate of pollution from small businesses. It also shows that with a little motivation, young people can play a key role in environmental conservation. Involving young people in environmental activities is crucial because they are the future leaders and future business owners. With such knowledge and skills, conserving the environment for the present and future generations will no longer be just an illusion.
Reference
Dvorak, B. I., Woldt, W. E., Hygnstrom, J., Dahab. M. F., & Schulte, D. (2003). Nebraska Pollution Prevention Project: Engineering Education through Technical Assistance. Environmental Quality Management, 43-57.
Garbage and human waste is pouring into rivers and creeks are creating a pollution problem in the South Bay.
Explanation:
All the polluted water from sewers flows through the creeks ends up in the Bay and carries whatever trash, debris and contaminants. Humans are exposed to untreated sewage through drinking contaminated water, water recreational activities, and/or ingesting contaminated fish. (Loosli et al., 2019, p. 769).
This study highlights the issue of controlling and cleaning of the pollutions in sewage.
Water is a crucial element for all known forms of life to be able to live. Groundwater quality and availability are essential for human consumption and social and economic activities. Most of the county’s portable drinking water comes from groundwater wells, reservoirs, streams, rivers, and lakes. Unfortunately, the impact of sewage on the environment is mostly negative. Treating sewage is a big environmental priority in every country because untreated sewage water can spill into rivers, lakes and seas, causing major pollution. Such dangerous chemicals as, for example, detergent chemicals, that are contained in sewage water, are dangerous not only for the natural habitat, but for humans as well since they consume this water. Unfortunately, sanitary sewer overflows are a common problem across the United States. All the water flows through the creeks ends up in the Bay and carries whatever trash, debris and contaminants. San Jose is a troubled spot for trash pollution and bacterial pollution that are spilled into the bay. Humans are exposed to untreated sewage through drinking contaminated water, water recreational activities, and/or ingesting contaminated fish. (Loosli et al., 2019, p. 769).
The Challenge
Quick urbanization has enhanced the spills of of polluted sewage sludge in San Jose over the last few years.
San Jose has more than 2,100 miles of sewage pipes.
Considering that the sewage sludge contains toxic chemicals like nitrogen-containing compounds, organic matters and heavy metals, appropriate filtration and disposal should be utilized to prevent spills and following environmental problems (Lv et al., 2018).
The new technology is expected to really improve the current inspection methodology by reducing the health risks for workers and making it affordable to public administrations, and also by reducing the pollution in sewage that can affect urban coastal areas.
Wastewater overflows (WWOs) are defined as a major public health issue, especially when there is a high possibility for citizens to come into direct contact with wastewater that has spilled into recreational water environments such as rivers, lakes, seas and oceans that are used for mainly recreational activities such as swimming. Infiltrated water from sewages can contain a number of pathogenic microorganisms including poisonous bacteria and viruses. Moreover, wastewater overflows have a significant effect on ecological situation of the region, creating a toxic environment for animals.
The solutions are expected to
Improve sewer workers health and safety measures
Improve the public service given since it optimizes the sewer cleaning resources;
Improve the quality of life of citizens since it will improve the sewer performance.
Sewer Monitoring
The goal of sewer monitoring is to develop the robot to the highest possible level of sensitivity which will let the sewer manager to manage the sewer efficiently without the need to move closer to dangerous and poisonous locations (Grau et al., 2017).
Among other reasons, robotized sewer monitoring is extremely useful:
To keep the monitoring staff from going to sewers when there is a risky situation.
To decide safety and health measures for staff.
To track down any spills or leaks, which are usually unexpected and illegal,
To make sure that sewer infrastructures are safe from abrasion, rust and aggressive spills.
To define any patterns in sewage compounds (seasonal, daily, etc.).
To use as an instrument for ecological investigations in sewers (David and Tobin, 2017, p. 172).
Benefits:
Possibility to collect real-time data.
Determining whether the system is consistently operating in free-flow conditions is easier.
The information available from a flow-monitoring program saves collection system operators many times the cost of the flow monitoring.
This method can be used in environmental research..
The safety of staff is ensured as it does not require workers to go directly to sewage themselves.
Costs:
Lack of having a set of standardization develops problems with future integration.
It will take some time to implement the robotic solution into the working routine of the staff.
The development of the equipment demands high financial spending.
This method provides the means of controlling, but not preventing unexpected spills.
Purifying Sewage Water
This method of purifying water is complex, but effective. Every day, approximately 100 million gallons of raw sewage is treated by the Clark County Water Reclamation District (CCWRD), with roughly 90 million gallons of reclaimed water released daily into the Las Vegas Wash (Nguyen, 2019, p. 24).
The stages of purification process:
Water from homes and businesses is flushed and streamed to nearby treatment facilities.
Sludge is removed.
Trash is trapper by using a mechanical rake.
The primary treatment using rotating metal arms to skim surface scum into troughs.
Toxic chemicals are removed through aeration process.
Water is filtrated through sand.
Benefits:
Energy consumption is reduced.
Purified and filtrated water does not contain toxins.
With clean water the habitat of South Bay is protected.
Reclaimed water for industrial, commercial, and landscape irrigation requires less treatment than recycled water for drinking.
Overall environmental impact is reduced.
Costs:
The complexity of such method.
Increased need for additional facilities and pipes to transport water.
High financial costs for the equipment.
Some regions still lack water recycling piping, that is why the implementing of the purifying equipment will be time-consuming.
Conclusion
In recent years the problem of water sewage spills in San Jose has become more evident. The environmentalists are still trying to find efficient and low-cost solutions to the issue.
This presentation demonstrated two effective ways to control and prevent polluted water from spilling into South Bay.
Both methods that are described above have their own advantages and disadvantages.
Moreover, both methods have more benefits than costs. Nevertheless, purifying sewage water seems like a more appropriate solution since it provides quick positive results. That is why this solution is more efficient in managing sewage water as it prevents toxic spills from the start.
In conclusion it would appear that in order to maximize innovation, it’s compulsory to understand the significance of those innovations while breaking barriers in effective water management. In this case the risk of polluted spills will be greatly lowered.
References
Grau, A., Bolea, Y., Puig-Pey, A., & Sanfeliu, A. (2017). Robotic solutions for sewage systems in coastal urban environments. Proceedings of OCEANS 2017-Aberdeen, pp. 1-5.
David, R. B., & Tobin, G. A. (2017). Understanding water policy sustainability: A case study in San Francisco and San Jose California. Environmental Science & Policy, 78, pp. 167-172.
Loosli, F., Wang, J., Rothenberg, S., Bizimis, M., Winkler, C., Borovinskaya, O., & Baalousha, M. (2019). Sewage spills are a major source of titanium dioxide engineered (nano)-particle release into the environment. Environmental Science: Nano, 6(3), pp. 763-777.
Lv, D., Zhu, T., Liu, R., Li, X., Zhao, Y., Sun, Y., & Zhao, Q. (2018). Effects of co-processing sewage sludge in the cement kiln on PAHs, heavy metals emissions and the surrounding environment. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 15(4), p. 698.
Nguyen, S. (2019). The South Bay water recycling program: an evaluation of water recycling outcomes in comparison to selected cities and countries. San Jose State University, Master’s Project.
The article “Public-health impact of outdoor and traffic-related air pollution: A European assessment” is written by Künzli et al. (2000, p. 795). It emphasizes the fact that air contamination has a negative influence on the health of the representatives of the general public. In particular, professionals believe that it contributes to mortality and morbidity greatly. The authors assess the influence of the total outdoor pollution and its part that is connected with high traffic. They pay attention to Austria, France, and Switzerland, which are familiar with attributable cases of morbidity and mortality.
Objectives
The professionals are willing to reveal the way air pollution affects the public health. The research study is conducted to identify the number of mortality cases that are caused by air pollution. In addition to that, the authors are willing to define how many cases of mortality are caused by motorized traffic. It is also critical to mention that they discuss adult and children population separately as well differentiate cases of (chronic) bronchitis, asthma attacks, and restricted activities. With the help of this information, the authors are willing to improve healthcare situation and trigger the development of new environmental health policy options.
