Category: Pollution

Paper Topic

The topic of pollution prevention in manufacturing industries using technology is familiar. It is notable that I have a critical understanding of the topic in relation to the emergence of technology and different methods used to minimize waste emission.

I also understand that pollution prevention emerged from the need to protect the environment from degradation and that appropriate regulations require manufacturers to put in place measures to prevent the release of dangerous emissions.

The notable thing I would like to learn on this topic entails the latest innovative technology with the ability to control pollution through a multidimensional approach. This area of the topic is interesting because it will enable me to gain crucial knowledge regarding the recent developments in the field.

I was interested in this topic because of its uniqueness and the challenge in presents in researching the topic I would like to learn about. Furthermore, it presents an opportunity to undertake research aimed at establishing whether or not complete pollution prevention that ensures a clean environment is attainable.

The topic has a correlation with trends in the industry, particularly in relation to escalating environmental degradation. It is notable that pollution from manufacturing companies has been associated with the increasing cases of environmental degradation. The research established that pollution prevention efforts implemented through the application of technology are not entirely efficient.

The initial thoughts about this topic are that pollution prevention initiatives should ensure environmental health. However, technology has not been able to provide complete protection of the environment against emissions. It is notable that machine errors could reduce the efficiency of the technologies. Furthermore, human error may affect the effectiveness of technology used in preventing pollution.

Introduction

Pollution prevention in industries remains a challenging experience for manufacturers and different industries employ suitable technological methods to handle specific sources and types of pollutants. The pollution prevention methods eliminate pollutants and effluents before wastes are released into the environment. However, the technology cannot provide 100% efficiency, which makes the environment to contain certain aspects of wastes.

Background

The application of advanced technology in industrial pollution prevention emerged in 1980s through to 1990s after engineers and scientists started developing expertise for waste minimization, source reduction, and clean production (Mulholland & Dyer, 2009).

The methodology for manufacturing emissions minimization has continued to expand and more companies are adopting technologies, which are highly appropriate to their strategies.

Methods

The methodology of waste generation minimization employed by diverse manufacturers aims at ensuring complete elimination of emissions. Manufacturers also consider economic aspects of pollution prevention methods (Mulholland & Dyer, 2009). This guide manufacturer to adopt appropriate technologies for source pollution prevention, waste treatment, particulate control, and solid waste control approaches.

Results

The research indicates that different manufacturers undertake pollution measures in their industries in order to ensure the attainment of clean environment (Mulholland & Dyer, 2009).

The methodology employed by manufacturers depends on the costs involved in the pollution prevention strategies. In addition, the application of technological approaches is not likely to realize complete prevention of pollution because of errors associated with machines.

Conclusion

This research establishes that pollution prevention is a critical component of manufacturing activities for companies. The application of technology in industrial waste minimization started in 1980s through to 1990s and has evolved over the years to the present advanced expertise. The paper argues that complete pollution prevention in manufacturing industries is not possible.

Reference

Mulholland, K. L., & Dyer, J. A. (2009). Pollution prevention: Methodology, technologies, and practices. New York, NY: American Institute of Chemical Engineers.

Introduction

Industrial production is one of the major drivers of economic growth in the contemporary society. However, manufacturing activities often cause serious environmental pollution. This mainly occurs due to the use of fossil fuels, non-biodegradable raw materials, and toxic chemicals in various manufacturing industries.

In order to protect the environment, manufacturers have focused on developing technologies that help them to eliminate pollutants and effluents in their wastes before discharging them into the ambient environment. Nonetheless, the persistent increase in pollution implies that manufacturers are yet to find perfect solutions to environmental pollution.

This paper analyzes the effectiveness of the techniques used by manufacturing industries to prevent pollution. Based on the analysis, conclusions will be made concerning the possibility of having 100% clean air, water, and soil in a highly technological society.

Background

According to EPA (2013), manufacturing sector is the third largest source of air pollution as shown in figure 1. The industry causes air pollution through emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and sulfur oxide. It also leads to water and soil pollution through discharge of toxic effluents into water bodies and communal land.

Owing to the increase in public outcry concerning the negative effects of environmental degradation, manufacturing firms have focused on preventing pollution by treating their wastes at the factory level. This involves using technologies that remove pollutants in wastewater or toxic substances in gasses that are emitted into the atmosphere.

In developed countries, manufacturers are concentrating on using “clean production methods, rather than creating pollution and then trying to clean it”. The rationale of using this strategy is that it is likely to reduce pollution at a low cost.

Figure 1: Sources of Greenhouse Gas Emission in the USA

Given the differences in complexity and nature of various manufacturing processes, the techniques used to prevent pollution vary from industry to industry. Nonetheless, the techniques can be categorized into four groups namely, product reformulation, process modification, equipment redesign, and resource recovery.

Product reformulation involves using safe raw materials to manufacture products that are associated with little or no pollution. This facilitates resource recovery, which focuses on recycling wastes.

Concisely, safe raw materials usually produce wastes that can be used for other industrial applications, thereby eliminating pollution. Process modification involves changing production techniques in order to reduce pollution. Similarly, equipment redesign involves modification of the apparatus used in production in order to improve their efficiency, which in turn reduces pollution.

Methods

The effectiveness of the pollution prevention techniques outlined in the foregoing paragraph will be analyzed by reviewing the extant literature. In particular, the review will focus on the literature on the methods that are used in various manufacturing industries to reduce pollution. The sources of the information that will be analyzed include textbooks, journal articles, and websites of environmental agencies.

Results

Effectiveness of Techniques for Controlling Pollution

The techniques used in various manufacturing industries to control pollution have varying success. Product reformulation is considered as one of the best methods of eliminating pollutants at their source since it discourages the use of raw materials that cause pollution. This technique works well in industries in which unsafe raw materials can be substituted easily with clean feedstock.

For instance, manufacturers in the electronics industry have developed printers that use UV-curable ink rather than solvent-based ink. Consequently, they have been able to reduce the amount of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) produced by printers by nearly half. This is a remarkable improvement because VOCs often cause air pollution due to their low boiling point.

In the pharmaceutical industry, manufacturers have shifted from the use of solvent-based to water-based coating materials to manufacture tablets. This has led to the elimination of approximately 24 tons of greenhouse gases that had to be emitted annually in order to produce tablets that are coated with solvent-based materials.

Despite its effectiveness, product reformulation is often very difficult. This is because some raw materials have no substitutes. For instance, copper and aluminum are the best materials for manufacturing electric cables.

However, producing them usually leads to large-scale emission of dust and greenhouse gases, as well as, acidic chemicals into water bodies. In some cases, the substitute feedstock may not work well, thereby lowering the quality of the final product.

Process modification is normally used when pollutants cannot be eliminated at source by substituting raw materials. In this case, manufacturers focus on eliminating pollutants during the production process. This can be achieved by either using production techniques that produce little pollutants or treating wastes before discharging them into the environment.

In this regard, manufacturers use technologies such as activated carbon and bio-filtration to eliminate toxic substances in the gases that they emit into the atmosphere. Activated carbon is very effective in preventing air pollution since it absorbs the pollutants in gasses.

Bio-filtration, on the other hand, uses microorganisms to dissolve pollutants in gasses. The disadvantage of this technique is that a bio-filtration system needs a large space in order to function effectively.

The main challenge in eliminating pollutants in the process of manufacturing goods is high costs. Research shows that changing from unsafe to safe production processes often involves high costs in the short-run. According to Kolstad (2011, p. 305), the high costs can be recovered in the long-term as the cost of cleaning up pollution reduces.

However, some firms might not be able to access the funds that are required to adopt clean production techniques. Consequently, they will continue to pollute the environment. Another challenge is that some pollutants cannot be eliminated during the production process.

For example, acid mine drainage often contaminates ground water. However, it can hardly be prevented because it often persists even after mining activities have been stopped in an area.

Equipment redesign is also a technique for eliminating pollutants in the process of manufacturing various goods. Firms that use this technique often focus on replacing or repairing old equipment so that they can reduce energy consumption or waste production. Manufacturers also modify existing equipment by fitting them with gadgets that detect and eliminate pollutants.

For instance, catalytic oxidizers are often used in incinerators to eliminate toxic pollutants as shown in figure 2. According to Easton (2008, p. 317), equipment redesign can only minimize pollution rather than eliminating it. This is because equipment such as filters might not be able to remove all pollutants in gasses or wastewater.

Moreover, redesigning equipment can be very expensive, especially, if it involves a complete overhaul of the production plant. Consequently, most firms opt to continue using their inefficient equipment, thereby increasing pollution.

Finally, resource recovery is used to eliminate wastes and pollutants at the end of the production process. In this regard, wastes are used as feedstock for producing different products.

This technique works well in paper and plastic industries in which nearly 100% of wastes are recycled or used to produce new products. However, it is apparent that not all wastes can be recycled. Consequently, non-recyclable wastes will continue to pollute the environment.

Figure 2: Ammonia Abatement System that Uses Catalytic Oxidizers

Feasibility of Ensuring 100% Clean Air, Water, and Soil

The discussion in the foregoing paragraphs shows that the existing techniques for preventing pollution are not perfect. Consequently, manufacturers will have to adopt several techniques to eliminate pollution. However, adopting several techniques will increase the cost of preventing pollution at the firm level. Consequently, production costs will rise, thereby lowering the profits of manufacturing firms.

In this regard, manufacturers are likely to respond in two ways. First, some firms will opt to pollute the environment and pay the damage costs such as emission taxes. This is likely to happen if the damage costs are less than the cost of investing in technologies for controlling pollution. In countries with poor enforcement of environmental laws, no firm will have the incentive to invest in technologies for controlling pollution.

Second, firms that are not able to ensure that their wastes are 100% free of pollutants will focus on providing incorrect data concerning their emission levels in order to avoid fines. In this case, the cost of monitoring the level of pollution will be very high. Consequently, it will be very difficult to ensure 100% clean air, water, and soil.

According to Easton (2008, p. 172), having an environment that is 100% free of pollution is not possible because ecological problems transcend national boundaries. For instance, air and water pollutants are usually carried by wind and moving water respectively from one country to another. Thus, the environment will still be polluted as long as other countries fail to minimize pollution.

