Category: Pollution

The issue of marine pollution is one of the most acute in the environmental sciences. The overall condition of the ocean areas has adverse effects on the drinking water, as well as aquatic flora and fauna. By examining sources, types, pathways, and status of water contamination in the context of the World Ocean, it is clear that most marine pollution caused by human actions, especially the mismanagement of plastic debris.

Sources

Contamination of the World Ocean is a result of gradual water pollution on all levels, starting from the small streams, then, rivers, seas, and oceans. Sources of marine pollution have numerous classifications, depending on the author’s interpretations (see table 1)¹. Primary origins include, but are not limited to, natural, industrial, agricultural, and oil contamination, later explained in this report.² Natural marine pollution happens when rain caries aerial contaminants, such as dust and gas, to the water.³

Examples contain phosphorus, ammonia, and nitrogen washed into the ocean through currents, streams, and snow. ⁴ Industrial pollution occurs when factories dump products of manufacturing waste, such as acids, detergents, and chemicals, in the water bodies.⁵ Closely connected to industrial pollution is agriculture, another significant source of water contamination. Fertilizers, insecticides, and pesticides used in farming are frequently washed away in the water bodies: from streams to rivers, to seas, and, ultimately, to the ocean.⁶ Oil spills account for the high percentage of marine pollution, as well. Oil discharge happens as a result of the accident, offshore exploration, leakage of the tankers, and other sources (see table 2)⁷. Notwithstanding the variety of sources of marine pollution, primary origins are caused by human interventions.

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¹ M.M. Sulphey and M.M. Safeer, Introduction to Environment Management (New Delhi, India: PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd., 2017), 99.

² Ibid., 99-101.

³ Ibid., 99.

⁴ Ibid., 99.

⁵ Ibid.

⁶ Ibid., 100.

⁷ Ricardo Beiras, Marine Pollution: Sources, Fate, and Effects of Pollutants in Coastal Ecosystems (Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2018), 90.

Types

Types of ocean pollution are closely connected to their sources. Major examples covered in this report include eutrophication, thermal, plastic, and sewage pollution. Eutrophication refers to the process, wherein products of sewage, organic

materials, and pesticides release P and N, increasing the photosynthetic activity and amount of excessive harmful bacteria in the water. ⁸ With domestic and industrial pollution as its source, sewage contamination remains a significant issue in coastal areas. Similar to eutrophication, domestic and industrial waste produced in urban areas, dumped in the water bodies, carry various viruses and pathogens.⁹

Another example of marine contamination caused by human intervention is thermal pollution. It occurs as a result of discharges from the nuclear reactors and power plants on the coastline, which deplete oxygen and raise the temperature of the water.¹⁰ Despite the profound adverse effect of sewage, thermal, and eutrophication pollution on the water bodies, plastic contamination has the most negative consequences on the World Ocean. A large amount of mismanaged plastic debris is trapped in the whirlpools of water in three out of 4 oceans (see fig.1).¹¹ After being washed in the sea, litter undergoes several chemical processes, converting to microplastics, which marine animals consume instead of food. ¹² The scope of the problem is so big that environmentalists now cannot control the intractable nature of plastics, present nearly everywhere: in the bodies of dead fish, distant beaches, and even Arctic ice.

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⁸ M.M. Sulphey and M.M. Safeer. Introduction to Environment Management, 100.

⁹ Milind Mohan Nair and Santosh Kumar Dubey, Marine Pollution and Microbial Remediation (New York: Springer, 2016), 208.

¹⁰ Ibid., 212

¹¹ Alison Trowsdale, Tom Housden and Becca Meier, “Seven charts that explain the plastic pollution problem,” BBC News. Web.

Pathways

Pollutants may reach the sea in a variety of ways: through the air, direct discharges, and riverine inputs. Frequently, substances get washed away in the water through several channels simultaneously (see fig.2). ¹³ The easiest pathway to control is direct discharge of waste (“point” source). ¹⁴ Industrial pollutants washed away in the water bodies from land, waste from the ships, and power stations – all together undergo chemical transformations and remain stored within estuaries.¹⁵

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¹² Milind Mohan Nair and Santosh Kumar Dubey, Marine Pollution and Microbial Remediation, 212.

¹³ Chris Frid and Bryony A. Caswell, Marine Pollution (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2017), 4.

¹⁴ Ibid.

¹⁵ Ibid.

Strict legal regulations and adherence to environmental laws help to minimize the effect of “point” sources on marine pollution. Pollutants accumulated in the atmosphere appear much harder to control. Though usually, emissions from the factories remain in the gaseous state, small particles emitted in the atmosphere may dissolve with the rain droplets and land in the water.¹⁶ The main risk associated with such pollution is a high number of toxic heavy metals, such as lead, being washed away in the ocean.¹⁷ With multiple pathways of marine contamination operating simultaneously, the current situation of the World Ocean pollution calls for urgent charges of the international community.

Status

The current situation of marine pollution casts a negative outlook on the safety conditions of the World Ocean. With various chemicals, products of organic, and non-organic waste being washed away in the water bodies daily, environmental scientists have little control over maritime pollution. For instance, scientists report approximately 15 different types of heavy metals, acids, sodium, and other poisonous chemicals spilled in the Baltic sea, as a result of an accident during the Chembaltic Project recently.¹⁸ Direct discharges from the ships near the Dutch coastal zone lead to the accumulation of nonylphenol ethoxylates,¹⁹ while vessel emissions containing copper and arsenic are stored along the US seashore. Though the issue of maritime pollution from chemicals is no less significant, plastic debris washed away in the World Ocean appears to be a prevailing problem now.²⁰

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¹⁶ Ibid.