Methods
In order to find out what is the exact impact of air pollution on the population “epidemiology-based exposure-response functions for a 10 µg/m3 increase in particulate matter (PM10)” was used (Künzli et al., 2000, p. 795). The professionals focused on the connection between air contamination and mortality for adults who are about 30 years old. All populations were assessed regarding hospital admissions because of related issues. The attention was paid to respiratory and cardiovascular problems, in particular, as well as asthma attacks. The sample for chronic bronchitis included the male and female population of 25 years. The cases of bronchitis episodes were investigated on the basis of children population under 15 years. Finally, on the basis of the individuals who are 20 years old, restricted activity days were discussed. The authors modeled data for each square kilometer. They utilized PM10 emission inventories to focus on the specific data and separate those cases that were connected with the contamination caused by traffic. For the meta-analysis, the data starting with 1996 was used. It was gathered on the related websites mainly, which ensured its authoritativeness.
Results
The research study showed that more than 5% of mortality cases per year are caused by air contamination, which equals to more than 40,000 situations. In 50% of all these cases, the connection with the motorized traffic was observed. Chronic bronchitis and its episodes turned out to be observed more seldom than other health issues (about 25,000 and 290,000 cases). The authors also emphasized that 500,000 asthma attacks took place during the same period of time. Finally, in almost 17 million cases, days of restricted activities were held. The professionals concluded that in the majority of cases PM emissions were caused by traffic, which proved their initial point of view. They also indicated that people who live in the most populated areas are at the highest risk because air is extremely contaminated there.
Materials of Interest
This very study reveals specific interest to various pollutants that contaminate the air. They are treated as indicators of exposure. Still, the attention is mainly paid to PM fractions. This is a mixture of particles that get into the air and influence people’s health adversely.
Limits and Values
Künzli et al. (2000) state that PM should not exceed 7.5 mg/m3; because relative risk is already expected when it equals 10 mg/m3.
Reported Levels
The issue of air contamination with PM turns out to be critical, as according to the research study, 10 g/m3 increase in PM10 was observed. An annual mean PM10 is 10–15 g/m3, which is almost 30%. In some areas, the results are even more critical as it excesses 55% and show the PM10 concentration of more than 40 mg/m3. Such results prove that the reported levels of PM are much higher than it is allowed. As a result, the possibility of facing even more crucial health issues increases.
Exposure Pathway
The researchers come up with the conclusion that individuals who live in the areas with high traffic are exposed to PM more than others. The traffic-related air proportion cases equal “43% in Austria, 56% in France, and 53% in Switzerland” (Künzli et al., 2000, p. 796).
Risk Potential
On the basis of the information obtained with the help of this article, it is possible to state that risk of having health issues because of air contamination with PM is rather high in those territories where traffic is excessive. Unfortunately, today the concentration of PM that equals at least 10 mg/m3 can rarely be observed, especially in big cities. However, I tend to believe that those individuals who are healthy and tend to try to keep fit are not likely to be exposed to risk because they have good protection mechanisms. Still, I believe that if the professionals pay appropriate attention to this article and develop alterations on its basis, the situation can be improved greatly so that fewer people would face adverse outcomes.
Reference
Künzli, N., Kaiser, R., Medina, S., Studnicka, M., Chanel, O., Filliger, P.,… Sommer, H. (2000). “Public-health impact of outdoor and traffic-related air pollution: A European assessment”. The Lancet, 356(1), 795-801.
It is estimated that water takes up more than two thirds of the total earth’s surface. This means that land occupies less than one third of the surface. Arguably, water is the most essential resource in the world. With it, plants as well as wildlife survive. In addition, its use in facilitating success in man’s activities is great.
However, as the population across the world continues to grow exponentially, human beings are putting the water bodies under immense pressure. In essence, the activities of over six billion people in the world are threatening the survival and quality of water found in the oceans, lakes and other inland water catchment areas.
Water pollution is a human problem that is constantly threatening the lives and livelihoods of many people around the world. Rapid population growths accompanied by increased industrial and technological development have significantly contributed to the pollution of the available water bodies.
With the world’s population hitting a record high of over eight billion occupants, the popular belief that the oceans were too big to be polluted is arguably disputable considering the recent events and human activities that have greatly contributed to the pollution of our oceans as well as other water bodies.
In as much as the ocean waters cannot be consumed directly by human beings, the waters provide a home for many a fish species and marine life which are facing extinction due to pollution. This statement leads us to the most crucial questions. What is ocean pollution? How does it happen? What are the effects of ocean pollution to man and the marine life? What solutions can be used to address this issue? And what recommendations can be implemented to supplement the solutions in finding lasting resolves to this issue?
Over the years, researchers have dedicated most of their time, efforts and resources to find answers to these questions. This study shall review relevant literature and present an informative report on how ocean pollution has over the decades affected human and marine life. The main focus shall be on the effects of this type of water pollution to the fishing industry.
Introduction
In the wake of the past century, man began to acknowledge the fragile balance that existed between him and the environment. In the course of the previous two centuries, man’s industrialization efforts offset the balance that had been maintained between him and the climatic conditions that prevailed.
Detrimental practices such as deforestation, air and water pollution began to rise and consequently posed a threat to mankind’s own survival. These malevolent practices could chiefly be attributed to the rise in the global population accompanied by rapid technological advancement which was characterized by all manner of pollution.
The consequences that have risen as a result of neglecting to take care of the environment have now become a reality to the whole of mankind. This status quo has forced environmental issues to take a center stage in man’s life as can be exhibited by the recently held Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen. Nations have come together and put a valuable effort to restore, maintain and manage their respective eco systems.
In light of the importance with which environmental conservation is regarded, this research shall explore in detail the various aspects that impact our oceans negatively. A brief history of ocean pollution shall be presented and the causes and effects of ocean pollution addressed.
Viable solutions to this problem shall be discussed and supplementary suggestions as to how best the problem can be mitigated shall also be recommended. To this end, an informative discussion on this issue shall be presented with all the while giving an overview on how ocean pollution has affected life in the fishing industry.
What is ocean pollution?
As Ostopowich (2010) explains, ocean pollution often refers to a situation whereby one or more contaminants build up in the oceans to an extent that they cause problems to both people and marine life that depends on the oceans for survival.
Basically, ocean pollution is primarily man-made and can therefore be defined as the degradation of quality of oceanic water due to excess human activities (Ostopowich, 2010). Water is a very unique element. It has various characteristics that help it clean of any impurities that it comes in contact with through diffusion, filtration, evaporation and chemical breakdown of contaminant to an extent that they cannot be harmful.
With this in mind, the question that is left wanting is: considering these unique characteristics of water, why is ocean pollution so rife today? Goel (2006) claims that rapid population growth which led to increased industrialization, globalization and the need for more room for expansion is to blame.
Despite the fact that water is self healing, the process requires a lot of time. However, due to increased human activities, the oceans are under constant pressure and are overly charged with the duty of diffusing and decontaminating toxic substances that result from man’s industrial efforts (Kumar, 2004). As such, the ocean’s capability to handle waste has been greatly overwhelmed leading to the now visible oceanic pollution.
Problem Statement
The fishing industry is a very important sector of many economies across the world. Its role in socioeconomic growth cannot be understated. However, in the past few decades, a series of unfortunate events and issues have attacked this once so successful sector. Among the primary problems affecting this industry is ocean pollution. Man’s ambitious nature accompanied by globalization has led to the rapid expansion of the industrial, technological and agricultural sectors in an unprecedented rate.
These advancements though important to man’s survival have affected the environment and various ecosystems detrimentally. Toxic wastes, excessive CO2 emissions and chemical substances emanating from man’s activities have found their way into the oceans and other water sources (Calhoun, 2005).
Consequently, they have affected the aquatic life by either killing the animals and plants that depend on the waters or disrupting their life and reproductive cycles. To this effect, the number of harvestable species has decreased significantly thereby threatening the survival and successful continuation of the fishing industry.
Purpose statement
The aim of this study shall be to evaluate the extent to which ocean pollution has affected the fishing industry. To achieve this, pollution as a whole shall be defined and described. The various types of water pollution shall be addressed and the causes of pollution shall also be presented.
There after, a discussion pertaining to the effects of these pollutants shall be presented and viable solutions to the pollution problem highlighted. All this shall aim at providing detailed explanations as to how various pollutions interlink and affect aquatic life and subsequently, the fishing industry.
Brief history of ocean pollution
Pollution has been in existence since the wake of time. Every human activity no matter how minute has a direct effect on the environment. As mentioned earlier, water takes up a significant percentage of the earth’s surface. Bocknek (2004) states that in the earlier centuries, mans activities were restricted to the land and rarely did they come into contact with the water bodies which were primarily used as a source of food and a medium for transportation.
Unknown to him, early man was eco friendly. The materials and machinery used did little damage to the oceans and could easily be reversed. It should be noted that pollution is all about quantities. However, at the dawn of the industrialization era, man’s activities in search for civilization increased significantly. This accompanied by the rapid population growth and technological advancements started to exert an unprecedented amounts of pressure on the waters.