This problem is exacerbated by the fact that different countries have varying levels of acceptable emission standards. Moreover, some countries hardly enforce environmental laws, thereby increasing the risk of pollution in neighboring countries.

Conclusion

The aim of this paper was to analyze the effectiveness of the techniques that are used by manufacturing industries to eliminate pollution. The results show that most techniques cannot eliminate all pollutants in wastes that are discharged into the environment. Additionally, adopting the techniques is often difficult due to financial constraints. This means that it is impossible to have 100% clean air, water, and soil.

In this regard, reducing pollution to an acceptable standard seems to be the most practical objective. Concisely, the acceptable level of pollution should be Pareto-efficient so that all polluters can have an incentive to adhere to it. Additionally, research should be conducted to improve the effectiveness of existing techniques for controlling pollution and to reduce the cost of adopting them.

References

Easton, T. (2008). Environmental Studies. New York: McGraw-Hill.

EPA. (2013). National Greenhouse Gas Emissions Data. Retrieved from https://www.epa.gov/

Klassen, R. (2000). Exploring the Linkage between Investment in Manufacturing and Environmental Technologies. International Journal of Operations and Production Management 20(2) , 127-147.

Kolstad, C. (2011). Environmental Economics. London: Oxford University Press.

Lober, D. (2000). Pollution Prevention as Corporate Entrepreneurship. Journal of Organizational Change Management 11(1), 26-37.

Munguia, N., Zavala, A., & Velazquez, L. (2010). Identifying Pollution Prevention Opportunities in the Mexican Auto Refinishing Industry. International Journal of Environmental Quality Management 21(3), 324-335.

Parikh, J., Balsaraf, V., & Dwivedi, P. (2010). Environmental Studies. New York: John Wiley and Sons.

Schnelle, K., & Brown, C. (2001). Air Pollution Control Technology Handbook. London: Palgrave.

Introduction

New York City is an important business center in the world and provides leadership in various financial matters. Because of its uniqueness, the city is popular among tourists from all parts of the world. Despite being such a great city, however, New York just like other cities in the United States, faces numerous environmental challenges including air pollution, waste management, traffic, and noise. This paper discusses pertinent issues regarding air pollution in New York City.

Similar to other major cities in the world, New York is working hard to come up with lasting solutions to its air pollution problems. Lately, the city has been involved in sensitization programs to encourage residents to embrace the use of hybrid buses as well as city vehicles as a means of reducing emissions that pollute the air. This notwithstanding, the problem of air pollution still persists in New York.

Notably, the air pollution problem has been blamed for premature deaths of scores of people in New York. Usually, air pollution occurs when the sun meets with emissions from vehicles, factories, and other activities that involve the burning of fuel. As a result of the pollution, many New Yorkers are subjected to asthma and cancer besides other health challenges. Arguably, air pollution accounts for close to 6 percent of the deaths in New York every year.

Strategies for Promoting Positive Environmental Behavior in New York City

To a large extent, conservation programs in New York are designed to ensure that people turn away from activities that negatively affect the environment and pollute the air. As a result, organizations that care about the environment spend a considerable amount of time researching and discussing strategies that promote positive behavior (Monroe (2003).

Over the years, various strategies have been used to promote positive behavior in order to protect the environment. While some people have targeted specific groups with their campaign messages, others provide the target group with different types of information. In addition, some organizations have used different approaches to ensure that individuals and organizations are committed to saving the environment.

In its endeavors to promote positive behavior toward the environment, New York City has used specific messages to target specific groups. The city has also used various techniques to ensure that people are committed to protecting the environment. For success to be realized, however, the city has to ensure that the public is fully involved in efforts to save the environment. The two strategies are discussed in the following sections.

Directing Specific Messages to the Audiences in New York City

Using this approach, New York undertakes research in order to develop messages that are likely to ensure that residents do not pollute the air. The ultimate goal is to motivate New York residents toward desired objectives. Ordinarily, researchers take time to understand values and perceptions that compel the target audience to act in a certain way. In most cases, the values and perceptions of the target group are different from those of organizers (Hinds & Sparks, 2008).

For example, while organizers in New York may have a strong conviction about the use of bicycles or public transport rather than private cars while commuting to work, the target audience may have a different opinion altogether. Although the use of bicycles or public transport reduces emissions into the atmosphere, it is imperative for organizers to focus on the perception of New Yorkers. Campaign organizers should thus conduct extensive research to understand the values and perceptions of New Yorkers before channeling out any messages.

Through their messages, campaign organizers must constantly remind New York residents about the negative consequences of polluting the air. At the same time, it is important to enlighten New Yorkers on the benefits of avoiding actions that are unfriendly to the environment.

Building Commitment among Residents in New York City

Campaign organizers may also turn to the use of activities that persuade New York residents to be committed to conserving the environment. Using appropriate activities, organizers may be able to convince New Yorkers to behave responsibly toward the environment.

In general, people tend to respond positively to what leaders do and not necessarily what they say (Hinds & Sparks, 2008). It thus depends on organizers to back their words with actions. Saying one thing and doing another can be very discouraging and a clear demonstration of a lack of integrity among campaigners.

Arguably, it is common for people to ignore important warnings regarding environmental conservation because of beliefs that may be in conflict with what they are asked to do. In some cases, organizers may choose to use incentives in order to get rid of irresponsible behavior and motivate New Yorkers to be accountable for their actions.

Effect of Positive and Negative Consequences on Pro-Environmental Behavior

Both positive and negative consequences have a great impact on pro-environmental behavior. Normally, educating people about the positive consequences of pro-environmental behavior helps them to see the benefits of conserving the environment and motivates them to behave responsibly (Kollmus & Agyeman, 2002).

There are great rewards that accompany pro-environmental behavior. Among others, New York residents will be able to enjoy the benefits of a cool environment, and the effects of global warming will be drastically reduced. Similarly, negative behavior will affect the health of New Yorkers and enlightening them about the negative consequences will make them realize the importance of behaving appropriately.

Impact of Technological Advancements on the Environment in New York

Technological advancements have both positive and negative impacts on New York City. To a large extent, however, advancements in technology have been blamed for mass destruction of the environment witnessed in New York and many other parts of the world (Monroe, 2003). Industrial operations in New York, for example, are associated with the emission of heavy gases that pollute the air.

This is coupled with the fact that industrialization leads to the eradication of natural features so as to create space for industrial activities or provide the necessary raw materials. Natural features such as forests and mountains are thus made to disappear in the process.

One positive impact of technological advancements on the environment in New York is the ability to provide communication options that are friendly to the environment. While New Yorkers had to depend so much on print technology to communicate in the olden days, this has changed since the onset of the Internet. Through the Internet, New York residents are able to communicate and share information without using paper. Certainly, this minimizes the need to cut down trees for manufacturing paper.

The negative impact of technological advancements on New York City can be summed up under what is today commonly known as global warming. Global warming is the result of heavy industrial activities and irresponsible human behavior. A good example is what has happened to weather patterns in New York and other places in the world.

While it was easy for farmers to predict the weather before, it is now almost impossible all because of global warming and climate change. Although technology may be used to help predict weather patterns, it has generally not worked well in most places across the world.

Influence of Environmental Policies in New York

Environmental policies play a big role in ensuring that citizens respect the environment and avoid activities that may have a negative impact. Generally, having strict environmental regulations compels individuals as well as organizations to be careful about what they do (Schulz, 2001).

Through stringent environmental policies, New York has been able to control the behavior of its residents and to deal with the menace of air pollution. However, environmental policies in New York also affect other areas such as international relationships and cross border business engagements.

Conclusion

Clearly, air pollution in New York is a serious concern with serious negative consequences. Problems associated with air pollution include global warming, diseases, and many others. Stakeholders in New York must thus actively engage with New Yorkers and provide guidelines on environmental conservation.

In order to get New Yorkers to respond positively, however, it is necessary for campaigners to lead by example. As explained in this paper, people are impacted more by the actions of their leaders and not by what the leaders say. Consequently, leaders in New York must accompany what they say by actions. Commitment by New York leaders to make a difference is what will lead to greater transformation.

References

Hinds, J. & Sparks, P. (2008). Engaging with the Natural Environment: The Role of Affective Connection and Identity. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 28(2), 109 – 120.

Kollmus, A. & Agyeman, J. (2002). Mind the Gap: Why do People Act Environmentally and what are the Barriers to Pro-environmental Behavior? Environmental Education Research, 8(3), 239 – 260.

Monroe, M. C. (2003). Two Avenues for Encouraging Conservation Behaviors. Human Ecology Review, 10(2), 113 – 125.

Schulz, P. W. (2001). The Structure of Environmental Concern: Concern for Self, other People, and the Biosphere. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 21(4), 327 – 339.

Pollution became an issue quite a while ago, yet in the XXI century, it has suddenly started getting attention again, mostly because its effects, launched in 1990s, have finally started taking their toll on the nature.

While the effects of pollution have finally become tangible and its has turned obvious that pollution leads to even faster process of global warming (van Staden & Musko, 2010), the means to prevent pollution have not been designed yet.

Devoted to the issue of pollution, Pollution prevention in small and medium-sized enterprises, the article by de Brujin and Hofman (de Brujin & Hofman, 2001) discusses the means to reduce the pollution effects that small and medium enterprises (SME) have on the environment. Although it has been twelve years since the article was issued, it still remains relevant for the modern enterprises in their attempts to reduce the rates of pollution.

As it can be easily deduced, the article in question deals with the issue of pollution caused by SME and discusses the ways in which the rates of pollution caused by SME can be brought down. At the first glance, the authors of the article do not go any further than evaluating the effects that SME have on nature.

On a second thought, however, one might notice that de Brujin and Hofman also provide a short overview of the 2001 SME policies towards the disposal of toxic and non-organic waste. However, the main focus of the article is split between two major issues, i.e., the effects that partnership networks have on promoting prevention of pollution in SME (de Brujin & Hofman, 2001, 72).

The second issue concerns the roles of partners within the given networks (de Brujin & Hofman, 2001, 72). Since the article deals with SME, it clearly targets the owners of small and medium-sized companies.