¹⁷ Ibid.

¹⁸ Victoria Tomero and Georg Hanke, “Chemical Contaminants Entering the Marine Environment from Sea-based Sources: A Review with a Focus on European Seas,” Marine Pollution Bulletin 112, no. 1-2 (2016): 18.

¹⁹ Ibid., 19.

²⁰ Ibid., 23.

Newest scientific estimations confirm that there are approximately ten tonnes of plastic only in the North Pacific Ocean, with 80% of the litter coming from the land. ²¹ From what is known, plastic debris hurts one-quarter of all marine mammal species, one-third of seabirds, and approximately 90% of sea turtles. ²² To minimize the horrific consequences of plastic mismanagement, the international community implements innovative policies aimed at environmental protection.

Ultimately, the issue of maritime pollution poses numerous risks for the environment today. Pollutants washed away in the seas have adverse effects not only on the overall condition of the World Ocean but also on the safety of aquatic animals and people. A brief overview of the types, sources, pathways, and current situation of maritime pollution provides sufficient evidence to argue that human interventions, in particular, plastic mismanagement, are a significant cause of water contamination.

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²¹ Michelle Sigler, “The Effects of Plastic Pollution on Aquatic Wildlife: Current Situations and Future Solutions,” Water Air Soil Pollut 225, no. 2184 (2014): 2.

²² Ibid., 3.

Bibliography

Beiras, Ricardo. Marine Pollution: Sources, Fate, and Effects of Pollutants in Coastal Ecosystems. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2018.

Frid, Chris, and Bryony A. Caswell. Marine Pollution. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2017.

Nair, Milind Mohan, and Santosh Kumar Dubey. Marine Pollution and Microbial Remediation. New York: Springer, 2016.

Sigler, Michelle. “The Effects of Plastic Pollution on Aquatic Wildlife: Current Situations and Future Solutions.” Water Air Soil Pollut 225, no. 2184 (2014): 1-9. Web.

Sulphey, M. M. and M.M. Safeer. Introduction to Environment Management. New Delhi, India: PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd., 2017.

Tomero, Victoria and Georg Hanke. “Chemical Contaminants Entering the Marine Environment from Sea-based Sources: A Review with a Focus On European Seas.” Marine Pollution Bulletin 112, no. 1-2 (2016): 17-38. Web.

Trowsdale, Alison, Tom Housden, and Becca Meier. “Seven charts that explain the plastic pollution problem.” BBC News.Web.

Introduction

In huge worldwide river basins, like the Tisza River Basin with its 157,000 km² catchment area and 15 transboundary “first-order tributary” rivers, the water – end ecological matters to be solved including almost every possible type of water reserve organization, water contamination control, and aquatic-ecological protection/ conservation issues that the communities and the scientists have found out so far. Of this huge figure and type of matters (argued in profound particulars in the pertinent project statements), a set of the most pressing ones had been chosen and within those the explanation of which can be maintained by computer modeling means. These means, when collected together, might be recalled the “real-life-scale incorporated catchment reproductions,” as named in the sub-title of the Project. Lots of attempts were, and are being, made international, but very few real-life-scale, large catchment-size functions, with the notion of reaching actual organization-support level, are known. The major issue is probably that the tools are far more enhanced than the databases. This later is due to the universal lack and accessibility of information, which could maintain the use of incorporated replicas. The likely solution to this problem is the development of a set of module-like modeling tools and adjoining databases, which can supplely be created, adapted to definite needs and information.

Technological and economic objectives

Transnational water resource management and environmental protection matters are of major anxiety internationally. In Europe, this anxiety is noticeably augmented upon the disastrous trans-national cyanide and heavy metal contamination catastrophes of the year 2000 in the Tisza River Catchment. The scarcity of sufficiently clean water resources and the dangers faced by the regionally (and possibly internationally) unique freshwater wetland bio networks intensified the matters. These are the main causes why the Tisza River Basin was chosen as the only catchment of any project. Another reason is the size (157,200 km²) of the catchment and its exceptional geographical position. The Tisza basin is located almost precisely in the geographical center of Europe and crosses the near-future boundary of the European Union. The outstanding natural ecological values, the tremendous hazards of both the excess and scarcity of water, the multiple hazards of dispersing and point source contamination, the clicking time-bomb of further potential accidents, and the very high all-European political, social, and financial anxieties uncomplicatedly describe the objectives of the Project:

To help to save the water resources and ecological values with the help of integrated catchment management tools and to secure the sustainable use of the resources of the Tisza River Basin.

Since very few (if any) really successful and efficient integrated management and decision support modeling case studies of large international catchments are known, the main objective was to make one, which can provide a head-start concept for necessary development work, especially in pre-accession state countries.

Projects

The WetSpa reproduction was practiced in the Hornady River basin, situated in the upper northwest part of the Tisza basin. Its area is about 4260 km^2, and its mean slope is 17.6%. The land use in the basin is covered by forest, plains, and farming. The existing soil type is silt loam. The basin has a northern moderate climate with distinct seasons. The model was applied to predict runoff on a daily basis for the 10 years time period 1991-2000, with a cell size of 100 m. For precipitation, 44 stations with daily measurements were available.