Today, man’s activities in terms of transportation, trade, business and discharging of toxic substances depend on the oceans in one way or the other. The use of machineries to promote efficiency and boost productivity has only made the situation worse. The only surprise is that despite the numerous warnings and signs provided by nature, man still persists on with more aggression. To this effect, ocean pollution today has increased by more than 15 times of what it used to be less than a century ago.
Problems in the global fishing industry
The fishing industry has been noted to generate an income of over $70 billion dollar. USA International Business Publications (2009) state that the fishing industry employs more than one million people in terms of fishermen, crew members and fish traders.
In total, the fishing industry harbors more than 37,000 industrial ships and an estimated 12 million small-boat fishermen contribute to a significant amount of fish products available in the markets today. These small-boat fishermen are highly valuable because their collective annual harvest is equivalent to that yielded by the industrial ships (World Bank, 2003).
Water pollution has however led to a situation whereby the annual harvest of fish from the industry has been constantly decreasing over the years. With this in mind, it is safe to say that the existence and survival of this multibillion industry lies on very shaky grounds due to the increased pollution of the water bodies.
A recent example of the adverse effects that pollution have on marine life is the over spill of oil within the Gulf Coast that completely blanketed the ocean for a considerable amount of time. This incidence is just one among many other forms of water pollution that have in the recent past affected the livelihoods and lives of the people, plants and animals that depend on the waters for survival.
Ostopowich (2010) states that the Gulf Coast is one of the richest region in the fishing industry as it has a wide variety of fish, shrimps and oysters that are exported all over the world. The spill drifted all the way to the Mississippi Delta that is almost five miles away from Gulf.
Speculations have it that the adverse effects of the spill will continue to be felt for years to come. Oil spills are dangerous because they blanket the water surface thereby making it difficult for sun rays to penetrate. In addition, oil spills inhibit the exchange of oxygen or carbon dioxide which is essential to the survival cycle of marine life.
According to Bocknek (2004), exposure of fish eggs and fingerlings to oil spills and other pollutants has detrimental long term effects on them. Whenever fish sense a change in their environment, they often opt to migrate in search of the optimum conditions. Consequently, this disrupts their life and breeding cycles.
This unwarranted migration has led to the death of many fish mainly due to infections, being preyed upon and abandonment of eggs which die off due to lack of a favorable environment for breeding. Due to this sad state of affairs, fishermen are forced to overfish from the little that is left. This in turn does not give the remaining fish a chance to repopulate thereby leading to the current situation whereby the demand of fish in the global market far outweighs the supply.
Fish larvae are highly affected by water pollutants and experience deformities and some times end up dying at a very young age. What should be noted in this case is that fish larvae play a pivotal role in maintaining the balance between plant and animal life in the water bodies.
As Goel (2006) states, they are consumed by other fish and they in turn consume much of the bacteria that if left unchecked may have negative effects on the water bodies. With this disruption of their life cycle, the fish population is greatly reduced and the life of the already existing species is under constant threat of extinction. On the same note, Arber (2001) states that fish can be displaced due to oil spills.
The author gives an example of the Atlantic bluefin tuna which gather in the gulf to reproduce before heading back to their original birth place. Consequently, this species of fish is forced to find new habitats which are often unknown to the fishermen depending on these fishes for their livelihood.
USA International Business Publications (2009) support this statement by stating that fishermen rely on their expertise as well as the habitual traits of the fish for success. They know where a particular species can be found and the best time to harvest the fish. However, these abrupt changes in fish behavior due to pollution have only made the life and work of the fishermen harder.
In some occasions, the fish often eat floating plantations algae and bacteria from the sea surface. However, due to pollutants such as oil spills and chemical substances, the fish often end up getting contaminated. This has been very problematic because fishermen are now required by law to have their harvest tested before sending the caught fish into the market. Considering that fish is perishable, the fishermen end up incurring extra costs in preservation and quality assurance processes.
Waste disposal has been documented by Bocknek (2004)as a major hurdle in the fishing industry. Most human beings have a tendency of throwing their rubbish and dirt into the water bodies and drainage systems assuming that they will be drained away to a better place.
Fishermen and other members of the shipping industry pollute the waters through the disposal of cargo waste, plastic as well as noise emanating from their ships and machineries. The presence of such pollutants has serious impacts on the fish life and has contributed to the migration and death of many fishes.
Arber (2001), states that radioactive substances are not only harmful to human beings but also to fishes and marine life. Radioactive substances can be classified into three categories namely; high-level waste that are small volumes of highly active products from the processing of fuel, intermediates-level waste which are waste products that need continuous follow up and assessment but do not remove high levels of heat and finally, the low level waste which is water that is a little contaminated and can be dealt with without much precaution.
The author reiterates that the most common channels through which radioactive materials can access the body is through ingestion, breathing or absorption. These radioactive substances affect the fish, kills them leading to the decreased amounts of fish in the markets and oceans.
Kumar (2004) suggests that in most occasions, fishes get contaminated indirectly. He explains that this happens when the food they eat is contaminated. Radioactive materials as well as most metallic elements are absorbed by the algae, plants and other sources of food. As such, when the fish consume these foods, they end up absorbing the pollutants thereby getting contaminated.
Continuous absorption of these substances contaminates the fish meat and at times may have serious health implications to the humans that enjoy eating fish. Today, due to excessive pollution, the quality of fish meat is under serious scrutiny and people opt for other forms of meat in fear for their health. This accompanied by the ban on fishing due to pollution in some areas has greatly affected the lives of the fishermen and the whole fishing industry.
Water pollution has also affected the reproduction cycles and systems of fish and other forms of marine life. This can be attributed to the fact that most of the pollutants affect the fish variably. For example, Kumar (2004) states that radioactive and metallic elements if ingested over a long period of time may lead to sterility among the fish. The eggs need to be fertilized if more fingerlings are to be produced.
However, if the reproductive capabilities of the fish are hampered, then the amount of fish will continue to decline. In addition, unwanted mutations and general behavioral change has been observed within the fishes and the marine life due to excessive exposure to radioactive substances and other pollutants.
Types of ocean/water pollution
To further understand pollution, researchers have classified the types of pollution that affect the available water bodies. According to Burk (2005), these classifications have been instrumental in determining the various causes and effects that can emanate from a specific type of water pollution and how best the problem can be addressed on a more specific level.
Earth’s water resources are often perceived by many as the surface water seen as lakes, oceans, rivers and other water catchment areas. These are therefore called surface waters. Burk (2005), states that the most obvious pollution affects these waters. He claims that they are obvious because the extent of pollution can readily be seen on the water surface.
For example, oil spills can cover a large area of the waters and affect the life resources within that area, garbage and non-biodegradable substances disposed by man into the water bodies can be seen on the surface and have an adverse effect on the lives of the humans, animals, and plants that depend on the water bodies for survival.
However, not all of the water sits on the surface. A great amount of water is hidden underground. Bocknek (2004) explains that water is transported underground from the oceans, lakes and rivers through rock structures called aquifers. These aquifers contribute to a significant amount of clean water that we use in our homes.
Nevertheless, underground water is polluted by the excessive chemicals that are used in the agricultural sector, and homes. For example, Kumar (2004) reiterates that the weed killers used by individuals to tend to their gardens often drain into the ground where they contaminate the underground waters. The author states that in as much as this type of pollution is not visible, it still presents a serious threat to life resources.
He further supports his statements by citing the Lowa study conducted in 1966 which indicated that over a half of the underground water in this region was contaminated by weed killers and other agrochemicals. How does this affect the oceans? The underground waters drain into the rivers which in turn often end up in the oceans and other water bodies. If such water constantly drains into these water bodies, they ultimately pollute the oceans over time thereby affecting the marine life therein.
Other than these two types of pollution, there is also the point-source pollution and the nonpoint-source pollution. According to Birch & Wachter (2008), point-source refers to the pollution that emanates from a direct and single source. Examples of this type of pollution include but are not limited to: direct pipes that discharge waste from factories into the oceans, oil spills from tankers and ocean-based oil rigs and runoff wash water from home based activities.
As Smith et al assert, the chemicals used to wash the cars accompanied by the oil, gasoline and grease extracts that are removed during car washing presents potential environmental pollutants. The results compiled from the Residential carwash water monitoring study of Federal way support the findings of the Puget Sound Partnership 2008 Action Agenda. The Action Agenda also points out that majority of the pollutants getting into the rivers, lakes and marine waters around Puget Sound came from various pathways.