The positive aspect of the given article is its intent. Aiming at making the world a better place, it touches upon one of the major issues of the XXI century. Moreover, the article deals with the sources of pollution that cause the most harm. It is also important that de Brujin and Hofman consider real-life case studies.

However, the downside of the article is the dated information. The world has developed too much to implement Hart’s framework. Instead, new method of solving the old problem must be provided.

It is clear nowadays that developing a partnership network opens a pool of opportunities for companies to avoid environment contamination. Therefore, at present, it is recommended to discuss the effectiveness of the approaches implemented by different companies rather than offering theoretical implications.

Thus, it can be concluded that de Brujin and Hofman’s article did not age well. With the recent surge in technological advances and the latest innovations and discoveries in the sphere of environment protection, ozone layer holes, global warming effects, ice caps melting, etc., the information in the article seems rather dated.

However, the authors were in good intent to provide an overview of the then environmental situation and give account of the best means to fight pollution. Although the ideas discussed in the article have been talked over many times by now, it is still an interesting perspective on the ways in which industry can coexist with nature.

Reference List

De Brujin, T. J. N. M. & Hofman, P. S. (2001). Pollution prevention in small and medium-sized enterprises. The Netherlands: University of Twente.

Van Staden, M. & Musko, F. (2010). Local governments and climate change: Sustainable energy planning and implementation in small and medium sized communities. New York, NY: Springer.

Introduction

CO₂ transmits sunlight efficiently to earth but restricts and traps a portion of the infrared radiation bouncing back into space. If the balance between the CO₂ levels in the ocean and atmosphere is disturbed by interjecting increasing amounts of CO₂, the oceans would continually absorb higher concentrations than it does naturally. The subsequent warming ocean waters are less effective in their ability to absorb CO₂ and when the oceans can no lonager keep pace with the intrusion of this naturally equalized cycle, then more CO₂ will remain in the atmosphere.

“Currently carbon dioxide is responsible for 57 percent of the global warming trend. Nitrogen oxides contribute most of the atmospheric contaminants” (Miller, 1990, p. 498). Increasing the amount of CO₂ in the atmosphere through human activity causes a warming of the Earth’s surface accelerating the greenhouse effect.

Main body

The rising levels of carbon dioxide (CO₂) in the atmosphere are becoming increasingly disconcerting. “The concentrations of CO₂ in the air around 1860 before the effects of industrialization were felt, is assumed to have been about 290 parts per million (ppm). In the hundred years and more since then, the concentration has increased by about 30 to 35 ppm that is by 10 percent” (Breuer, 1980, p. 67). The major contributors to CO₂, one of the main pollutants in the atmosphere, are the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation.

Eighty percent of the world’s population accounts for just 35 percent of CO₂ emissions while the United States and Soviet Union combined are responsible for generating half. Worldwide, “carbon dioxide emissions are increasing by four percent a year” (Miller, 1990, p. 450). Motor vehicles are a major cause of air pollution as is fuel burned for the heating of homes and powering industry and toxins emitted from stacks at coal-burning power plants. “Vehicles produce high levels of carbon monoxides (CO) and a major source of hydrocarbons (HC) and nitrogen oxides (NOx), whereas, fuel combustion in stationary sources is the dominant source of sulfur dioxide (SO₂)” (Breuer, 1980, p. 70).

Smog, a contraction of the words smoke and fog, is a chemical air pollutant that contributes to the greenhouse effect and is a significant health hazard to those in U.S. cities that contain numerous vehicles and are located in warm, dry climates as it traps in these dangerous chemicals. The effects of air pollution are far-reaching and cannot be escaped by staying inside the home as indoor air pollution can be harmful, caused by such things as poor ventilation, mold and microbe-harboring air conditioning systems and ducts. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) reports that “toxic chemicals found in the air of almost every American home are three times more likely to cause some type of cancer than outdoor air pollutants” (Miller, 1990, p. 488).

While the world awaits the inevitable far-reaching effects associated with greenhouse gas emissions, people’s lungs are being poisoned as the plants they depend on for near-term survival are being destroyed. “In the Midwestern United States crop losses of wheat, corn, soybeans, and peanuts from damage by ozone and acid deposition amount to about $5 billion a year” (Miller, 1990, p. 498). Pollutants such as sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides cause immediate and irreparable damage to the leaf pores of plants and trees. Persistent exposure of leaves to air pollutants breaks down the waxy coating which normally acts to prevent too much water loss and helps protects the leaves from diseases, pests, drought and frost.

Insects such as the bark beetle, currently killing off large portions of the northern pine forests, benefit tremendously from the increased CO2 levels as they are typically only capable of infesting weakened trees. “Bark beetle populations often remain at low densities for long periods of time, during which they colonize only highly stressed trees. Droughts, windstorms, and other environmental disturbances, however, can suddenly increase the availability of weakened hosts, causing beetle populations to rise dramatically” (Raffa & Barryman, 1987: 236). Overpopulation of beneficial or slightly damaging herbivorous creatures such as these can lead to highly destructive behaviors if not kept in check.

Conclusion

It is clear that something needs to be done about the chemicals we, as a species, are dumping into the air we depend on for life. If the population of the planet were to immediately discontinue polluting the air with carbon dioxide emissions, climate changes would still continue long into the future. This is “because of the long lifetimes of carbon dioxide (centuries) and other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and because of the thermal inertia of the oceans. The oceans overturn very slowly and take hundreds of years to adjust fully to changes, so that manifestations of changes that have already occurred are not yet fully seen” (Trenberth 1997).

There are, fortunately, several possibilities by which we might address the issue. Increased attention and support for alternative renewable energy sources is an important first step. Reducing the number of combustion engines on the roads as well as the extent of power supply plants dumping pollutants into the air as more and more energy-producing houses feed into the grids rather than pull from them would all contribute toward a better, brighter, cleaner tomorrow.

Works Cited

Breuer, Georg. Air in Danger: Ecological Perspectives of the Atmosphere. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1980.

Miller, G. Tyler. Living in the Environment: An Introduction to Environmental Science. Belmont: Wadsworth, 1990.

Raffa, Kenneth F. & Berryman, Alan A. “Interacting Selective Pressures in Conifer-Bark Beetle Systems: A Basis for Reciprocal Adaptations?” The American Naturalist. Vol. 129, N. 2, (1987), pp. 234-262.

Trenberth, Kevin E. “Global Warming: It’s Happening.” National Center for Atmospheric Research. (1997). Web.

Introduction

Many illnesses that are widespread in the United States can be explained by environmental problems caused by various human activities (Suwanwaiphatthana, Ruangdej, & Turner-Henson 2010, p. 26). Researchers focus on the effects of air pollution on children’s health. For instance, much attention should be paid to different respiratory diseases such as asthma or bronchitis. It is possible to argue that this age group is more exposed to the negative impacts of air pollution because they spend more time outdoors.

Furthermore, they are more vulnerable because their organs such as lungs are still developing (Natural Resources Defense Council 1997). Overall, there is no single solution to this problem because it is necessary to introduce different regulations and interventions that can reduce the emissions of harmful substances into the air. Moreover, people should become more informed about the impacts of air pollution on children’s health.

The first section of this report will provide quantitative data illustrating that the quality of air in many parts of America is considerably impaired. The second part will highlight various causes of this problem such as vehicle emissions, the extensive use of fossil fuels, and the industrial activities of other countries. Furthermore, this report will demonstrate how this issue affects the health of many American children. The fourth section will illustrate various approaches that can reduce the dangerous effects of air pollution. Finally, this paper will provide an evaluation of possible solutions.

Problem

During the last four decades, the government has adopted many regulations and laws that could reduce the emissions of harmful substances. Some of them have been effective because there have been considerable reductions in the emission of such substances like sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, lead, particulate matter, and so forth (Environmental Protection Agency 2010, p. 6). For instance, lead pollution was reduced by more than 100 percent during the period between 1990 and 2010 (Environmental Protection Agency 2010, p. 6).

These outcomes can also be explained by the profound transformation of the American economy during the last three decades. Many American companies decided to outsource their manufacturing activities to other countries such as China, India, or Taiwan. They could do so due to the elimination of trade barriers (Sutter 2012). Nevertheless, the problem of air pollution remains very acute. The quality of the air varies dramatically across the United States.

For example, one can mention the differences between urban and rural parts of the country. Metropolitan areas are usually more influenced by environmental problems, especially air pollution. Additionally, there are some states that are much more polluted. In particular, it is critical to consider metropolitan areas in California. In these parts of the country, the level of air pollution is much higher. Overall, more than 60 percent of the American population lives in the areas in which the quality of the air does not meet the federal standards (Sethi 2013). More than 138 million people including children live in the communities affected by the particle or ozone pollution (American Lung Association 2015, p. 26). Thus, they are more exposed to various health risks such as asthma (Suwanwaiphatthana, Ruangdej, & Turner-Henson 2010, p. 26).

Causes

Overall, there are several factors that contribute to air pollution. One of them is the growing number of vehicles owned by American citizens. There were 424 cars per 1000 people in 2010 (Garrett 2014, p. 1094). These vehicles can emit such substances as carbon monoxide, particulate matter, and various precursors of ozone (Natural Resources Defense Council 1997). Certainly, there have been various improvements in the fuel efficiency of modern vehicles.

Moreover, many consumers want to purchase hybrid cars. Nevertheless, the growing number of vehicles in the United States contributes to air pollution. This problem is particularly acute in large urban areas in which the concentration of automobiles is much higher. Additionally, the pollution of the atmosphere is caused by the extensive use of fossil fuels (American Lung Association 2015, p. 31). Currently, American society has not made the most widespread use of renewable energy technologies. The environment of the United States is also affected by industrial activities in Asian countries, especially China. In this case, much attention should be paid to the black carbon pollution that influences the Pacific coast (Sutter 2012, p. 98).

Effects

It is possible to identify several dangerous effects of air pollution. Medical workers and scholars focus on the needs of children whose health is more susceptible to different respiratory diseases. Unlike adults, they have narrower airways; moreover, their lungs are still developing (Natural Resources Defense Council 1997). They are usually more responsive to pollutants in the air, and the needs of this age group should be examined in greater detail. As a rule, air pollution exacerbates the effects of many respiratory diseases such as asthma (Suwanwaiphatthana, Ruangdej, & Turner-Henson 2010, p. 26). These children are more exposed to various threats if they live in large urban areas. They are adversely affected by particulate matter that can be found in the air.