Based on the model results, the average calculated potential runoff coefficient in the catchment was found to be 0.42, and the flow time is on average 32.8 hours. Simulated discharges at the outlet of the catchment compare well with the measured discharges at the gauging station Zdana. The figure shows the comparison for the year 1997. The model reproduces the snowmelt flood and three summer floods well.

The hourly-simulated discharges for the current land use, urbanization, and afforestation scenarios, in the Tisza catchment.

Within Newater, the participation of stakeholders plays a crucial role in guaranteeing that the methods and tools which are going to be developed to guide and support the transition to adaptive water management regimes are tailored to the case-specific conditions. By using the concerns, demands, knowledge, and expertise of the stakeholders involved in the participatory process, a scientific basis for better understanding the requirements for adaptive water management regimes and for developing a sound methodology can be established to assess, evaluate and implement new management strategies appropriate for the environmental, economic, institutional, social and cultural setting in the respective river basin (cf. Pahl-Wostl, 2005). Thus the intensive dialogue between science and the various stakeholders offers the opportunity for a mutual development, assessment, enhancement, and implementation of new or already existing concepts, methods, and tools. In the Tisza Case Study, this participatory process was organized and conducted in collaboration with our local Hungarian and Ukrainian scientific partners, which have been contacted and integrated into the Tisza Case Study team in the preparation phase of the project. For their selection, their command in water and river basin-related scientific background, as well as their involvement in national and international projects on water and river basin management, was decisive.

Together with the local scientific partners, the stakeholder elicitation process was initiated, taking into account the idea to involve key stakeholders and experts from different levels such as ministries, regional and local water management as well as NGOs.

Own solution

One of the alternative solutions to the matter of water contamination is to fix it legally by setting the range of fines for the measures of contamination for each enterprise, forcing them to implement the filtering systems to the industrial process.

The propaganda should be held as the tool of public thought change in order the citizens were involved in the process of environmental protection and the prevention of water contamination.

Conclusion

It is necessary to mention that the implementation of any project may have a series of very significant behaviors on both the achieving of the social and the economic objectives of the nations of the Tisza River catchment and also may have a significant impact on those of the Community as a whole. This is so because the three main problem areas addressed in this have a very strong -if not deterministic- impact on both the economic conditions and on the quality of life in this river basin, which latter is predominantly defined by that of the water. The major policy implication is that the results of this project (the database and the models) can provide vital assistance to the River Basin Management Planning required for the Water Framework Directive.

References

Jancar-Webster, Barbara, ed. Environmental Action in Eastern Europe: Responses to Crisis. Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, Inc., 2003.

Wainwright, John, and John B. Thornes. Environmental Issues in the Mediterranean: Processes and Perspectives from the Past and Present. London: Routledge, 2004.

Karin Burnod-Requia Rapid environmental assessment of the Tisza River basin United Nations Environment Programme 2004.

Introduction

Marine environment refers to: the physical, chemical, geological and biological components, conditions and factors which interact and determine the productivity of, state, condition and quality of the marine ecosystem, the waters of the seas and oceans and the airspace above those waters, as well as the seabed and ocean floor and subsoil thereof.¹

Marine pollution is the name given to the damage which is caused by hazardous chemicals or other substances when they enter the ocean. This has a number of harmful effects, one of which is that since plankton and benthos animals depend on tiny particles for sustenance, when these potentially toxic chemicals adhere to these particles, it sets off a dangerous ripple effect: fish meal and fish oil content is an essential part of most animal feeds, and therefore, these toxins are often found in meat, eggs, milk, butter, margarine and other food items which have livestock and animal husbandry as their source. This is just one example of the dangers that marine pollution poses.²

These contaminants usually enter the sea via rivers. For instance, rivers such as the Hudson and the Raritan in the American states of New York and New Jersey respectively, which empty into ends of Staten Island, are sources of mercury contamination of organisms present in the open ocean. Many particles mix to form a chemical combination which depletes oxygen from the water, causing hypoxia, and threatening the biological life there.

The ecology of the marine environment is significantly harmed by crude/fuel oil (caused for example by natural submarine seepage, shore-based industrial and transport activities, offshore drilling, wrecked oil tankers and other ships, and discharges from ships which pump out cargo and ballast tanks with sea water), chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides – including DDT, dieldrin and endrin – (through water run-off from agricultural areas and from the atmosphere), polychlorinated biphenyls, domestic and industrial waste discharged from coasts (such as domestic sewage, wastes from food-processing, detergents, and run-off from agricultural areas, heavy metals, radioactive nuclides, inorganic chemicals and heated water) and waste dumped from vessels (usually containing highly toxic materials) into international waters.³

Marine pollution has since a couple of years assumed global proportions as it has an impact on the health of oceans in all parts of the world, on all countries whether they are developed or developing and the problem is not caused by one country or some countries. In fact, all countries contribute to the problem in some way or the other. Even if the problems are restricted to a particular country or region, its implications are international in nature. Also, it can not be thought of as just a global concern, it is a multi-faceted issue with interlinked economic, technological, political and legal aspects.⁴

Management

It would be unwise to expect a single remedy or solution for this problem or to apply the age-old maxim that those responsible for polluting should also be responsible for cleaning it or should pay appropriate compensation. One of the reasons why waste matter is disposed off in the oceans is because disposing it off anywhere else is riskier and more costly. In a number of situations, it becomes very difficult to even attribute blame for damage.