Surface water runoff was highlighted as the primary transportation route for the main contaminants. As documented in the final report, the most concentrated contaminants came from the developed lands (residential and commercial estates). This study simply highlighted how the situation is thereby emphasizing on the need to take action in regards to car washing as a root cause of water pollution in this area.
Causes of ocean pollution
Ocean pollution does not necessarily need to be direct. According to Miller & Spoolman (2008), experts on climate agree that there is need to mitigate climatic change so as to ensure that the adverse effects of climatic change do not become a reality.
While there is no single solution to deal with this problem, one of the most effective means to achieve this is the taking of measures to diminish green house gases by lowering the consumption of fossil fuels (USA International Business Publications, 2009). This is because the gases emitted by fossil fuels are the major cause of global warming.
Developed countries make up the major consumers of fossil fuels with statistics from the National Energy Foundation stating that the US alone accounted for 26% of the total world consumption of coal, oil and natural gas as of 1999. From this figures, it is clear that the US is a key player in the emission of GHGs. As such, for any policy to be effective, it would be imperative that the US to be a participant.
These gas emissions lead to atmospheric pollution which in turn contributes to acid rain. This type of pollution is wide spread and very problematic because if it is not mitigated at the source, the chain reaction that follows cannot be prevented or stopped. The acid rain pours into the oceans and contaminates the water body leading to the rapid growth of bacteria and kills aquatic life. As Miller & Spoolman (2008) state, the fishing industry is failing not because of overfishing, but due to the increased water pollution that is prevalent in today’s society.
Harrison (2001), states that biodegradable waste contributes to a significant amount of water pollution. The author reiterates that these types of waste include wastes emanating from both humans and animals. When the biodegradable waste finds its way into the water bodies (oceans, lakes and rivers), they create organic carbon which is a source of energy for bacteria. Over time, carbon dioxide is formed from the organic carbons.
Harrison (2001), states that excessive carbon dioxide lead to air pollution and acid rains which are very problematic to contain and control. In addition, the author states that an increase in organic matter in the oceans leads to a situation where aerobic bacteria multiply faster. Since this type of bacteria are consume oxygen, the oxygen levels in the oceans decrease significantly and consequently, aquatic life is hampered and killed because marine life depends greatly on the oxygen in the water for survival.
Another cause of ocean pollution is chemical substances and nutrients. According to Burk (2005), plant nutrients drains into the water through the sewer systems and runoffs. Phosphates and nitrates have been documented as the leading contaminants of water (Mooney et al, 2008).
In as much as these chemicals are natural, statistics presented by the EPA indicated that over 80% of nitrates and 75% of phosphates that are found in the waters are man-made. So, how do these chemicals cause pollution? Livingston (2005), states that a high concentration of these chemicals in the water leads to algal bloom. Algae smells and looks bad and at the same time, are a potential health hazard.
In addition, these chemicals have been known to affect marine life and lower the oxygen levels in the waterways. In addition, the author claims that nonylphenol surfactants have the ability to change the sex of fish and that the phosphates presents an environment where algae flourish.
In the event that this happens, weeds and bacteria grow and spread faster. Consequently, the decomposing plants consume most of the oxygen in the water thereby interrupting aquatic life, lessen aquatic biodiversity and even kill aquatic life. It should be noted that the process of plant decomposition (eutrophication) occurs over a lengthy period (thousands of years).
The process enables the water body to enrich itself with nutrients which support marine life. However, pollution disrupts this process and makes it happen over 1,000 times faster. This means that oxygen is consumed faster than expected leading to the death of aquatic life.
Heat has also been documented as a major source of water pollution. The earth’s temperature is on the rise. As the earth is getter hotter and hotter, so does the water temperatures. As the general water temperature increases, dissolved oxygen reduces significantly. Birch & Wachter (2008), state that thermal pollution can either be natural or man-made.
Hot springs and geysers are example of natural causes while the dispensation of water that has been used to cool down machineries and power plants represent man-made pollution. According to Birch & Wachter (2008), aquatic life requires certain temperatures and levels of oxygen to thrive and survive. As such, heat causes a serious problem to the lives of the plants and fish in the water and may lead to their deaths thereby reducing the available number to be fished or harvested.
Another cause of water pollution is sediments. Sediments refer to the organic matter and solid minerals that are wash or blow into the water sources. McKinney (2007), states that sediment pollution is often very difficult to spot because it emanates from various sources.
The author states that; “Each year, water sources in the United States are polluted by over one billion tones of sediment (McKinney, 2007).” Though unknown to many, Sediment have been known to suffocate marine life and can cause water to be turbid. Turbid water is detrimental because it absorbs more solar radiation leading to thermal pollution.
Most of the toxic wastes that invade our environment are human-made. In most cases, these hazardous and toxic chemicals are not used in the right manner or disposed of correctly. Examples supporting this statement include point-source pollutants such as factory and cargo waste as well as oil spills from tankers and ocean based oil rigs.
Point sources of chemical pollution include industrial discharges and oil spills. As Alvord (2000) reiterates, home based practices involve the use of excessive water and chemicals. However, if the practices are not regulated, they lead to a situation where the water used ends up polluting the runoff and storm drains. This can in turn have negative environmental impacts on both the quality and quantity of water resources.
The United States-based Natural Resources Defense Council (2000) equates the level of water pollution in urban and suburban storm water runoff to that experienced from sewage plants and large factories. The council claims that the drainage systems and storm water runoffs collect the toxic waste and other pollutants that flow into them and discharge them into the water resources where they affect the fish and other marine life.
They further emphasize that the toxic chemicals and pollutants left on roads, driveways, and gardens are deposited directly into local waterways without being treated Livingston (2005). This pollution can have negative effects on ecosystem functions and biological diversity, as well as social aspects such as public health, recreation, and general community well-being (Livingston, 2005).
As such, the environmental issues caused by the increasing volumes of pollutants being flushed down our drains, creeks and rivers, into recreational waterways and the sea, have forced us to acknowledge the detrimental impacts of conventional urbanization practices and the need for change (Livingston, 2005).
Radioactive pollutants have also presented a serious threat to marine life and the fishing industry at large. They include wastes that emanate from health care facilities, industries and mines. In addition, Canter & Knox (1985), state that some radioactive pollutants such as radon are created naturally.
These pollutants are very dangerous and hard to do away with because it takes a very long time for any form of radioactive pollutant to cease being effective. In regards to the topic under discussion, radioactive pollutants have led to the death of many sea animals as well as the disruption of their life and reproductive cycles. Consequently, the number of fish has declined thereby creating scarcity and other related problems in the fishing industry.
Another source of water pollution has been noted to be pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs). Products in this category include medicines, lotions, gels and soaps that people use to maintain their beauty and take care of their skins. As Brebbia et al (2006) state, only recently, has it been discovered that most of these products work as hormonal disrupters.
The author explains that the synthetic hormones that are in these products impede the full functionality of natural hormones in animals, especially aquatic life. Like any other form of pollution, these products often drain into the water sources through the drainage system and when people go to swim and have fun in the ocean.
Solutions
In its bid to reduce the pollution levels, the government has put various strategies in place. A significant policy is that of Tax rebates which is offered to all industries that adopt eco friendly practices. This move by the government will reduce industrial emissions as well as the level of toxic wastes that get into our oceans by a wide margin since industrial fumes are some of the biggest causes of air pollution.
In addition to this, all industries should be encouraged by law to plant trees which acts as carbon sinks thus reducing pollution levels. In so doing, the adverse effects that air pollution have on our oceans will greatly be reduced and aquatic life will be restored.
Over the years, it has been suggested that new architectural designs can help retard global warming. As such, the government must enforce the set laws which stipulate that new industrial, commercial and residential houses should be built using materials compliant with the new environmental laws.
More effective and efficient water and waste treatment methods have also been developed and it is a prerequisite to have them installed before starting up any industry. Citizens are also encouraged to use the 3R’s (reduce, reuse, recycle) model as part of their contribution towards a greener State.
Mooney et al (2008) assert that individuals can do a lot on their own to reduce the carbon footprint. Throughout the world, the level of electricity consumption is increasing every day. It is therefore important that they adjust their lifestyle if they are to meet the stipulated limits. This can be done by switching to less energy consuming light bulbs, using public means of transport as compared to personal vehicles, switching back to fans rather than using air conditioners, using LCD and plasma screens instead of tube televisions.