Furthermore, researchers focus on the dangerous effects of nitrogen dioxide that increases the risk of bronchitis and pneumonia (Suwanwaiphatthana, Ruangdej, & Turner-Henson 2010, p. 26). Moreover, air pollution leads to various respiratory allergies that considerably impair the lives of children (Parker, Akinbami, & Woodruff 2009, p. 140). For example, they often have to stay away from school for a long time. Moreover, prenatal exposure to such pollutants as particulate matter and black carbon makes people more susceptible to hypertension.

It is also necessary to consider such a risk as to the death of infants (Sow 2006). Furthermore, many pregnancy problems are associated with exposure to harmful substances polluting the air. Researchers also note that the presence of lead in the air can result in the neurological illnesses of children (Suwanwaiphatthana, Ruangdej, & Turner-Henson 2010, p. 26). Finally, children, who are continuously exposed to the polluted air, are more likely to experience fatigue (Suwanwaiphatthana, Ruangdej, & Turner-Henson 2010, p. 29).

Certainly, researchers note that they cannot always prove “causal” relations between air pollution and various illnesses (Schwartz 2004, p. 1037). Nevertheless, there is a high correlation between these phenomena. Children living in impoverished communities are more likely to suffer from the effects of environmental pollution. The problem is that they cannot get timely access to health care. Moreover, their families can be affected by such issues as crime, poverty, drug abuse, or alcoholism.

Solution

There are several approaches that can be useful for minimizing the impacts of this problem. In this case, a single method may not yield positive results. Possible recommendations can be divided into two groups. Some of them should be considered by policy-makers and regulating agencies while others will be intended for healthcare professionals.

The society should make more extensive use of renewable energy technologies that are critical for reducing the emission of dangerous pollutants (Miller & Spoolman 2011, p. 408). For instance, this approach is necessary for finding a substitute for fossil fuels that contribute to the pollution of the air. The task of policy-makers is to provide additional incentives for using these technologies (Foster, Gutierrez, & Kumar 2009).

For example, the government should motivate consumers to buy renewable energy technologies such as solar panels. Moreover, citizens should be encouraged to purchase hybrid cars. This goal can be attained by lowering taxes paid by the companies that manufacture such products. Scholars insist on the creation of mechanisms that keep the prices “artificially low” to increase the popularity of such technologies (Miller & Spoolman 2011, p. 430).

The main effect of such interventions is that individuals and families will have more opportunities for buying eco-friendly products. As a result, urban communities will be less exposed to air pollution caused by vehicles. Researchers also argue that the government should “phase out” subsidies offered to industries that rely on fossil fuels (Miller & Spoolman 2011, p. 430). Furthermore, policy-makers should adopt higher environmental standards that should be met by manufacturing companies (Miller & Spoolman 2011, p. 486).

For instance, the government can set higher fuel-efficiency standards for the automotive industry. This initiative can contribute to the reduction of emissions produced by vehicles. Companies will be more willing to adopt these standards if there are “voluntary pollution reduction programs” that encourage businesses to embrace better environmental policies (Foster, Gutierrez, & Kumar 2009, p. 192). Moreover, environmental agencies should concentrate on monitoring the quality of the air in different parts of the United States. Apart from that, it is vital to investigate every case of industrial air pollution because this practice can lead to better environmental protection of at-risk neighborhoods.

Medical workers will also need to take an active part in this program. They should educate parents about the dangerous effects of air pollution on the health of children (Suwanwaiphatthana, Ruangdej, & Turner-Henson 2010).

These educational activities will change people’s views on the importance of environmental safety. Moreover, they will be more willing to use eco-friendly technologies. Healthcare providers should urge parents to seek medical assistance as soon as possible if they notice the signs of respiratory illnesses (Suwanwaiphatthana, Ruangdej, & Turner-Henson 2010). Thus, many children will receive timely treatment. Apart from that, these professionals should implement outreach programs to monitor the health of people living in communities affected by poverty. Thus, they will give medical assistance to children whose parents may struggle with such problems as alcohol abuse or drug addiction.

Overall, the new policies are likely to influence various stakeholders. In particular, separate individuals and their families may be less exposed to the impacts of environmental problems. Furthermore, society will become more aware of the need to improve the quality of the air. Local and federal governments will have to work together to create more efficient policies.

Evaluation of the solution

The proposed approaches are beneficial because they can remove a broad range of factors that contribute to the pollution of the air. They can address such problems as unsafe environmental practices, the use of fossil fuels, and lack of parental awareness about the dangerous effects of air pollution. Admittedly, these methods cannot yield rapid improvements. Nevertheless, this strategy can bring tangible improvements in the long term. The main limitation of the new policies is that they may provoke the resistance of many stakeholders. Leading executives of companies may argue that new environmental standards will undermine their operations (Miller & Spoolman 2011).

For instance, these enterprises may need to incur considerable costs to adopt new methods of production. Thus, they may oppose new regulations. It is one of the difficulties that should be anticipated. However, the government can cope with this problem by providing incentives to these enterprises. For instance, policy-makers should consider the need to lower taxes. This step is necessary for finding a compromise between the needs of businesses and the new environmental policies of the state. The primary task is to reconcile potential conflicts of interest. Thus, it is vital to involve different stakeholders in the discussion and evaluation of new practices.

Conclusion

Overall, this discussion indicates that air pollution poses considerable challenges because it profoundly influences the health of children. As it has been said before, the presence of dangerous substances in the air complicates many respiratory diseases (Suwanwaiphatthana, Ruangdej, & Turner-Henson 2010). Additionally, there are various pollutants that can increase the risk of allergies (Parker, Akinbami, & Woodruff 2009). Apart from that, in some cases, air pollution can permanently damage the development of a child, especially if it results in neurological impairments. Thus, there is a need for a comprehensive solution that can improve the quality of air in the United States.

It is necessary to focus on the adoption of renewable energy technologies (Miller & Spoolman 2011). The government should set and enforce higher environmental standards. It is critical to focus on the problems faced by communities in which the level of pollution is considerably higher. This intervention requires the cooperation of various stakeholders such as legislators, environmental agencies, medical workers, and businesses. Their task is to develop the most optimal policies that will be implemented at different levels. The proposed solution will change the practices of legislators, medical workers, and enterprises because they will need to adopt a more responsible attitude towards the protection of the environment.

References

American Lung Association 2015, State of the Air. Web.

Environmental Protection Agency 2010, Our Nation’s Air. Web.

Foster, A, Gutierrez, E & Kumar, N 2009, ‘Voluntary Compliance, Pollution Levels, and Infant Mortality in Mexico’, American Economic Review, vol. 99, no. 2, pp.191-197.

Garrett, M 2014, Encyclopedia of Transportation: Social Science and Policy, SAGE Publications, New York.

Miller, G & Spoolman, G 2011, Living in the Environment: Principles, Connections, and Solutions, Cengage Learning, New York.

Natural Resources Defense Council 1997, Our Children at Risk. Web.

Parker, J, Akinbami, L & Woodruff, T 2009, ‘Air pollution and childhood respiratory allergies in the United States’, Environmental Health Perspectives, vol. 117, no. 1, pp. 140-147.

Schwartz, J 2004, ‘Air Pollution and Children’s Health’, Pediatrics, vol. 113, no. 3, pp. 1037 -1043.

Sethi, R 2013, Air pollution: Sources, Prevention and Health Effects. Nova Science Publishers, New York.

Sow, M 2006, The Effects of Air Pollution on Infant Health: An Empirical Evaluation of Georgia. Web.

Sutter, R 2012, Chinese Foreign Relations: Power and Policy since the Cold War, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, New York.

Suwanwaiphatthana, W, Ruangdej, K, & Turner-Henson, A 2010, ‘Outdoor Air Pollution and Children’s Health’, Pediatric Nursing, vol. 36, no. 1, pp. 25-32.

Stwertka, Eve, and Stwertka, Albert. Industrial Pollution: Poisoning Our Planet. New York. F. Watts, 1981.

The pollution of world’s environment with industrial wastes is highly intensified and according to the authors’ opinion the scientific approach is the most significant and useful tool for the purpose of quick resolving of this global problem. Scientific researches represent the role of filtering and recharging of wastes with their further accumulation and saving. Here the most important role play the technologies of the twenty-first century which take into account the experience and pros and cons regarding to previous attempts of making environment clean and clear.

Shen. Thomas T. Industrial pollution Prevention. Berlin. Springer, 1999.

This excerpt from the book shows the characteristic feature and interrelations of industrial pollution with health hazards in the work place. The most provoking factors concern the structural depiction of real pollution and a lack of objective information about it as well as for preventive methods. The example of China and its southern provinces are taken into account with prospects of toxic chemicals like phenol, toxic dust, carbon tetrachloride etc.

Newton, Irving, S. Industrial pollution. New York. Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., 1974.

The dangers of the pollution of definite large parts of the environment are discussed in the book. The aquatic area is reckoned and the way of further hard waste leakage is underlined with regards to increase of temperature and decrease of flora and fauna.

Wang, Lawrence K. Waste Treatment in the Process of Industries. London. CRC Press, 2005

This reference is dedicated towards the suffering points on biodiversity of kinds in the nature and the negative effects concerned with environmental pollutants. Statistical data outline a perpetually progressing increase of pollution and proportional lessening of plants and animals throughout the world. Species of various kinds under the impact of different pollutants, such as plants, chemical factories, nuclear plants, exhaust or burnt gases may get mutational sub characteristics.

Chereminisinoff, Nicholas P. Handbook of Pollution Prevention Practices. London. Cambridge University Press, 2000.

The reference underlines very harmful effects of chemicals extracted on the environment and a man, in particular. Such chemicals as Nitrogen Oxides are described as for their spread after being out within the area close to a center of pollution. The author provides a reader with several technologies for reduction of harmful effects of fuel and nitrogen dioxide, particularly. Among them are: reburning, staged combustion, flue gas recirculation etc.