For example, regarding pollution in the Mediterranean, officials from France and Italy have traded charges, but to no avail, the French claimed that they suffer because of the waste materials which originate from Italy while the Italians reason that they are the victims of oil slicks from the port of Marseille. Even where liability can be assigned, it might not serve as deterrent. Outright prohibition seems an obvious solution but that will deprive legitimate users as well.⁵

What measures can and can not be implemented in management and control of marine pollution is made a bit more complex because of the variety of pollutants. They have different chemical compositions and behaviors, different ways in which they enter the marine environment, and the nature and extent of their effects varies. Some are discharged on purpose, some accidentally; some sources can easily be tracked, some remain vague and untraceable; some pollutants retain their chemical structure, some are degraded in hours or days; some pose a definite threat to marine ecology, others may or may not be dangerous in the long term.

Hence, to adopt a one-size-fits-all approach to developing a management solution is not adequate to meet the spectrum of marine pollution problems, whether national or international. Control measures must be tailored carefully to fit specific problems.⁶

The UN agencies in particular and other regional and international organizations in general have played a significant role and continue to do so in promoting national efforts to address national as well as trans-boundary environmental concerns. They have successfully created public awareness, provided financial resources, upgraded institutional capacity and promoted scientific research. However, these efforts while welcome, can not match or offset the accelerating environmental degradation which large-scale, improperly planned and regulated economic development is causing. Also, efforts are often focused on developing national policy, establishing broad national programs, providing training for national staff, setting up research laboratories, developing national pollution monitoring programs or providing financial support for sewage or industrial treatment plants.

These attempts have not been entirely sufficient in solving and managing marine pollution problems but have laid a solid foundation for countries to address their national and trans-boundary environmental issues.⁷

The Global Environmental Facility was set up in 1991 by donor governments and it has since then provided countries with an opportunity to develop strong technical and management skills as well as strategic and programmatic approaches as it lends support to projects related to biodiversity, climate change, international waters, land degradation, the ozone layer and persistent organic pollutants. (Thia-Eng, 1999) However, it is the International Maritime Organization (IMO, previously IMCO) which was started in 1948 through the United Nations but truly entered the arena when its first meeting was held in 1959, that says on its website, that its main task has been “to develop and maintain a comprehensive regulatory framework for shipping and its remit today includes safety, environmental concerns, legal matters, technical co-operation, maritime safety and the efficiency of shipping.” It counts the prevention of marine pollution as one of its fundamental objectives.⁸

The IMO is composed of a number of specialist committees and sub-committees, the members of which are representatives from Member States who adhere to the assistance and advice of the UN, specialized agencies and international governmental and non-governmental organizations in discharging their responsibilities. The various inter- and non-governmental international organizations which are associated with the IMO stand contribute with their maritime, legal and environmental interests and expertise to help improve the workings of the various committees and organs through information, documentation and advice.

A key activity of the IMO to ensure the achievement of its objectives has been the promotion of adoption of about 40 conventions and protocols as well as more than 800 codes and recommendations regarding maritime safety, pollution prevention and similar issues. As a side activity, it has also pursued the goal of securing effective implementation of these measures by offering technical assistance activities to help countries, most of them developing, to consent to IMO conventions and reach the standards contained in the SOLAS convention as well as other instruments. A detailed discussion of IMO conventions follows.⁹

Legislations and Conventions

From the Rivers and Harbors Act of 1898, legislation and other agreements to restrict marine pollution have come a long way. In the 1920s, legislation was mostly focused on pollution from oil tankers. Then in the 1970s, it addressed tanker construction, operation and design while the 1990 Oil Pollution Act played a significant role in reducing the spillage of oil and other substances into oceans and seas as well as developing a system of planning for and dealing with oil spills.¹⁰

The IMO and the United Nations Environmental Program have established numerous multi-state mechanisms in the form of conventions and agreement specifically aimed at reducing marine pollution. These can be classified into two broad areas: one regarding regulating activities to reduce marine pollution and second, regarding the setting up of various compensation mechanisms to deal with marine pollution.¹¹

The first marine pollution treaty was signed in 1954 which only targeted oil pollution. This was later replaced by the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships 1973 (MARPOL 73/78) which included marine pollution from a variety of sources such as oil (Annex1), noxious bulk liquids (Annex2), hazardous freight, sewage and garbage. On December 31, 2005, 136 countries of the world, which accounted for 98% of the world’s shipping tonnage, are a part of this Convention.

States Parties must accept Annexes I and II, but the other Annexes are voluntary. MARPOL was established first more than 30 years ago, in 1973, and since then has been undergoing constant development. The IMO is responsible for developing and managing marine pollution agreements and amending them according to the changing times. For example, under Annex V of MARPOL, it designated the Gulf of Mexico as a special area, thus banning ships from dumping garbage in any area of the Gulf.¹²

The London Dumping Convention is also a famous convention, the formal name for which is the 1972 International Convention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter. This prohibits the “intentional ocean dumping several categories of waste including high-level radioactive wastes and chemical warfare agents, and allows disposal of certain other substances through a permit system.” The IMO is responsible for the secretariat responsibilities associated with this convention. At present, there are 78 parties to this convention. The 1996 Protocol, as an update to the London Convention, went one step further and banned all dumping, except for certain items, which may be considered for dumping.¹³