To curb water pollution, dish washers can be employed instead of hand washing thereby reducing water wastage. Using the shower instead of the bath tub has been known to reduce Co2 emissions. In so doing, the level of pollution will have reduced significantly and the effects of these pollutants on our oceans will be minimal thereby giving the marine life a chance to repopulate.
The industrial sector is notable the chief polluter in almost all countries. As such, any change in this sector no matter how small can spell a big difference to the overall reduction of carbon emission. Shifting to more eco friendly equipments that use less fuel is one of the notable ways in which industries can make a difference.
Industries that employ the use of boilers should install smoke density meters which check on the levels of smoke emitted into the air thereby creating a means through which these harmful emissions can be regulated (Mooney et al, 2008).
Implementation of a decentralization program can also help greatly reduce both vehicular and industrial pollution. This is because decentralization calls for the spreading out of industries as opposed to having them concentrated in one area. On the same note, potentially pollutant industries such chemical plants, sawmills, ship repairing, cement manufacturing should be located to either the seaward side or offshore side of the island in order to reduce water pollution.
In addition to the above measures, the government can also initiate tree planting program, encourage establishment of parks, offer funds to green groups and agencies which help find solutions to environmental issues. An increase in taxation on vehicles that are “gas guzzlers” can also aid in the battle to reduce green house gases emissions.
Brebbia et al (2006) reiterate that industrialization no matter how important posses a great threat to our environment if left unchecked. It is therefore in the best interest of everyone if the government adopts means to monitors the rates of industrialization and applies stringent rules and laws in matters concerning preservation of the environment.
Proponents of the Kyoto protocol are adamant in their stand that it is industrial pollutants that are responsible for the climatic havoc that is experienced. Their proposed solution is a reduction in emissions by the industries in accordance with the Kyoto policies. While there is truth in these assertions, the proponents fail to consider that there are many other means by which to curtail GHG emissions.
This is a view which is also held by Burk (2005) who declares that there is not single formula for dealing with global warming and pollution. The Kyoto Protocol’s overemphasis on industries as the major cause of pollution is the reason why the developing countries are omitted from the bid to alleviate the condition since they are deemed to be minor players in the industrial field.
The USA is the leading industrial power in the country and for this reason; proponents view the failure by the US to endorse the Kyoto protocol as a blow to the efforts of mitigating climate change. Hassan et al (2005) note that aside from the large scale efforts to limit CO2 emissions, individuals can do a lot on their own to reduce the carbon footprint.
This is because the end consumer is the one who utilized electricity and drives vehicles that also contribute to GHG emissions. A change in the lifestyle of the individual can therefore make a big impact on the environment. The Kyoto protocol fails to take this into consideration the impact that citizens of developing countries can make to the climate change efforts.
China for example boasts of the world’s largest population. Neglecting to consider the impact that its citizens might have if they are forced to make changes that are healthy to the environment would be a faulty move. Adoption of the Kyoto protocols is therefore a viable solution since it will ensure that all countries play an equal role in safeguarding the environment against various pollutants that threaten aquatic life.
The time and money spent by multinational corporations in lobbying for softer legislations on the use of CFCs would be better spent on research of cheap and safe alternatives. The belief that such alternatives would be too expensive is aimed at discoursing opponents on the use of CFCs. There are existing scientifically proven alternatives for CFCs but the big players have blatantly refused to embrace these choices.
According to Wood et al (2000), alternatives for some of the substances (e.g. Freon) that cause water pollutions have already been found. However, the authors point out that the prices of these substitutes may be slightly higher than those of the original product. This is because technological innovations are allowing the recycling of chemicals removable from used up refrigeration units and air conditioners.
The shifts to these alternatives will save these industries millions of dollars in the future. It is a fact that consumers will have to deal with high initial costs of the new technology; it is also obvious that this cost would be minimal in comparison to earth without the protective cover or aquatic life.
Effects of the use of CFCs not only affect the third world. The United States and China have not been spared with hurricanes and floods taking toll on these two nations respectively. In addition, the significant drop in revenue from the fishing industry as well as the decline in the availability of fish indicates that something ought to be done to address this issue of pollution.
It is good news to note that action is being taken to reduce the effects of CFCs, in both global and national fronts; each and every individual has a role to play in conserving the environment and reduce pollution. Miller & Spoolman (2008) state that consumers can form the first group of environmentalists by combating the use of these chemicals by shunning products composed of chlorine, phosphate, nitrate and nonylphenol surfactants compounds.
Consumers should have their air conditioning hoses properly fitted and certified by qualified personnel to avoid leaks of CFCs into the atmosphere. Furthermore, they can take their governments to task on proper guidelines regarding the disposal of air conditioning and coolants. In real fact, the most important weapon we have as individuals is education. In so doing, pollution will decrease and marine life will have a fighting chance for survival and repopulation.
Knowledge based solutions to our problems are so far the best techniques Goudie (2006). An informed society is likely to understand the consequences of its actions and as such use this knowledge to solve its challenges that it faces daily Individuals must raise their level of interest in environmental issues higher than it stands today.
The fact is that few people know about pollution leave alone their knowledge on its effects is a grim statistic (Goudie, 2006). Furthermore, few people are aware of the role of the ozone layer, water basins and atmospheric soundness. In response to these sad realities, few people are thus aware of heath risks they are exposed to by the use of these chemicals. Education and awareness still remain the central keys to a healthy future generation of our world (Harrison, 2001).
The author suggests that human nature has a tendency to overlook the problems that do not affect an individual directly. Just relax and take a picture of the earth brown and withered, without the beauty of the green vegetation, and completely barren. This remains the future of our beloved planet Earth, completely brought to destruction by man- the most intelligent creature in existence. When that time comes, there will be no choice of repair.
Conclusion
The oceans and other water resources have over the years proved to be valuable sources of income, livelihood, food and transport to the human race. However, man’s lack of concern for these resources is increasingly turning into a cause for worry. Over fishing and pollution brought about by man’s activity are affecting the quality of water in these sources all the while impacting negatively on the animal and plant life that depend on these waters for survival.
The fishing industry has also learned the hard way that preservation of the water sources is the only key to success in this trade. Low quality fish as well as a decline in the annual volume of fish harvests have in the recent past characterized this once so successful industry.
This study has in detail described the environmental situation that exists in our water sources. Pollution has been noted as a threat to existence and various aspects of pollution have been discussed. Examples of water pollutants such as oil spills, radioactive and chemical substances and industrial wastes have been documented as the leading sources of ocean pollution.
How these pollutants affect aquatic life has also been discussed and the ripple effects of the same to the fishing industry highlighted. While it has been observed that the many nations are indeed directing efforts to mitigate pollution by conforming to the required standards stipulated by the global community, there is still much more that can be done to even better the current scores.
It has also been established that the vision for a greener environment can only be realized if the public and private sectors come and work together as a team. Solutions and recommendations have also been made as to how the government and the citizens can contribute in this important task of reducing pollution in future.
If implemented, these changes no matter how little will at the end make a vast difference in the lives of many people as well as the ecological balance that supports such existence. It is therefore upon each person to foresee that they fulfill their roles in this quest in order to secure a greener and safer future not only for future generations, but also for the animal and plant life that depend on the ecosystems for survival.
References
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Arber, N. (2001). Geography matters: Foundation. LA: Heinemann.
Bagad, A. (2009). Environmental Science & Engineering. NY: Technical Publications.
Birch, E., & Wachter, S. (2008). Growing greener cities: urban sustainability in the twenty-first century. Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Bocknek, J. (2004). World Fishing. USA: Black Rabbit Books.
Brebbia, C. A., & Antunes do Carmo, J. S. (2006). Water pollution VIII: modeling, monitoring and management. USA: WIT Press.
Burk, A. (2005). Water pollution: new research. LA: Nova Science Publishers.
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Goudie, A. (2006). The human impact on the natural environment: past, present, and future. CA: Wiley-Blackwell.
Harrison, R. (2001). Pollution: causes, effects and control. USA: Royal Society of Chemistry.
Hassan, R., Scholes, R., & Ash, N. (2005). Ecosystems and human well-being: current state and trends: findings of the Condition and Trends Working Group of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. USA: Island Press.
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Livingston, J. (2005). Trends in water pollution research. LA: Nova Publishers.
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Miller, G., & Spoolman, S. (2008). Sustaining the Earth: an integrated approach. NY: Cengage Learning.
Mooney, L., Knox, D., & Schacht, C. (2008). Understanding Social Problems. NY: Cengage Learning.