United Nations. “State of the World Report.” New York. United Nations, 2005.

The report comprises the data from all over the world considering the security measures and vital necessity of control as of pollution. The standpoints estimate the health and nature effects and further measures for decrease and liquidation of existing major pollutants.

Collins, Jeremy. Air pollution. 2^nd ed. London. Clay’s Library of Health and Environment, 2002.

The survey of the author is dedicated concretely to the problem of air pollution with prospects on ozone augmentation and its structural and quantitative changes in the atmosphere due to greenhouse gases.

Guy P. B., Orlando, John, J., Geoffrey S. T., and National Center for Atmospheric Research (U.S.). “Atmospheric Chemistry and Global Change.” London, Oxford University Press, 1999.

The observation of the book is concerned with amounts of chemical dust and hard particles in the atmosphere and their volumes along with correlation. Special attention is grabbed on the point of future change of atmosphere content with its effect on living beings.

Lipták, Béla G. Environmental Engineers’ Handbook: Land pollution. Pensilavania. Chilton Book Co.,1974.

The information of land pollution and the theme of burial places all around the world, the prospects of possible leakage are reckoned and evaluated in terms of soil efficacy and productivity for future predicted increase of population.

Chow, Gregory C. China’s Economic Transformation. New York. Wiley-Blackwell, 2002.

The author tries to point out all amenities and benefits for a man living in post-industrial society due to industrial development and strategic design for China. The economic, financial, Medicare and other approaches help to investigate the real advantages of plant s’ working with a little bit of China’s future reconstruction of economy due to alternative ways for waste extraction.

Lund, H. F. Industrial Pollution Control. New York. McGraw-Hill, 1971.

The book is aimed at concrete ways of appropriate systems exploitation for air, land and water protection from pollution on the whole. The way of discussion in the survey takes into account the ideas of clean and safe environment.

Ways to save the environment

The main causes of environmental pollution are due to human activities or the occurrence of natural disasters. However, most people think that the government and other environmental organizations must salvage the deteriorating environment. On the contrary, there are different ways, which each individual can contribute to cut down if not wipeout environmental destruction.

Water is essential for human survival; however, the continuous misuse of water reduces its availability on the earth’s surface. To save water, most households should not leave taps open, use mops when cleaning the house, and use showers when bathing. Also, people should avoid spilling of oils and paints in water pipes as they end up on water surfaces polluting them hence unfit for human use.

Trees are an essential part of the environment because apart from being water catchment areas, they are a source of paper. Unfortunately, most people misuse paper-like not writing on both sides of it; therefore, proper use of paper saves trees hence the environment. Moreover, recycling materials like plastics, metals, tins, and cartridges among others ensures less pollution of the environment; regrettably, recycling of materials is not common technology.

Electricity is the most important source of energy in industries and homesteads; therefore, switching off electricity when not in use, use of cold showers, staircases, and use of energy-saving bulbs among others are the remedies to a deteriorating environment. Additionally, growing organic vegetables involves minimal use of chemicals like pesticides hence minimizing environmental pollution. Importantly, an increase in reforestation also curbs global warming as trees absorb carbon dioxide.

Finally, the use of biodegradable products curbs environmental pollution through chemicals and synthetic substances. Also good maintenance of automobiles like cars curbs the emission of harmful gases. Additionally, the use of compost pits is also essential to curb pollution. In conclusion, observation of all of the above remedies minimizes environmental pollution as one of the emerging environmental issues.

Reasons for the increased death of birds

Birds are among the important part of the ecosystem hence environmental balance. However, there has been a massive death of birds as experienced in different parts of the world. Although people are quick to point fingers at pollution, it is still a myth and mystery to different people. There are many reasons, which may cause the death of birds worldwide.

The abrupt change in environment temperature disrupts the normal functioning of birds. Global warming due to pollution increases the temperature to an extreme level hence this is intolerable by the birds leading to the massive deaths. Pollution of water bodies through massive oil spillage not only affects aquatic life but also birds. Additionally, the release of industrial chemicals into the water or air also leads to the death of birds. Also, the break out of infectious diseases leads to the massive death of birds. On the other hand, lack of proper medication elevates the problem as most birds succumb to the infections.

The increase in the population of different animals may also cause the death of birds. There is survival for the fittest as the animals’ scramble for food and other essential commodities. This leads to the extinction of some animals and birds hence massive death. Environmentalists also point to traumatic occurrences to be some of the causes of death of most animals and birds all over the world. However, there is no proper evidence on the contribution of natural disasters like lightning to the death of birds.

In summary, animals and birds keep the ecosystem in balance. However, an increase in the elimination of any species on earth’s surface leads to environmental imbalances. Unfortunately, pollution and natural disasters are among the main causes of the bird’s death in the world.

Introduction

Public utility is the infrastructure that provides and performs public service subjected to government regulation that covers energy, telecommunications, and water industries. Public utility commissions and regulating bodies oversee operations and performances of privately owned electric, natural gas, water, railroad, telecommunications, rail transit, and passenger transportation organizations.

According to the Public Utility Research Center (PURC), the growing consensus for the successful development of utility infrastructure depends primarily on the provision and adoption of proper public policies effectively implemented (2007). As such, regulatory apparatus must be in place to provide stability, protect consumers against abuse of service providers and political opportunists, as well as encourage service providers for efficient operations.

Policy on utilities is focused on regulating processes such as the introduction and facilitation of healthy competition, provision of incentives to best performers in the industry, as well as the involvement of stakeholders. This is considered normative work and describes the regulatory issues as market power, abuse or opportunism, as well as control on information.

This paper will try to focus on air pollution or excess carbon dioxide emission caused by the electricity industry, provide possible solutions to focus on nuclear power, and provide its advantages and disadvantages compared to coal-burning power plants. Substantial information shall also be presented about regulation and social policy.

Discussion

In order to fully integrate public utility, power generation, policy and use of nuclear power in light of the growing concerns on the depletion of natural forms of energy as well as degradation of the environment as its most immediate and hazardous effects, this paper will provide an overview and background on current practices, regulations, utility market reforms, development of regulation, air pollution, and finally on nuclear power understanding. Within the context of nuclear power, challenges, advantages and disadvantages shall be discussed together with current regulation and the future of nuclear power.

Regulation and Social Policy

The reasons that utility regulation is needed are due to control market power, encourage healthy competition, as well as stabilize markets. In addition, governments also believe that operators tend to focus on their own perception of what is advantageous on their part without due consideration to the rest of the stakeholders: consumers, the environment, and the government system. In some countries, this problem was solved through its own governments providing their own utility service. However, state-owned utility services are manipulated for political reasons if not for corrupt practices, source of cash flow for other activities, or for gaining hard currency thereby leading to poor service quality that would make consumers suffer, and then, the demand for public and private involvement (PURC, 2007).

Utility Market Reforms

The developed world has formed state-owned monopolies to address utility services. It soon became apparent that government-run utility services are inefficient and of low quality. Problems include:

• Excessive number of employees or nepotism and political patronage practices
• Prioritize provision to powerful groups or power elites leaving marginalized citizens un-served
• Services that earn subsidize other non-profitable projects or departments
• Non-commercially viable charges (PURC, 2007).

Other identified problems include the practice of keeping prices low thereby requiring government subsidy to finance not only operations but also investments and other costs. This further leads to poor service quality as the effect of underinvestment. Where the utility is profitable, it serves as a cash cow to finance other government functions. By the 1980s, policymakers started supporting privately-owned service providers as they are presumed to be subject to less political pressure as compared to government-owned enterprises.

Aside from the political opportunism avoided, an open market will also lead to competitiveness, thereby encouraging service quality, lower cost for consumers, aside from profit motivation. In the private sectors’ aim to supply demand, they also deploy infrastructure, offer competitive prices and innovate among themselves as consumers afford to pay value for quality service. “As part of this trend, countries began to introduce competition wherever possible and developed utility regulatory agencies that would enforce concession or licensing agreements and regulate prices,” (PURC, 2007).

It was suggested that market reform varies across sectors and countries as liberalization and privatization are introduced. Under energy, restructuring and privatization were the prevalent reforms. Restructuring separates competitive generating companies from monopoly transmission and distribution.

Governments establish regulatory agencies to improve sector performance. They focus on controlling market power and facilitating healthy competition. Additional roles include ensuring service availability, expansion, attracting capital, initiation of competition to encourage best practices, licensing agreements and regulating prices (PURC, 2007).

Development of Regulation

Improving sector performance is the main goal of regulation. This is usually measured in terms of net consumer surplus, the availability and expansion of service, cost-efficient infrastructure, affordable prices of services, widening of range of services offered, quality and success of innovation.

Regulators implement policies for attracting capital to the sector and increase investment. This in turn will generate government revenues in the form of licensing and concessions. With competition ineffectiveness and development of innovation initiated by the regulatory bodies, there is improved provision of service as well as more affordable rates offered. The market competition also increases rates of a license issued as well as provision of incentives for operators for them to become efficient and provide universal access to services. It is proposed that in the lack of stability and unviable commercial tariffs for investors, regulation has failed (PURC, 2007).

The three main issues that define a utility regulator’s role are:

• Sector of coverage
• Their role in relation to ministers or various government departments
• Their role to other regulatory agencies such as those in charge of the competition.

In some governments, regulatory agencies are sector-specific while in others, they apply multi-regulatory agencies. The duties of regulatory agencies are:

• Settings standards
• Regulate prices
• Assure quality service
• Monitor performances of service providers
• License
• Handle consumer complaints
• Advice policy-makers
• Monitor market competition
• Settle industry disputes (PURC, 2007).

Regulatory instruments used are also varied. Some countries issue licenses with a set of conditions the service provider need to abide. Some countries enter contracts with operators. These contracts may be as concessions or franchises.

There are service and supply contracts where products, technical, or management services are provided by the operators. In this instance, it is the government that owns the assets. On the other hand, concessions have the government lease or provide the build-operate-transfer scheme wherein the operator owns or is responsible for the assets for an agreed period of time. Privatization has the government divest and develop new enterprises and is often used in build-own-operate systems with the private sector owning the assets until it decides to retire or sell.