The IMO’s legislation and agreements have led to a vast improvement in the shipping impacts on the ocean. Safety at sea, navigation, routing, transportation of dangerous goods, marine pollution from ships, dumping and incineration at sea are all reasonably well addressed via the various conventions and associated protocols. However, there are variations in the implementation of these agreements in regions. The MARPOL 1973/78 requires a strengthened implementation in many parts of the world, and this needs to be supplemented by technical developments and installations.¹⁴

One of the major issues which the IMO faces is that its processes are laborious and slow, and because of this, fail to deal with the immediate problems the industry is facing. This problem is caused also by the nature of unanimity which it uses while developing its policies. As a measure to speed up the process, the concept of tacit acceptance has been adopted. Another problem is that the instruments which IMO has developed do not have any mechanisms which can help ensure that member states are meeting their responsibilities. This is left up to the members themselves, which often leads to variations in implementation.¹⁵

Conclusion

Marine pollution is not a simple problem with a simple answer. It is a global issue which requires the thorough implementation of existing agreements as well as development and implementation of new marine and coastal area policies to reduce the perils associated with it. It requires active cooperation between specialized agencies, governments, public and private industries rather than prohibitive legislation alone.

There is still lack of knowledge about this area and for this, marine environmental education should be imparted as this will lead to more research and strengthened national and international institutions. While the agencies have contributed substantially in improving protection mechanisms for the marine environment from ship-source pollution and environmental degradation, there is still a lot left to be done.

Bibliography

de La Fayette, L. A. (1998) The London Convention 1972: Preparing for the future. The International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law, 13 (4) pp. 515-536.

de La Fayette, L. A. (2005) New Approaches for Addressing Damage to the Marine Environment. The International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law, 20 (1) pp. 167-224.

Lee, M. (2005) Oceans & Coastal Resources: A Briefing Book. Web.

International Maritime Organization. Web.

Osnin, N. A. (2004) Scope and Impact of IMO Conventions. Maritime Institute of Malaysia. Web.

Schachter, O. & Serwer, D. (1971) Marine Pollution Problems and Remedies. The American Journal of International Law, 65 (1) pp. 84-111.

Thia-Eng, C. (1999) Marine Pollution Prevention and Management in the East Asian Seas: A Paradigm Shift in Concept, Approach and Methodology. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 39 (1-12) pp. 80-88.

Footnotes

1. de La Fayette, L. A. (2005) The International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law, 20 (1) pp. 167-224.
2. Schachter, O. & Serwer, D. (1971) The American Journal of International Law, 65 (1) pp. 84-111.
3. Ibid.
4. Ibid.
5. Ibid.
6. Ibid.
7. Thia-Eng, C. (1999) Marine Pollution Bulletin, 39 (1-12) pp. 80-88.
8. International Maritime Organization. Web.
9. Ibid.
10. Lee, M. (2005) Oceans & Coastal Resources: A Briefing Book. Web.
11. International Maritime Organization.
12. Lee, M. (2005).
13. de La Fayette, L. A. (1998) The International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law, 13 (4) pp. 515-536.
14. Osnin, N. A. (2004) Scope and Impact of IMO Conventions. Maritime Institute of Malaysia. Web.
15. Ibid.

Environmental pollution remains a major challenge in the world today. While several strides have been made with regard to environmental waste management, it is believed that a lot has to be done to realize a safe and sustainable environment, with a significant number of pollutants emanating from petroleum products.

Research indicates that the United States consumes approximately 26% of the world’s petroleum even though it produces only 10% of the total petroleum annually. Importantly, automobiles consume up to 43% of petroleum, emerging as the world’s leading single consumer (EPA, 1994). Automobiles generally refer to all moving machines that burn gas. They include but not limited to boats, cars, motorcycles and trucks.

Even though emissions from individual cars might be considered to be negligible, most cities are finding car emissions to be the greatest single pollutant of the environment. This is as a result of millions of personal cars owned in the world today. From the mechanical functioning of these cars, their movement is made possible as a result of burning fuel, a process, which leads to the emission of several pollutants into the environment (Klepal, 2004).

These pollutants are emitted due to the inability to have a perfect combustion process that would involve the breakdown of hydrocarbons into water and carbon dioxide in the presence of oxygen. Common gasoline pollutants include nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and other evaporative emissions.

Hydrocarbon emissions occur because of incomplete or imperfect combustion of fuel molecules. Chemically, hydrocarbons generate ground-level ozone when they react with nitrogen oxides in air. Noteworthy, ground-level smog is highly responsible for the formation of smog. Ozone is equally dangerous; it causes health problems like cancer, respiratory difficulties, irritation of eyes and damages lungs (EPA, 1994). This has become the commonest air pollutant in urban areas.

As mentioned above, nitrogen oxides equally constitute to gasoline pollutants and are sometimes denoted as NOx. These oxides form when nitrogen and oxygen are combined under elevated temperature and pressure. Similarly, nitrogen oxides lead to the formation of ozone, which has an array of effects especially on human health.

Apart from ozone, NOx are also responsible for the formation of acid rain, which occurs when NOx react with water to form nitrous acids (EPA, 1994). Acid rain causes corrosion of cars and iron roofs. It has also been blamed for some health complications like skin cancer.

Oxides of carbon are also major gasoline pollutants, which have remained harmful to the environment. For example, carbon monoxide forms when carbon is partially oxidized during combustion in automobile engines (WBPCB, 2004).