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This paper presents a critique of an article on air pollution and the illnesses associated with it. The article focuses its argument on environment and health issues and discusses a research conducted on air pollution and risk factor respiratory illness which involved researching school children in southern Nigeria.
Hypothesis
The purpose of the article presented was to test the relationship of the respiratory system illness and air pollution in developing countries, especially in Africa. The research conducted by Adetoun et al, was investigating outdoor and indoor air pollutions. Air pollution was evident in schools and other prone environments such as roads and oil refining plants in Southern Nigeria. It was hypothesized that air pollution results from activities such as using fuel, coal in particular, and paraffin in cooking in most houses in Nigeria. The article also centers on the relationship between air pollution and respiratory illness such as wheeze, night cough phlegm, rhinitis and doctor-diagnosed asthma (Adetoun et al. 1).
Problem Statement
The article addresses the association of respiratory diseases and air pollution in developing countries. The research attempts to measure the amount of indoor and outdoor air pollution caused by poor ventilation in houses, overcrowding in one room, air traffic pollution caused by motorcycles, cars and petrol refining plants. Social and economic impact was a significant concern in conducting the research since it gave the relationship between air pollution and the doctor-diagnosed cases of asthma in Southern Nigeria.
The article also touches upon air pollution issues in developing countries, specifically in Africa and, consequently, revealed the causes and implications of air pollution to society in these countries. The article recognized the shortcomings of research done by past researchers on air pollution, particularly in Africa. Mustapha et al, conducted a comprehensive research on air pollution in Southern Nigeria, an environmental setting which consisted of poor social economic background students.
Such environment correlates with the overall composition of African population. Adetoun et al. based their research on an environment consisting of air pollution complexes, for instance, oil refinery plant and air traffic pollution in Warri city in Southern Nigeria. Therefore, this research is valid in investigating air pollution and the resultant effect in respiratory illnesses in Africa.
The problem of air pollution and its implication to health addressed by the article affects a large African Population. Most African countries do not invest in air pollution control measures since most of the African countries are poor and strive to meet their budgets and basic needs. On the other hand, most of the African countries lack favorable political environment to foster implementation strategies to control air pollution. Therefore, according to Adetoun et al, choice of the environmental topic on air pollution was significantly relevant since it dealt with the right composition of population. and also conducted a research on a topic that presents a prevalent problem affecting African countries.
This article can be justified after analyzing the information presented. Considering the air pollution problem articulated in this research imminent issues which past researchers have constantly ignored, are under focus in this article. This, therefore, demands attention to contain the distressing condition that currently prevails in African environment. Most of the African populations are ignorant or not aware of the implication of air pollution and their health condition. Therefore, this article ignites a conscious consideration of air pollution measures to be established in developing countries, namely, in Africa.
Methods Used
The research presented in the article engaged the use of cross-sectional survey that involved a population of 1,397 schoolchildren (Adetoun et al. 1). Emission variables, such as cars, cooking materials used in Southern Nigeria households measured the amount of air pollution in outdoor and indoor environments, and presented the data obtained from the findings in the article.
Various statistical methods of data analysis were used to explain the data collected and presented in tables and graphs in the article. The data presented in the article show all the variables tested during the research. It is well organized as evident in tables provided in this article. Two tables represent the data collected in this article. The first table represents variables, for instance, physical factors that contribute to air pollution such as gas emission from cars, oil plants, trucks, and soil particles air pollution experienced in Warri schools in southern Nigeria (Adetoun et al, 3).
The second table shows the relationship between air pollutants. It shows environmental factors and health variables such as wheeze, night cough, phlegm, rhinitis and doctor-diagnosed asthma as well as it represents household prevalence factors that pollute the environment (Adetoun et al, 4).
The tables in the article present all the relevant data required to analyze the impact of air pollution and respiratory illnesses along with the useful data for proper analysis of the information provided.
Author’s General Conclusion
The authors conclude that air pollution is associated with most respiratory illness as seen in the analysis of the data in the article. However, they noted that illnesses such as doctor-diagnosed asthma show low prevalence according to the finding in research in Southern Nigeria. This is because most of the examined population came from poor social and economic backgrounds and hence, they are ignorant or lack the means to be tested. The authors also focused on the challenges they met while conducting research and asserts that it might have caused an underestimate of the size and figures represented in the article (Adetoun et al. 6).
Analysis of the Article
The article presents findings on air pollution, a phenomena that have been sidelined by past researchers. It provides readers with adequate informationon how air pollutions relates significantly with respiratory illnesses in African societies. The authors of this article conducted a comprehensive research on indoor and outdoor factors that propagate respiratory complications. They also accounted for the social and economic factors and explained the relationship with the respiratory diseases. The finding of this article is extremely influential, since it provides information that is fundamental to promote environmental policies in African countries to curb air pollution. The article presents its discussion in a well-organized manner and show all the steps involved by the researcher.
Recommendation and conclusion
Authors of this article experienced some difficulties in conducting the air pollution research because they conducted the research in interior environments of Southern Nigeria. The tools that they were using presented some power problems. Most of the rural African environments have electricity problems, therefore, in future researchers there should come saver machines with power to help them conduct such research to avoid underestimation of data collected.
Works Cited
Adetoun, Blangiardo, DavidBriggs, and Anna, Hansell. Traffic Air Pollution and Other Risk Factors for Respiratory Illness in Schoolchildren in the Niger-Delta Region of Nigeria, United Kingdom:MRC-HPA Centre for Environment and Health, 2011. Print.
To begin with, the most benefiting part of the macroeconomics system, in this case, is international business. To be more specific, one of the most outstanding features of multi-country business is that it can provide interactive process with its own brunches from any country. When doing this, some of the brunches might receive technological solutions for pollution issues, which will help business to actively integrate itself in green economy (Lin et al, 2019). Consequently, the international business might receive some privileges comparing to the simpler forms of companies due to the new trend supporting in those countries where it is not popular or cannot be implemented yet. Moreover, the privileges could be tax exemptions or subsidies for highly-cost projects.
On the other hand, the significant part of the business might experience due to the solvency problems. When a company suddenly begin benefiting from following the trend of environmental risk decrease, the management might be driven to the significant capital expenditures increasing. As a result, the international business begin spending more than receiving, and such tendency in the middle term perspective may ruin the benefits from taking part in the environmental responsibility programs. However, from the long term point of view, the advantages from implementing the zero-waste and sustainable sources of energy and other specific business infrastructures might overcome the disadvantages of applying this method in the company’s structure.
Society’s Perspectives in Fighting the Global Pollution
Turning to the society’s role in changing the unsustainable system, the most important part of the discussion is usually dedicated to the role-changing possibility in the governmental structure. Recently, people were not thinking about the sustainable development of their country and hometown. However, these days, when some cities are dying in the pollutive cloud with enormous amount of CO2, individuals begun concerning about their future. From this perspective, the ecological measures to prevent pollution in city area might be implemented through civil organizations, which will help to widespread the tendency of choosing the sustainability and long term perspective (Ives et al., 2018). What is more, the most influential civil organizations which struggle for sustainable development might intervene in the political life and become part of the local authorities. As a result, the city will be free at least of new pollution and begin living the sustainably to leave the “heritage” to their KSJA.
Governmental Possibilities and Strategies to Resolve Current and Future Issues
Last but not least, the governmental issue of implementing pollution-preventing measures is one of the most critical nowadays. This is due to the fact that some industries require the exceed norms of pollution due to their extreme efficiency and high demand on their products among the society. For instance, when it comes to energy, many people might claim that the most efficient way to stop the pollution is to begin with atomic and other pollutive energy stations. However, while it is more sustainable to use the alternative means of energy production, such as wind and solar power stations, the most pollutive stations produce the biggest amount of energy, which is consumed daily by all of the citizens. The possible solution of this problem is that local and general authorities should run influential campaigns for passing the free time in the outdoor so that the natural tourism will become highly demanded (Ilyas et al., 2018). These measures will not only increase the pollution-free tourism by bus, airplane, or railroad, but also support the tendency of sustainable living during the whole life.
References
Ilyas, S., & Wiwattanakornwong, K. (2020). Unleashing the role of top management and government support in green supply chain management and sustainable development goals. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 27, 8210–8223.
Ives, C. D., Abson, D. J., von Wehrden, H., Dorninger, C., Klaniecki, K., & Fischer, J. (2018). Reconnecting with nature for sustainability. Sustainability Science, 13(5), 1389–1397.