In all of these, many countries require legislation to authorize the government to enter into these types of agreements with contractors, or even in the issuance of licenses or concessions. Within the contract, licenses or concessions are the governing details between the private operator and the government’s duties, rights, and obligations. Under privatization, legislation is almost always required which also governs the parties’ duties, rights, and obligations. In all forms of operation or ownership, many countries rely on statutes and laws to define the roles and responsibilities of utility operators (PURC, 2007).

Energy Challenges

To address the energy problem growing in an international scale, the MIT (2003) proposed four options:

• “Increase the efficiency in electricity generation and use;
• Expand use of renewable energy sources such as wind, solar, biomass, and geothermal;
• Capture carbon dioxide emissions at fossil-fuelled (especially coal) electric generating plants and permanently sequester the carbon; and
• Increase use of nuclear power,” (p 11).

All of the above proposals currently do not hold water as two of them could be considered inevitable if not too generalized, while sequestering carbon is still a limited technology that needs to come out in the open market. By including nuclear power, and a premise that, “we shall likely need all of these options and accordingly it would be a mistake at this time to exclude any of these four options from an overall carbon emissions management strategy,” the MIT (2003, p 1) proposal begs to be considered seriously.

Government and Corporate Cooperation

Environmental policies already brought in substantial improvements in air, water and natural environment quality in the past 25 years. Major and multinational corporations, in answer to growing calls for sourcing and post-consumption responsibility, have taken initiatives and innovations in managing their environmental impacts that have reduced their costs, increased their efficiency, lowered their liabilities, as well as enhanced their competitiveness.

This is coupled with the reduction of pollution, resources conservations, and elimination or reduction of wastes. It is further suggested that significant improvement in environmental quality that encompasses natural resources will be influenced by the widespread adoption of pollution prevention practices and sound conservation of resources, more than “stringent regulation of end-of-pipe emissions,“ (Rondinelli and Berry, 2000, p 168).

American corporations and multinational enterprises have adopted proactive environmental management systems since the 1980s as the US passed legislation mandating not only commitment but compliance with environmental regulations. They need to go well beyond cleaning up wastes but prevent pollution from the source until such time that they view environmental protection as a necessary and integral part of total quality management. As such, business strategies in cost reduction, improved efficiency, effective competition as well as product and services innovation and development have been integrated into the overall business system (Rondinelli and Berry, 2000).

Environment quality improved with these legislations and environmental regulations as air pollution was significantly reduced during the 1980s and 1990s. Between 1998 and 1997, carbon monoxide emission decreased by 25 percent, volatile organic compound or VOCs by 20 percent, sulfur dioxide by 12 percent, and lead by 44 percent as reported by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (1998). In fact, these occurred when vehicle miles traveled increased by 127% with the national population expanded by 31%. Regulations, however, are still perceived as wanting.

EPA cannot regulate industrial operations effectively nor provide adequate incentives for innovative actions of corporations that performed better than what was mandated. According to Rondinelli and Berry (2000), “Public policies at the national, state and local levels do not yet reflect the new trends in corporate environmental management,” (p 169). The EAP for instance is lacking a comprehensive policy to improve environmental quality. There is a lack of encouragement as well as a reward for corporate environmental systems where a cleaner environment is concerned and it has also been noted that there is a decline in marginal returns in environmental quality in the United States (Rondinelli and Berry, 2000). This is further discussed when it comes to supporting carbon-free nuclear power.

Air Pollution

Air pollution is a growing concern as smog, greenhouse effect, acid rain, and even home-generated pollutants fill the air. Burnt fuel for energy is one of the major causes of air pollution. This process releases small particles called black carbon pollution and is from burning fuels in automobiles, homes, and industries. Other types of air pollutants are called noxious gases such as sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide, and other chemical vapors that react with other chemicals in the atmosphere to form smog or acid rain (LBNL, 2009).

Air pollution can cause long-term and short-term health damages such as asthma, heart and lung diseases. The duration of exposure, as well as the concentration of pollutants in the air, also determines the extent of damage to groups or individuals’ health. Some short-term health damages include eye, nose, skin, or throat irritation, upper respiratory infections such as pneumonia or bronchitis, nausea, headaches, and allergic reactions.

In 1952, about four thousand people died in London in the “Smog Disaster” (LBNL, 2009). Long-term health damages include chronic respiratory diseases, lung cancer, heart diseases ad complications. In the United States, it is estimated that some 500,000 individuals die prematurely each year due to cigarette smoking alone. This is on top of healthcare costs, human welfare impacts, and lost productivity (LBNL, 2009).

Large-scale greenhouse gas emissions with an estimated hundreds of billions of tonnes of carbon dioxide expected to be released within the next 50 years will accelerate global warming. Electricity generated from fossil fuels, specifically natural gas and coal is a major contributor to the emission of carbon dioxide.

Nuclear Power

With the growing concern not only on the depletion of natural forms of energy but also with the quality of air, the use of nuclear power has been proposed to address not only energy requirements but also to significantly reduce carbon emissions. It was proposed that by 2050, with a projected 1000 billion watts of worldwide nuclear generation, 1.8 billion tonnes of carbon emission could be avoided annually.

Nuclear power supplied 20% of the United States as well as 17% of the world’s electricity consumption. The increase of nuclear electricity generating capacity at only 5% worldwide by 2020 as electricity requirement soars at 75% (MIT 2004) widens the gap of supply and demand, as well as a seemingly stagnant growth on the part of nuclear power.

Current Challenges

A study conducted by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 2003 indicated the following major issues that nuclear energy needs to address:

1. The most important challenge to the use of nuclear energy is cost. Currently, in so-called deregulated markets, the cost of nuclear energy is not considered competitive against coal or natural gas. MIT proposed that “plausible reductions by industry in capital cost, operation and maintenance costs, and construction time could reduce the gap.” Using carbon emission credits, MIT proposed that government enactment could give nuclear power a cost advantage. Nuclear power has higher overall lifetime costs with the lack of carbon tax or equivalent “cap and trade” system to reduce carbon emissions;
2. Safety is next in consideration. MIT (2003) proposed that “Modern reactor designs can achieve a very low risk of serious accidents, but, ‘best practices’ in construction and operation are essential. We know little about the safety of the overall fuel cycle, beyond reactor operation” (p 2). Nevertheless, with the 1979 Three Mile Island and 1986 Chernobyl reactor accidents, nuclear power is seen as dangerous to the safety and the environment aside from its health effects. Fuel cycle accidents in the USA, Russia, and Japan further damaged the image as safe and secure transportation of nuclear materials as well as security of nuclear facilities are highly susceptible to a terrorist attack;
3. Waste is another major issue in nuclear power. “Geological disposal is technically feasible but the execution is yet to be demonstrated or certain. A convincing case has not been made that the long-term waste management benefits of advanced, closed fuel cycles involving reprocessing of spent fuel are outweighed by the short-term risks and costs. Improvement in the open once-through fuel cycle may offer waste management benefits as large as those claimed for the more expensive closed fuel cycles. Radioactive wastes until today have unresolved issues which pose danger to present and future generations,” (p 4).
4. “Proliferation.” MIT (2003, p 2) reported that the current international safeguards regime cannot meet the security problems of the expanded nuclear deployment proposed for the global growth scenario. In fact, the current reprocessing systems used in Europe, Japan and Russia of separating and recycling plutonium still pose risky proliferation. Nuclear power is a high-security risk as misuse of commercial and associated nuclear facilities and operations for nuclear weapons manufacture is very possible. Chemical re-processing of spent fuel to separate weapons-usable plutonium and uranium should be guarded as nuclear power is used internationally (MIT, 2003, p 3).

Due to the above reasons, government involvement in the advancing of nuclear infrastructure and use is very important. While the use of nuclear power meant carbon-free emission, competitiveness, safety and security are bigger concerns.

Focusing on the nuclear electricity growth scenario with the emphasis on cooperation between countries like the US, Japan, Korea, Taiwan, as well as the renewal of European activity, the following is the forecasted growth scenario:

Source: MIT, 2003.

Advantages

If demand is met, a significant amount of carbon is displaced. In 2002, 6,500 million tonnes of carbon was emitted from human activity which is expected to double by 2050. 800 million tonnes gas-fired and 1,800 million tonnes coal-fired generations will be avoided once a 1000 GWe of nuclear power becomes available per annum with the assumption that carbon dioxide is not captured from combustion sources (MIT, 2003).

The MIT (2003) also examined tree representative nuclear fuel cycle deployments as follows:

• “Conventional thermal reactors” – this operates In a once-through mode and discharged spent fuel is directly disposed
• “Thermal reactors with reprocessing” – used in a closed fuel cycle where waste products are separated from unused fissionable material. It is recycled as fuel into reactors. Plutonium is separated from spent fuel, fabricated into mixed plutonium and uranium oxide fuel, then recycled to reactors for one pass.
• “Fast reactors with reprocessing in a balanced closed fuel cycle – the thermal reactors operated worldwide in “once-through” mode. Fast reactors with balanced numbers destroy the actinides separated from the thermal reactor spent fuel. Fast reactors, reprocessing and fuel fabrication facilities are relocated in secure nuclear energy parks in industrial countries (MIT, 2003).

According to MIT (2003), closed fuel cycles lengthen fuel supplies. Uranium resources and price determine the viability of once-through alternatives in global growth. MIT insists that the world-wide supply of uranium ore can support the deployment of 1000 reactors over the next half-century. This is based on their study of currently available information. The once-through cycle has advantages in cost, proliferation, and fuel cycle safety but is dangerous in long-term waste disposal (MIT, 2003).

The two-closed cycle on the other hand is advantageous in long-term aspects of waste disposal, but not cost-effective and has low ratings on short-term waste issues, proliferation risk, and fuel cycle safety. The table of fuel cycle types and ratings below provides an overview:

Source: MIT, 2003.