Exposure to carbon monoxide has been found to be fatal. It is highly associated with the inhibition of the flow of oxygen in the bloodstream, a condition that may result into suffocation and instant death. This is a health hazard especially to people who have heart-related problems. Similarly, carbon dioxide is a gasoline pollutant, which has turned out to be lethal to the environment.

According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, CO₂ is a product of perfect combustion in automobile engines and poses major environmental threats today. Although carbon dioxide does not affect human beings directly, it falls into the category of greenhouse gases and is a key cause of global warming (Klepal, 2004). It therefore follows that automobiles greatly contribute to today’s environmental pollution issues.

References

EPA. (1994). Automobile Emissions: An Overview. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Retrieved from https://www.epa.gov/

Klepal, D. (2004). Auto pollution increases health risks. Enquirer. Web.

WBPCB. (2004). Automobile Pollution. West Bengal Pollution Control Board. Web.

Introduction: The Significance of the Issue

In the age when the environmental awareness has become an integral part of everyone’s life, the issue of drinking water pollution causes considerable anxiety and demands immediate solutions. Unfortunately, in the light of the recent conducted researches, the fact that drinking water is being polluted by large amounts of chloramine is undeniable, as well as the fact that chloramines is especially hazardous for people’s health.

It is worth mentioning that certain steps have already been undertaken to avoid the danger of pollution. However, it cannot be denied that the issue of chloramines in drinking water remains unsolved, which calls for another consideration of the issue and offering probable solutions of the given problem.

Analyzing current researches (see Adams, C., Timmons, T., Seitz, T., Lane, J., & Levotch, S. (2005), ENDS report (2009), Obolensky, A., Singer, P., & Shukairy, H. M. (2007), Shang, C., Qi, Y., & Lo, I. M. C. (2005) and Yang, J., Harrington, G., & Noguera, D. (2008)) and the recently offered solutions, one can possibly evaluate the impact of the problem and predict the outcomes.

ENDS Raising the Awareness of the Problem

Although the report offered by ENDS cannot be considered an all-embracing research on the issue of chloramine emergence in drinking water, it is still a considerably detailed summary of the problem and the probable consequences.

The given paper raises people’s awareness of the issue and, even though omitting certain relevant information, it still offers an honest report on what effects chloramine has on the drinking water and how it can possibly threaten people’s health.

It is important that the authors focus on the previous use of chlorine and explain the benefits of chloramines: “Drinking water disinfected with chloramines instead of chlorine is more likely to pass regulatory standards for disinfection by-products, researchers have confirmed” (27).

The Factors Enhancing the Problem and How to Eliminate Them

One of the most notable researches in the given field, the one conducted by Shang & Lo (2005) allows to see where the problem of chlorine starts from and what exact factors enhance the increase of chloramine in the drinking water. Helping to realize where the given problem stems from, the researchers thus allow to approach some solutions for the problem.

According to the research, “Generally, there are three ways to achieve monochloramination in practice, namely, preammoniation, concurrent additions, and preformed monochloramine, according to the sequence of chemical additions” (Shang & Lo, 2005, 120). Showing how the three above-mentioned procedures run, the researchers help to understand how to prevent these factors from occurring.

Chloramine and the Formation of By-Products: Where It All Starts

Another important research concerning the use of chloramines in drinking water and the corresponding consequences, the paper by Obolensky, Singer, & Shukairy (2007) allows to evaluate the actual threat and see the damage it can make.

In addition, it is essential that the researchers manage to offer the statistics on the drinking water pollution, therefore, making it possible to see the exact damage that the current system makes to the drinking water: “Overall, 2% of chlorine dose values and less than 1% of ammonia dose values and chlorine residual measurements were flagged” (Obolensky, Singer, & Shukairy, 2007, 56).

Modeling the Procedure, Searching for the Solution

To address the problem properly, one needs to develop a corresponding model, with all the factors mentioned and all the priorities in line. Among the most successful models of nitrification of chloraminated drinking water, the one offered by Yang, Harrington & Noguera (2008) seems the most legit.

According to the author, the given study offers an accurate model of the processes which occur during the chloramination of the drinking water. However, as the author states, “Despite these studies and the developed statistical models, the mechanism of how and when a nitrification episode will strike is still not completely understood” (Yang, Harrington & Noguera, 2008, 731).

The Possible Way out: Alternative Disinfection Means

The last, but not the least, the research conducted by Adams, Timmons, Seitz Lane & Levotch (2005) puts the rest of the facts into their places. Offering efficient means to reduce the number of byproducts emerging as a result of dissolving chemicals in the water, the given research suggests a way to solve the problem.

However, as the researchers claim, the given method presupposes “achieving compliance with THM and HAA5 regulatory requirements,” which is quite problematic. Hence, new ways of purifying the drinking water should be considered.

Conclusion: There Is Still Some Hope Left

Thus, judging by the above-mentioned facts and the solutions suggested for the elimination of the problem, it can be suggested that the issue can be handled.

Obviously, the chloramines in the drinking water pose a considerable threat to the population and can lead to a number of health issues; yet it is evident that there can be a simple solution to the problem, i.e., tracking the level of chloarmine in the water and developing the mechanisms which can coordinate and reduce the chloramines level.

Even though the chemical cannot be ousted from drinking water completely, its percentage can still be shrunk to the amount which will pose no hazard for human health.

Reference List

Adams, C., Timmons, T., Seitz, T., Lane, J., & Levotch, S. (2005). Trihalomethane and haloacetic acid disinfection by-products in full-scale drinking water systems. Journal of Environmental Engineering, 131(4), 526-534.