Lin, R., Gui, Y., Xie, Z., & Liu, L. (2019). Green Governance and International Business Strategies of Emerging Economies’ Multinational Enterprises: A Multiple-Case Study of Chinese Firms in Pollution-Intensive Industries. Sustainability, 4(11), 1013.
Air is a vital component of the environment, which supports the life of numerous species. In addition, air is extremely significant in various environmental phenomena such as precipitation. Thus, the need for maintaining air purity is apparent. Nevertheless, human activities such as urbanization and industrialization oftentimes lead to air pollution and, therefore, expose ecosystems to grave dangers. It is worth noting that different regions/countries/cities in the world have different levels of air pollution depending on the intensity/presence of causing agents and the techniques applied in dealing with air pollution.
Beijing is located in the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei (BTH) region, which is one of the most populous areas in China. The Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei (BTH) city cluster is also characterized with intense industrial activities (Wang et al., 2014).
It is worth noting that China, especially the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei (BTH) region, has experienced huge levels of air pollution for more than thirty years, from the onset of the China’s economic revolution (Wang et al., 2014). The China’s economy has developed rapidly with minimal or no consideration of the environmental degradation and pollution. In addition, urbanization has drastically taken shape.
Air pollution levels are measurable and quantifiable using various techniques. For instance, API is a quantitative measure, which categorizes and designates air pollution levels contingent to gathered data. The API scale has six sub-divisions and it ranges from zero to 500 as illustrated in table 1.
Air pollution rank
Interpretation
Level I: 0-50
Good air (no human-health risk)
Level II: 51-100
Good air (no human-health risk)
Level III: 101-150
light pollution affecting human health to some degree
Level IV: 151-200
light pollution affecting human health to some degree
Level V: 201-300
denote heavy pollution and serious effects on human health
Level VI: >300
denote heavy pollution and serious effects on human health
Table 1: Information source: (Wang, et al., 2014)
Alternatively, the µg/m3 scales can be adopted where the measurements of the particulates’ diameters are involved. It is worth noting that different bodies and countries set the expected limits that a region emission should not go beyond as illustrated in table 2.
The current air pollution levels in Beijing are among the highest in the world. It is imperative to note authorities and other stakeholders adopt hourly-based techniques to collect air pollution data. At times, the hourly concentration of the PM2.5, PM10, SO2, and NO2 go beyond the recommended levels. For instance, the average 2013 levels went beyond any of the EU, USA, WHO, and China guidelines by more than two times. A case in point, on 12th January 2013, the air in Beijing registered 886 μg/m3, 35 times the WHO recommendations (Lü et al., 2015).
Figure 1: A comparison between a hazy day (a: January 29, 2013) and a clear day (b: February 1, 2013) in Beijing. Source: (Luo, et al., 2013)
This research paper discusses the various effects of air pollution in Beijing, which include health, economic, and social/lifestyle effects among others.
Literature review
Although air pollution in Beijing has a history of more than three decades, intensive studies about the associated effects started less than ten years ago. Kan, Chen, and Hong (2009) noted that by 2009, insignificant number of studies on long-term effects of air pollution in China had been done. The study noted that studies from other regions, including North America and Europe, could not be pertinent in making conclusions on the effects of air pollution in Beijing since the regions’ emissions and pollution levels are relatively lower than the pollution in China.
The escalating air pollution levels witnessed from 2013 prompted researchers and authors to investigate the risks associated with air pollution.
Guo et al. (2013) investigated the association between increased mortalities and air pollution in Beijing. The study adopted retrospective regression analysis over eight regions in the city. The study revealed that all air pollutants, including PM2.5, PM10, SO2, and NO2 significantly affected years of life lost (YLL). It was also evident that air pollution affected people of different genders and ages differently. Women demonstrated higher degrees of susceptibility compared to their male counterparts. The elderly (people above 65 years) were at higher risks relative to those below 65 years. The study concluded that increased air pollution in Beijing resulted in increased YLL and, therefore, air pollution should be checked and effective mitigation measures adopted.
In a similar study, He, Fan, and Zhou (2016) found that air pollution in Beijing is highly associated with increased mortality rates, especially in children under 10 years and people above 65 years. However, the study did not reveal any differences in susceptibility between different genders.
Apart from being associated with high mortality rate, air pollution is linked to various health issues. Chung, Zhang, Zhong (2015) noted that air pollution in Beijing could be the source of numerous health problems. Air pollution is among the leading causes of lung cancer and other respiratory health issues. However, the study pointed out that there was a lack of sufficient academic research, especially in China, to prove the associations.
Chung et al. (2015) also noted that there is a great need for the government and other stakeholders to fight the escalating levels of air pollution in Beijing.
Wei et al. (2016) noted that air pollution could be associated with childhood obesity. They did an empirical study (using rodents) to investigate the link between weight gain and air pollution in Beijing. The rodents were divided into two groups, one exposed to filtered air and the other to the polluted Beijing air. Rodents exposed to unfiltered air registered relatively higher weight gains. Moreover, the rodents under unfiltered air developed complications in their respiratory/cardiovascular systems, or had hampered metabolisms.
The experiment also involved two groups of pregnant rodents and their offspring before and after birth. Both the control group and the group under polluted air carried the pregnancies to term but the rodents that were exposed to polluted air had heavier offspring relative to the control group. In addition, continued contact with unfiltered air increased lungs related problems, and other complications.
Noting the insufficiency in the number of studies on the health effects of air pollution in Beijing, Liang et al. (2014) endeavoured to establish the association between PM2.5, a key air pollutant in Beijing, with influenza.
Using data collected for five years, (2008-2013), Liang et al. (2014) established that PM2.5 is a key causative factor for human influenza in Beijing.
Other health complications that have been linked to air pollution in Beijing include cardiovascular diseases such as thrombosis and inflammation (Rich et al., 2012).
Jain (2014) article reviewed tourism-related economic implications of air pollution in Beijing. It was evident that the number of tourists dropped significantly from 2012 to 2013. Some of the implications included loss of jobs and reduced GDP contribution.
On international relationship, Topal and Chung (2014) observed that air pollution could be a source of tensions between China and her neighbors. Thus, Beijing’s levels of emission could have adverse political and inter-boundary issues. The paper suggested the need for collaboration between China and her neighbors in fighting air pollution.
Discussion
Driving factors and Causes of the Beijing pollution
Unregulated coal energy consumption
A substantial percentage of China’s energy production depends on coal. Coal account for approximately 70% of the total energy consumption (Bhatnagar, 2014). Emissions from coal plants account for an extensive part of the Beijing pollution. It is worth noting that a majority of the new coal power plant have emission regulation mechanisms but the drives to cut the cost of production hinder the operation of the equipment (Bhatnagar, 2014).
Vehicle manufacturing and vehicle emissions
The China’s automobile demand is one of the highest globally. In addition, the China’s vehicle manufacturing industry is the world leader in vehicle sale (Bhatnagar, 2014). As such, vehicle-related emissions have huge impacts on the Beijing air. In 2012, for instance, Hong Feng (a former Beijing official) noted that vehicle-related emissions accounted for approximately 22% PM2.5 particulate in the Beijing air (Bhatnagar, 2014).
Corruption and the lack of proper law enforcement
China has numerous unimplemented environmental conservation laws. The lack of law enforcement is propagated by the high levels of corruption in the China’s law enforcing agencies.
In addition, perpetual violation of environmental pollution laws is not prohibited by the legal system in China. Companies that charged in courts for violation receive the same treatment (with no extra fines for perpetual violators) regardless the number of previous violations.
Companies disregard environmental pollution laws even viewing court fines as part of costs of their operations. The contempt of the laws has been linked to the laissez-faire enforcement approaches adopted by agencies.
The decentralization versus centralization dilemma
The China’s administrative system has been in a dilemma of whether to adopt a centralized or a decentralized approach of governing the vast country. In addition, disconnects exist amid the central and the local governments creating misunderstanding and more ambiguities. As implementation of set rules has faced huge challenges. For instance, laws set in Beijing face the risk of non-implementation on the grounds of jurisdiction ambiguities.
The organizational maze and bureaucracies are some of the factors that thwart the efforts of fighting pollution. Hierarchical issues can be linked to almost 70% of the inefficiency in law enforcement on pollution (Bhatnagar, 2014).
Economic growth at all cost
The China’s quest for economic revolution does not regard the need for sustainability in development. The Growth at all cost spirit has driven the China’s economic development revolution for the last three decades. As such, manufacturers have been pursuing profitability and economic gains at the cost of environmental degradation and pollution (Bhatnagar, 2014).