Disadvantages

Aside from the current infrastructure and processing challenges of nuclear power, public perception is another detriment to the building of new nuclear power plants. In the study where a survey was conducted, it found that a majority of Europeans and Americans oppose the construction of nuclear power plants. The following is an overview of the public attitude about nuclear power plants:

• They are informed by their perceptions of technology instead of politics or demographics of income, education and gender;
• Nuclear waste, safety and costs are viewed negatively
• There is no awareness about the carbon-free emission on nuclear power nor its connection with global warming.

The study thereby noted that technological developments are needed to lower costs and improve safety and waste problems to help increase public support. Likewise, there is also a need to educate the public about the link between global warming, the use of fossil fuels, and the exigency of low-carbon energy sources (MIT, 2003).

Consequently, the study proposed that the US public does not support nuclear power or the construction of facilities unless costs and technology are improved. The carbon-free energy source presented by nuclear power cannot motivate the support of the public for nuclear use expansion. Below are the comparative costs of nuclear energy, coal and natural gas:

Source: MIT, 2003.

The high cost is emphasized as a major issue when it comes to nuclear power use. The study proposed taxing the carbon emission of other sources of energy in order to leverage costs against nuclear power. As such, the following costing has been generated:

Source: MIT, 2003.

Through this comparison, it was assumed that nuclear power becomes competitive through the “cap and trade” or carbon tax system. This system will become dependent on societal choices on how much carbon dioxide emission should be allowed, technology advancements such as cost and feasibility of large-scale carbon capture and sequestration. The study further urged government action to encourage nuclear power options as the regulation of nuclear power is uncertain and investors are not willing to risk the development of new generation/s of nuclear facilities. To this, the MIT (2003) emphasizes that:

• Government should share in the cost for site banking of plants, certification of new plant designs, as well as combines construction and operation licenses for plants built now or in the future
• Government should promote nuclear power as carbon-free thus the need to mandate federal and state governments to include it in their alternative and renewable energy programs and standard
• Government should subsidize a small set of “first mover” commercial nuclear plants to become experimental sites for cost and regulatory development (MIT, 2003).

Currently, wind energy enjoys a 1.7 cents per kWe-hr tax credit for ten years. For MIT (2003), it proposes a production tax credit of up to $200 per kWe of the construction cost applicable to the 10 “first movers” plants. “This benefit might be paid out at about 1.7 cents per kWe-hr, over a year and a half of full-power plant operation.” The tax credit mechanism offers the highest incentives for projects to be completed. The credit is equivalent to a credit of $70 per avoided metric ton of carbon.

When it comes to safety, the study proposed a global standard that should be followed strictly to avoid further negative public perception. The possibility of a terrorist attack, however, is still highly debatable.

Conclusion

In consideration of the carbon-free emission of nuclear power as well as its potential to provide higher electricity for global demand, it ranks high on alternative energy sources for public utility. The current challenges posed by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, however, undermine present technology and infrastructure that could arrest a growing if not permanent fear of the public about the hazards and dangers of nuclear energy and its wastes.

The active involvement of the United States government in global military affairs further complicates the possibilities of building nuclear power plants as this would endanger not only plant workers but also the most immediate vicinity as even Pentagon and supposedly highly populated and important centers such as New York were not spared of bombings, infiltration and attacks.

The proposal, however, may need to be fully backed by sustainable and affordable research and technology to fully encourage investment and risk not only from the private but also from the government sector. Until such time that the learned hazards in the Three Mile Island and 1986 Chernobyl reactor accidents were not put to rest, nuclear power will remain marginal advocacy not only among the public but to the US legislation.

Legislation on environment protection and natural resources preservation are already in place to boost the nuclear power stance on public utility as an energy source. Tapping these to align with the proposed pumping up of the nuclear power industry should be considered by advocacy groups as well as legislators to gain investment support as well as public education.

Reference

Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory’s ELSI Project. “Air Pollution.”. Web.

Massachusetts Institute of Technology. “Future of Nuclear Power.” 2003.

Public Utility Research Center (2007). “Bodies of Knowledge on Infrastructure Regulation.” Web.

Rondinelli, Dennis and Michael Berry (2000). “Corporate Environmental Management and Public Policy: Bridging the Gap.” American Behavioral Scientist, vol. 44: pp. 168 – 187.

United states Environmental Protection Agency (1995). Design for the environment (DfE) current projects. Washington DC.

Introduction

Air pollution is one of the forms of pollution that affect the environment negatively. Air pollution results from chemical emissions from companies and human actions that pose health risks to individuals as well as to the environment. Furthermore, air pollution may destroy the ozone layer leading to global warming.

Though pollution is virtually everywhere, the paper focuses on Houston, one of the major cities is the US that has unacceptable levels of pollutants that pose health risks to the lives of people, plants, and animals. It addresses the sources of pollution in general besides identifying a major air pollutant in Houston. Further, the paper will present the various bodies put in place to fight air pollution in Houston.

Sources of Air Pollution

In Houston, various sources of pollutants cause negative effects to the environment and human beings. Sources of these emissions include toxic pollutants, which are emitted to the environment from chemical manufacturing facilities that surpass 400 in number in Houston (Donaldson et al., 2004, p. 3).

Two among the four largest refinery companies in the US include the port of Houston and the Petroleum Complex both of which are located along the Houston Ship Channel in Houston. Other companies that contribute to these emissions include dry cleaners, printing processes, coating process, restaurants, gas stations, gasoline-fueled lawn maintenance equipment, and charcoal barbecues amongst others.

Other important sources of these pollutants are tailpipe emissions that come from trucks, buses, and cars. These emissions are spread to the air. Often, they are inhaled by human beings unknowingly.

Other particles from emissions diffuse into the air. These emissions from these companies have negative implications to the ozone layer in the higher atmosphere. When this layer is impaired by the particles, it becomes a health hazard causing global warming, which increases temperatures on the earth surface.

Air Pollutants

In Houston, various air pollutants cause environmental pollution. These air pollutants include “fine particular matter, 1-3 butadiene, the Ozone, asbestos, chromium VI, diesel particle matter, nine hazardous air pollutants, chlorine and hexamethylene diisocyanate, ethylene dibromide, acrolein, benzene, acrylonitrile, acrolein, and formaldehyde” (Donaldson et al., 2004, p. 3) amongst others.

The Ozone air pollutant has high effects on the environment as well as on the health of the people, as revealed next.

The Ozone

The Ozone is one of the air pollutants that have raised a lot of concern in Houston for a number of years. The Ozone is a form of gas that usually reacts under the influence of light. Ozone is a two-fold substance implying that it has two layers: one in the high atmosphere and the other one at the ground level that is mostly considered as a pollutant. This air pollutant continues to affect the health of people in the city of Houston.

Measures have been put in place to ensure that the prevalence of ozone gas is minimized. Therefore, the danger inherent in this air pollutant has triggered relevant stakeholders to come up with ways of reducing its levels in the environment (Lezon, 2012, p. 2). The most dangerous areas are Brazoria and Galveston in Houston.

What compelled the issuance of this alert were the atmospheric conditions that indicated that Ozone pollution was in the offing. The Ozone is categorized as a definite risk in Houston because it surpasses the required standards of 8ppm (Donaldson et al., 2004, p. 6). The ratings indicated that it has the highest potential of causing air pollution.

It is among the critical causes of respiratory and cardiovascular diseases that affect people in Houston. Thus, it is an issue that Houston should be concerned about and work hard to bring its level down. The Ozone appears in two forms. One is formed in the atmosphere while the other is formed on the ground level called tropospheric.

The ground level ozone is formed from the interaction of volatile organic compounds (VOCs)/Oxygen, nitrogen oxides, and the solar energy. For the Ozone to be formed, the most favorable conditions include high temperatures, low speed of the wind, and a low cloud cover (Green Facts, 2012, Para. 2). Surprisingly, Houston reveals all the conditions. The Ozone shields the higher layers of the atmosphere.

It protects people on the ground from the high levels of ultraviolet radiations that emanate from the sun. These rays are very strong, as they cause health effects when people, plants, and animals are exposed to them. Furthermore, the ground-level ozone is formed from other pollutants. It is able to react with other substances when exposed to light (Lezon, 2012, p. 2).

Concentration of the Ozone is mostly higher under the aforementioned conditions. In most instances, busy urban centers of Houston experience low concentrations while suburban adjacent rural areas usually experience higher concentrations of ozone. This scenario is mostly exhibited during sunny summers in Houston.

The Ozone formation varies across cities and the time of the day (Green Facts, 2012, Para. 5). Usually, peak occurs in the afternoons. Ozone is airborne. It is “transportable over a long distance through the air and across the borders” (Hackney, 2010, p. 639). Therefore, the pollutant may affect many people following it capacity to cover wide distance.

Trends

Houston city is one of the cities in Texas that have been affected by high levels of Ozone. Environmental Protection Agency has been in the forefront trying to ensure that all areas and regions in the US remain clean. The enactment of the Clean Air Act was one of the efforts by the EPA to ensure that all regions are free from any form of pollution.

Therefore, in line with this act, various standards have been set up by EPA to ensure that air pollution is minimized. Some of these standards were aimed at reducing the ground-level ozone, which has had significantly tampered with the lives of people in Houston. The standards of the Ozone have taken quite some time for Houston to implement.

The notable reasons for the delayed enactments are the variability of emissions in the city. Efforts in Houston seemed to bear fruits in the last 35 years because of adherence to the strict control measures. The Clean Air Act that came into effect in 1970 besides the subsequent amendments to the act has contributed to reduction of the Ozone levels in Houston during the period (Donaldson et al., 2004, p. 5).

However, the level of ozone is feared to have increased after the year 2000 because of various reasons. There is much concern that the issue may become unbearable. This is a worrying path even as the population of Houston continues to increase each day. For this trend to be managed, experts and concerned parties need to collaborate and find the way forward.

Identification of every particular pollutant that poses health effects to people should be investigated and dealt with. For instance, the efforts put in place by the Environmental Protection Agency should be stepped up with regulations and standards being put in place for the state to comply. This will ensure reduction of these pollutants thus making the city of Houston a place that every person will desire to visit.

Sources

The source of Ozone is the high temperature that causes the higher atmospheric layer to be prone to ultraviolet rays. This layer is important in deterring sunrays from reaching the Earth. On the ground level, sources of Ozone emanate from air pollution and other substances that are toxic in the air. The interaction of these substances causes the effects of Ozone (Coleman, 2012, p.3640).