ENDS (2009). Chloramine disinfection cuts-by products: Study. Environmental Data Services, 418, 27.

Obolensky, A., Singer, P., & Shukairy, H. M. (2007). Information collection rule data evaluation and analysis to support impacts on disinfection by-product formation. Journal of Environmental Engineering, 133(1), 53-63.

Shang, C., Qi, Y., & Lo, I. M. C. (2005). Factors affecting inactivation behavior in the monochloramination range. Journal of Environmental Engineering, 133(1), 119-129.

Yang, J., Harrington, G., & Noguera, D. (2008). Nitrification modeling in pilot-scale chloraminated drinking water distribution systems. Journal of Environmental Engineering, 134(9), 731-742.

Introduction

Oil Spill is the accidental or wilful release of crude oil and other liquid petroleum products into water of land. The term has acquired a very sinister meaning and an oil spill generally means an environmental disaster with innumerable animals and plants generally wasting away due to the harmful effects of pollution. While oil spill does not cause immediate death or destruction to life and property like other disasters such as hurricanes and earthquakes, the effects of an oil spill can linger for a long time and continue harming generations of living things. The paper examines various aspects of oil spills such as the damage to marine life, methods utilized for spill containment, their effectiveness and also examines a few major oil spills that have occurred recently.

Ecological Risk Assessment of Oil Spill

Weins (2007) has proposed a model for the ecological risk assessment to evaluate the damage that is caused to the environment due to oil spills. The author contends that when a large oil spill occurs, many arguments take place about the damages caused by the spill and the accusations, denials and heated discussion take place on the amount of damage that has been caused. The author has suggested that the ecological risk assessment of the damage can be predictive and retrospective. In the predictive system, the effects of oil spills, pipeline bursts, building of nuclear reactors are estimated and forecasted as accurately as possible. Retrospective is the calculation of the effects of an oil spill that has already taken place. According to Wiens, the ecological risk assessment is done in three phases and they are explicit formulation of the problem, analysis phase and the characterisation of the risk phase. In the explicit formulation of the problem phases, is created as a hypothesis about whether and why certain ecological effects result from specific activities of humans. The anticipated effects are identified clearly with a reference target that states the required condition of the system and the measurable end points. The aim here is to prevent any undirected searches for anything that seems as an effect or vague and un-measurable end points. In the analysis phase, the exposure to stressors and the possible ecological effects are identified and evaluated. It is not presumed that the presence of oil will definitely result in ecological degradation. Such relationships are assigned with a probability of occurrence when doing so is not possible, the plausibility of the relationship should be assessed. A characterization of the risk is the phase the likelihood that a stressor actually caused a specific ecological effect and this s evaluated. Certain inherent uncertainties in the measurement of the parameters, confusing data, any natural variations and others are also assumed. This method produces a reasoned, logical objective and either proves or disproves that a particular effect was caused by a certain ecological problem.

The author has applied this model to understand the effects of the Exxon Valdez oil tanker spill that occurred in the Alaskan region. The effects of the oil spill on a species of ducks called the Harlequin ducks were formulated and the author attempted to trace out the immediate and residual effects of the oil on the birds. The area of the spill included almost eight hundred kilometres of the shore line including a number of small inlets and streams. Weins (2007) has claimed that in the region of the direct spill, the population of the ducks fell very steeply. In addition, other areas that actually did not receive any spill also faced a decline in their mating and population patterns. A schematic of the model as applied is shown in the following illustration.

Weins has argued that when spills occur, the whole food chain gets affected and its not just one specifies that suffers. In the above illustration, mussels that form the food of ducks accumulate the oils and the ducks that eat the mussels are also effected. In addition, they also encounter the oil on the water and on the shore and thus the birds suffer from this mode also. The ingestion of the mussels leads to increased hydrocarbons in the bodies of the ducks and they suffer from lack of reproduction as either the makes are not able to produce the required sperm count or the eggs have fragile shells and cannot hatch.

Assessment Stages of Damages caused by Oil Spills

Boehm (et all, 2007) has written about the stages involved in the risk assessment of exposure due to oil spills. The authors argue that the effects of the oil spill results in a number of complex changes that happen over many molecular, spatial and temporal scales. The nature and extent of exposure of biological resources to spilled oil components or the exposure assessment is important for the ecological risk assessment and the related natural resource damage assessment investigative frameworks. According to the authors, the important factors of an oil spill that have form the critical effects of the spill are the chemical and physical properties of the oil; the pathways that take oil and its component chemical compounds to a receptor; the ways in which these receptors encounter and interact with the spilled oil; the background exposure or the non-spill related exposure to the same chemicals as found in petroleum that is unrelated to the spill, but present in the environment in the spill area. The release of oil into water depends on the type of oil spilled; mixing energy such as waves, wind; release location; possible changes in exposure as a result of the use of chemical countermeasures such as dispersants. Light, refined products such as gasoline evaporate quickly and exposures to its chemical components are short lived and minimal. Heavier fuels and crude oils will weather more slowly with less volatile, but soluble components existing as important stressors. The greatest damages occur in spills of light to middle crude and refined oils.