The wind and air pollution
Hana et al. (2015) associated concentrations of air pollution with the wind patterns in Beijing. The study noted that high speed of wind 4 m/sec was associated with cleaner air while low-speed wind increased air pollution. In addition, poor city planning and impervious building structures escalated the intensities of air pollution in the city.
Effects of the Beijing pollution
Health effects
From the literature review in this paper, it is evident that air pollution in Beijing has huge adverse effects on human health. The issue of linking the air pollution in Beijing with health problems has raised contrivances for a long time. Consequently, numerous studies have been carried out to establish the facts and to find the truth. Many studies have linked the Beijing air pollution to serious health problems, including cancer, asthma, childhood obesity, and respiratory complications among other health issues (Chung et al., 2015; He et al., 2016). As such, air pollution is linked to a substantial number of mortalities.
Economic effects
The paradox of economic growth at all cost is evident in Beijing. Although the economic development is one of the key factors that propel Beijing’s air pollution, the sustainability of the development can never be realized. Besides, the cost of noncompliance with environmental regulations is evident. In 2010, for instance, China lost approximately $230 billion (almost 4% of China’s GDP that year) because of air pollution and environmental degradation (Bhatnagar, 2014).
Air pollution and the associated acid rains have caused huge losses on households, especially farmers. In 2003, for example, Chinese farmers lost 30 billion yuan (approximately $4.39 billion) when acid rains and air pollution destroyed their crops.
Economic activities are sometimes postponed or cancelled when suspended pollutants hinder visibility. Traffic jams and accidents are oftentimes experienced in the city hindering the normal economic operations.
In December 2015, (when the air impurities went beyond 500) the Chinese authorities had no alternative but to issue a red alert, which had huge economic implications. During the red alert, the number of vehicles on the roads reduced. Workers, students, and a majority of the Beijing population were ordered to stay indoors. Industrial production within Beijing was strictly controlled and learning institutions shut. The public transport was adversely affected with pedestrians advised to wear masks (Chen & Spegele, 2015).
The 2014 Beijing marathon was adversely affected by air pollution in the city. On the day that the marathon was held, the level of pollution was extremely high. PM2.5 the 19th of October 2014 went beyond the recommended levels to record alarming 344 μg/m3. Many athletes could not tolerate the high levels of PM2.5 and, therefore, did not participate in the marathon. Among those that did compete, a substantial number was not able to complete the race (Bhatnagar, 2014).
Figure 2: A huge fog engulfing the atmosphere leading to the closure of some roads in Beijing. Source: (Levin, 2015)
Tourism
The tourism industry in Beijing has been adversely affected air pollution. It is worth noting that China is one of the most popular destinations of international tourists. As such, the tourism industry is a vital sector of China’s economy. Moreover, the Chinese government has invested heavily in promoting tourism since it considers the industry a significant tool in raising GDP of the country.
Air pollution in Beijing, therefore, denies China millions of dollars since tourists require healthy environment and effective transport and communication systems.
Tourists to China (10,000 persons) October
Year-on-year increase (%) October
Tourists to China (10,000 persons) From January
Year-on-year increase (%) From January
Korea
39.18
5.25
333.95
-2.75
Japan
26.97
8.61
240.90
-21.20
Russia
23.18
-6.28
184.58
-9.36
USA
21.10
2.66
176.42
-1.93
Vietnam
12.61
34.05
111.17
19.63
Malaysia
12.34
7.74
93.69
-3.78
Mongolia
9.64
5.74
85.99
2.02
Philippines
8.59
7.18
82.83
4.01
Singapore
9.43
-0.62
75.58
-7.45
Australia
6.78
-7.08
60.57
-6.13
Source: (Jain, 2014)
From the table, it is evident that the year-on-year tourist visits in China are decreasing. The Beijing smog resulting from air pollution has been linked to the drop in tourist visiting China (Jain, 2014).
Figure 3: A tourist wearing a mask in Beijing. Source: (Deng, 2013)
It is worth noting that the dropping numbers of tourism have rippling effects on the China’s economy. In 2012, for instance, tourism and travel industry contributed 9.3% of the total GDP. The industry also was the source of jobs to many Chinese accounting for 3% of the total jobs created in China. Therefore, a lot is at stake if tourists evade China on the grounds of air pollution (Jain, 2014).
Lifestyle changes effects
Air pollution in Beijing prevents outdoor activities, including physical activities. It is worth noting that the Chinese are traditionally known for carrying out outdoor physical activities as a lifestyle and part of social life. However, with the huge presence of air pollutant, it is difficult to carry out any physical activity (Lü et al., 2015).
Socio-political effects
The levels of air pollution and the associated health effects and deaths have been published and broadcast by the local and international media. Therefore, the Chinese public is aware of the adverse effects linked to air pollution in Beijing. Consequently, cases of civil unrest have been reported in the city and other parts of the country. Many Chinese have used the social media platforms to vent their frustrations (Gardner, 2015). It is also worth noting that air pollution raises inter-boundary political concerns, with tensions between China and her neighbors being prevalent.
Urban-rural migration
People living in Beijing are extremely afraid of the various effects of air pollution. As such, they do all they can to be safe from the unfiltered polluted air. Children of the well to do families are taken to schools that have air purification systems. Some of the families who cannot afford the huge bills associated with air purification are now moving to the rural parts of China (Gardner, 2015).
Mitigation measures
Averting air pollution in Beijing is vital. Numerous adverse effects, including effects on health, economy, and political sectors are evident. Therefore, mitigating efforts are necessitated. There are numerous challenges that face the war against air pollution. Nevertheless, stakeholders have attempted to curb air pollution in Beijing.
For instance, the Chinese government has put in place some measures to fight air pollution and environmental degradation. The government, for instance, has imposed regulations to fight industrial emissions. The use of the Two Control Zone (TCZ) was put in place to ensure that industries comply with emission regulations by adopting pollution control technology (Tanaka, 2015).
Bhatnagar (2014) indicates that China is attempting to deal with fuel issues. Implementation of more stringent standards on vehicle-related emissions by embracing technologies that enhance efficient fuel consumptions. The efforts are aimed at reducing particulate matter by 80% and Nitric Oxide emissions by 30%.
Liu, Zhou, and Li (2016) notes that Beijing authorities consider ventilation corridors a solution to the escalating air pollution. As such, plans are underway to construct system ventilation corridors to deal with the numerous adverse effects. However, Liu et al., (2016) have the implication that adopting the ventilation corridor technique will not be effective, especially during winter. They instead propose the adoption of alternative methods that are more comprehensive since the air pollution menace is somewhat complex. Thus, stakeholders in fighting the Beijing air pollution should deal with the sources of the pollution as opposed to dealing with the effects/symptoms.
Lü et al. (2015) suggest the establishment green spaces within and near the city of Beijing to reduce the intensity and concentration of pollutants. They further suggest that people with the need to do physical exercises should consider the green space to avoid the adverse health effects associated with physical activities in polluted air. Further, Lü et al. (2015) suggest the reduction in overdependence on vehicles. Vehicles in Beijing contribute a significant percentage of NO2. Therefore, reducing motorized traffic by talking walks and other low fuel consumption means of transportation will greatly reduce vehicle-related emissions.
Conclusion
The air pollution levels in Beijing are among the highest globally. Industrialization, urbanization, and the lack of proper mitigation frameworks are some of the causative agents. This paper has delved into the various effects of air pollution in Beijing.
First, air pollution in Beijing is adversely affecting the health of the city dwellers and people from the entire region. Diseases such as asthma, lung cancer, influenza, and obesity have been associated with the air pollution in Beijing. Consequently, air pollution in Beijing is a major cause of deaths in the city.
Second, numerous economic losses result from the high levels of pollution in Beijing. The cancellations and delays of economic activities due to air pollution have huge economic implications. Moreover, the costs incurred in dealing with the effects of air pollution increases the Beijing’s economic burden. In addition, economic losses are realized due to the reducing numbers of tourists.
Third, air pollution affects outdoor physical activities. As such, the Chinese traditional physical activities in Beijing are hampered and, therefore, a vital aspect of the Chinese lifestyle is affected.
Fourth, socio-political effects are evident in Beijing where the public are protesting against the rising air pollution levels and their associated health effects.
Lastly, air pollution in Beijing is leading to urban-rural migration where some people are moving from Beijing to the rural China.
Recommendations
The China’s government should deal with air pollution by addressing the causes. Stringent laws should be put in place and implemented.
More research should be carried out to investigate more effects of air pollution. The public should also be sensitized about the adverse effects
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