Furthermore, low speed of wind and low cloud covers contribute to the high Ozone levels. This therefore implies that the level of pollution emitted to the air through combustion of substances and chemicals emitted from industries play a crucial role in exacerbating the effects of Ozone.

Therefore, human actions may play a key role in the Ozone air pollution. Studies have revealed that exposure of the Ozone to nitric oxide helps to reduce the levels of the pollutant. This qualifies as one of the strategies that need to be employed to reduce the high concentration of the Ozone, as well as its effects. The Ozone pollutant also results from the meteorological patterns and conditions in Houston.

For instance, between the month of April and that of October, the climate is usually warm and sunny characterized by quiescent breezes that cause the ground level to build up air pollutants that concentrate and cause health effects. Furthermore, high ozone levels are caused by wind especially when it rotates continuously. The Ozone is transported from one place to another as the wind propels.

The wind taps unmoving air in the towns hence transporting it to other areas (Darby, 2005, p. 1788). This therefore makes it difficult to control the spread of the Ozone pollutant.

Apart from the major companies dealing with emissions, other small aggregate airborne emissions have emanate from many other small sources that are spread in Houston such as gasoline-fueled lawn machine maintenance equipment and surface coating processes amongst many others.

Managing the Ozone Pollutant

Managing the Ozone pollutant has turned out to be a very complex process for policymakers. However, if they want to deal with the solution amicably, they need to trade-off between the cost of ensuring that the problem is solved and or whether the problems should continue affecting the health of the people.

Because of the many air pollutants that are in Houston, policymakers should make decisions implicitly or explicitly to determine which pollutants pose higher health risks to be able to strategize on ways to manage them.

Consequences of Exposure: Health Risks

Various consequences are brought by high exposures to the Ozone. These consequences may affect human beings, plants, and animals. According to Donaldson et al (2004), protection of the health of Houstonians from the effects of environmental pollution and other health risks has always been the agenda and the central goal of the city of Houston (p. 3).

The city adopted various measures to ensure that health of people of Houston is upheld (Green Facts, 2012, Para. 2). These measures include setting up of standards concerning emissions in the environment, requiring the sources of pollution to limit their levels of emissions, and educating members of the public on the required actions to take to protect their own health besides ensuring that they limit environmental pollution.

These measures have been achieved because the city has experienced a number of risky health implications. Various health risks are associated with the Ozone air pollutant. The consequences of exposure in Houston are evident in the health of those who have been exposed to it.

The vulnerable populations include people who are more sensitive to air pollutants and those with a genetic predisposition, young children, old people who have developed increased sensitivity due to various diseases, environmental and socio-economic factors, and those who are exposed to extremely high levels of air pollutants (City of Houston, 2012, Para. 2).

People who are exposed to the short-term Ozone usually suffer from respiratory diseases, lung, and eye problems. The Ozone level further “increases the level of susceptibility to allergens that are inhaled” (Hackney, 2010, p. 638). When individuals are exposed to the Ozone for longer periods, relatively low concentrations of ozone may affect the functionality of their lungs.

According to Donaldson et al, from the Environmental Protection Agency, many health problems are caused by exposure to high ozone levels (2004, p. 8). He noted that the Ozone poses health problems to children, the elderly, and healthy adults. Asthma is one of the health effects of exposure to high ozone levels. It also causes acute respiratory problems when a person inhales air that is polluted with high levels of Ozone.

It also aggravates emphysema and bronchitis besides impairing the immune system defenses of an individual (Hackney, 2010, p. 639). The other effects of overexposure to high levels of ozone may cause an individual have other complications in the body that may make him/her a frequent visitor of health facilities and hospitals.

Ozone Standards Under the Clean Air Act

The Clean Air Act requires the Environmental Protection Agency to set standards and regulations that should be adopted to ensure that air pollution is minimized. The Clean Air Act requires standards to be established to limit exposure of potentially harmful pollutants in the environment. Six criteria pollutants have been set up by EPA to ensure that environment in various cities, Houston included, is kept clean.

The six criteria standards include “particulate matter, ground-level ozone also called smog, lead, Sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, and carbon monoxide” (Lisa, 2012, p. 30088). So far, most of the standards concerning the pollutants have been met successfully by the Houston city. However, the ground-level ozone is the only one remaining to be successfully met.

Efforts are underway under the hospice of EPA to revise the standards concerning the Ozone. The proposed plan is to phase out one-hour standard approach to replace it with eight-hour approach to the menace. Since the establishment of the standards, Houston did not comply. Rather, it indicated in its state implementation plan (SIP) that it was planning to attain the standards by the end of 2007, which was the deadline.

Under the one-hour standards that had been set by EPA, every region of the country was not supposed to exceed 125 parts per billion (Schade, Khan, Park, & Boedeker, 2011, p. 1070). Therefore, to be compliant, Houston was not required to exceed this threshold of 125 ppb on three days and more so in three years consecutively.

Ozone Eight-Hour Standards

This was among the new EPA standards that were aimed at reducing the level of Ozone in all regions of the United States, Houston included. Under these new standards, the region is deemed not to have complied with the standards if the average of the fourth highest figures of the Ozone recorded in three consecutive years is more or equal to 85 ppb (Ngan & Byun, 2011, p. 485).

Under these standards, if any area or region under a state fails to meet the standards, the state is supposed to recommend EPA to the particular area to ensure that urgent measures are instituted to change them or reverse the trend. A plan must be submitted to EPA providing a way out on how the state will ensure that that area’s level of the Ozone is back to the normal threshold (City of Houston, 2012, Para. 2).

Reasons for High Levels of Ozone in Houston and Its Persistent Inability to Meet the Standards

One of the reasons behind the continued increase in the Ozone levels in Houston is because Houston is different from other cities in the US. The daily emissions in Houston vary. This variation is due to the different chemical industries that emit pollution (Sexton, et al., 2007, p. 1388).

Most areas where the Ozone is experienced exemplify a diurnal pattern since the level of the Ozone rises in the morning hours peaking during the middle of the day though it falls in the evenings because temperatures are low. Most of the emissions from industries and stationary sources of emissions are constant thus leading to high level of the Ozone at the ground level.

Houston has the leading petrochemical base compared to other cities in the US. This contributes to high levels of Ozone. It has large reactive volatile organic compounds such as low molecular weight olefins including butylenes, ethylene, propylene, and 1,3 butadiene that contribute to the high levels of the Ozone emissions.

Recommendations

There is a need for the state to adapt effective models that will ensure that Houston city deals with the high levels of Ozone. The models should be accurate and dependable to guarantee positive results. Prediction of the levels of Ozone in the future using meteorological data is difficult. This revelation may lead to false predictions hence making the problem even worse.

The emission models that are used are based on calculated estimates and not real-time monitoring. Stakeholders need to be involved in the efforts to reduce high ozone levels in the environment. Community round table negotiations are very important in creating awareness about the various ways that they can help in its reduction. The community as a whole should be involved in the air quality issues in general.

They should be involved in the decision making process in matters concerning environmental conservation in Houston. For instance, the community should be informed on the likely causes of these high ozone levels.

Therefore, measures such as banning of early morning lawn care can help in minimizing the levels of emissions. Therefore, cooperation between the public, industries, and regulatory communities is essential in ensuring that the targets set are attained and the environment is kept clean.

Conclusion

Air pollution is one of the problems that face many countries especially those that depend on industries for their production of goods. Houston state is one of the states in the US that are devoted to ensuring that they adhere to the environmental conservation regulations. The Environmental Protection Agency has also played a central role in ensuring that Houston city adopts and abides by the standards set in the Clean Air Act.

Despite having many industries that pollute the environment, the state is concerned with the welfare of its people. Adequate measures have been put in place to ensure that the rate of emission is reduced.

The Ozone levels have negative health implications ranging from lung diseases, respiratory diseases, and visual impairments. Therefore, there is a need for the state to adopt the standards set to ensure that the health implications emanating from the Ozone effects are mitigated.

They should engage all stakeholders in the state including communities, industry owners, and even government to seal a deal that would help to reduce emissions. It is not good news for the people of Houston to discover that their state is among the worst affected states in terms of the levels of Ozone.

Nevertheless, if appropriate policies are established, with the state of Houston working together with the Environmental Protection Agency, it will ensure that the high levels of the Ozone are reduced thus helping in enhancing the health of the people of Houston.

Reference List

City of Houston. (2012). Green Houston. Web.

Coleman, S. (2012). Approval and Promulgation of Air Quality Implementation Plans; Texas; Determination of Failure To Attain the 1-Hour Ozone Standard. Federal Register, 77(118), 36400-36403.

Darby, L. (2005). Cluster Analysis of Surface Winds in Houston, Texas, and the Impact of Wind Patterns on Ozone. Journal of Applied Meteorology, 44(12), 1788-1806.

Donaldson, G. et al. (2004). Houston air quality Meeting the ozone standards Conference of air, Rice University campus. Web.

Green Facts. (2012). Scientific Facts on air pollution: Air pollution ozone. Web.

Hackney, R. (2010). Do not Mess with Houston, Texas: The Clean Air Act and State/Local Preemption. Texas Law Review, 88(3), 639-668.

Lezon, D. (2012). Ozone levels prompt air quality alert, September 11. 2012. Web.

Lisa, J. (2012). Air Quality Designations for 2008 Ozone National Ambient Air Quality Standards. Federal Register, 77(98), 30088-30160.

Ngan, F., & Byun, D. (2011). Classification of Weather Patterns and Associated Trajectories of High-Ozone Episodes in the Houston–Galveston–Brazoria Area during the 2005/06 TexAQS-II. Journal of Applied Meteorology & Climatology, 50(3), 485-499.

Schade, G., Khan, S., Park, C., & Boedeker, I. (2011). Rural Southeast Texas Air Quality Measurements during the 2006 Texas Air Quality Study. Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association (Air & Waste Management Association), 61(10), 1070-1081.

Sexton, K. et al. (2007). Comparative Assessment of Air Pollution-Related Health Risks in Houston. Environmental Health Perspectives, 115(10), 1388-1393.