Osuji (et all 2007) have written about the time factors that are involved in oil spills. They speak of different stages of time frames in an oil spill and these are briefly mentioned as below:

1. Stage 1. Spill in progress – 0 to 14 days: This period covers the time when oil is on the surface of the water and is likely to have its maximum exposure potential as a substance on the sea surface, potentially intersecting with seabirds and marine mammals.
2. Stage 2. Cleanup period – 1 to 24 months: In this period, oil has largely moved from the water surface to a shoreline with sub tidal sediments. In this period a maximum concentrations and exposure potential may occur along the shorelines and in near shore embayment. Activities such as natural events such as wave energy and physical removal; biodegradation and human cleanup occur and oil residues are left to naturally degrade and otherwise weather.
3. Stage 3. Recovery period – 24 months to 10 years or more: In this time period and after the cleanup standards are achieved, impacted resources may recover or be in the process of recovering, even as remnants of the spill may remain in the system as isolated deposits of weathered oil. The definition of recovery is the return to baseline services and conditions, where baseline services should reflect conditions that would have been expected at the assessment area had the discharge of oil not occurred, taking into account both natural processes and those that are the result of human activities. Recovery is also defined as the return of a species or population to a state that would have existed if the spill had not occurred, taking into account natural variability and uncertainty in the environmental parameters being measured Because environments are in a constant state of change due to ongoing natural and human factors, the definition of recovery as a return to pre-spill conditions is not valid because natural change would occur over time whether the spill had taken place or not (Osuji, et all 2007).

Environmental disasters as risk regulation catalysts

Kahn (2007) has suggested that it only when environmental disasters occur that the government and organization wake up and try to bring in regulatory control. The author suggests that unexpected events such as environmental catastrophes capture wide public attention. Soon after such shocks, new regulation is often enacted. He argues that for 15 years the Congress spent labouring in vain to produce a national oil-spill liability law. Some believed that it would take a catastrophic oil spill to break the legislative stalemate. In 1989 The largest spill in U.S. history occurred when the Exxon Valdez dumped more than 40 million gallons of oil into Alaska’s Prince William Sound. It took a disaster of that magnitude to get both chambers to pass bills that set up a national program to parcel out financial responsibility for oil spills and to pay for cleanup and damages. Big shocks educate the rationally ignorant voter, leading to pressure for legislative or regulatory reform. Under the Oil Pollution Act of 1990, the owner or operator of a facility from which oil is discharged is liable for the costs associated with the containment or cleanup of the spill and any damages resulting from the spill.

Methods employed in Cleaning Oil Spills

Mona (et all, 2007) has proposed a number of methods that can be employed for cleanup operations of oil spills. The author suggests that oil sheen cannot be cleaned but they only be dispersed by using detergents. The detergents make the oil to settle down but this creates pollution on the seabed. Some types of equipment that are used are Absorbent Boom, Sausage Containment Boom, Skimmers, Snares and others. Bioremediation where biological agents are employed to remove oil; burning which can be done only when there are no strong winds, the sea is calm and the oil has not dispersed; use of dispersants that work like detergents. The author suggests that the detergents cluster around oil globules and allow then to be carried by water but it only help the oil to spread to a wider region. But dispersed oil globules are heavier than water and would sink to the ocean floor, causing more damage.

Harris (et all, 2007 ha suggested that the ill effects of pollution and hazardous wastes are not gone even after twenty five years. The authors revisited and examined a hazardous waste location that had been sealed about twenty-five years back and found that the local population, the animals and plants in the surrounding area had suffered from traces of the wastes that had mingled with the ground water and had percolated into the drinking water, the food chain and plants and animals showed stunted growth.

Some Notable Oil Spills in recent history

Anthony (et all, 2006) has provided details on some great oil spills in the past few decades since oil was transported through large oil tankers. The following table provides details of a few important ones.

Table 1. Major Oil Spill Disasters (Anthony, et all, 2006)

Conclusion

The paper has examined various aspects related to oil spills and has discussed the ecological risk assessment of oil spills that help in estimating the possible harms caused by oil spills to the environment and the assessment stages of damages caused by oil spills. Various methods employed in cleaning up oil spills have also been discussed and the question if ecological disasters are required to force the government to bring in legislation have also been asked. The paper has also provided details on some major oil spills.

References

1. Anthony Olagunju G. April 2006. Criminalization of seafarers for accidental discharge of oil: is there justification in international law for criminal sanction for negligent or accidental pollution of the sea? Journal of Maritime Law and Commerce. Volume 37. Issue 2. pp: 219
2. Boehm Paul D. Page David S. 2007. Exposure Elements in Oil Spill Risk and Natural Resource Damage Assessments: A Review. Journal of Human and Ecological Risk Assessment. Volume 13. Issue 2. pp: 418-449
3. Harris Glenn. Nelson Leah. 2007. Revisiting a Hazardous Waste Site 25 Years Later. Journal of Environmental Health. Volume 69. Issue 9. pp: 36-44
4. Kahn Matthew E. 2007. Environmental disasters as risk regulation catalysts? The role of Bhopal, Chernobyl, Exxon Valdez, Love Canal, and Three Mile Island in shaping U.S. environmental law. Journal of Risk Uncertainty. Volume 35. pp: 17-43
5. Mona A. Al-Hashem. Paul F. Brain, 2007. Effects of oil pollution at Kuwait’s greater Al-Burgan oil field on polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon concentrations in the tissues of the desert lizard Acanthodactylus scutellatus and their ant prey. Journal of Ecotoxicology. Volume 16. pp: 551-555
6. Osuji Leo C. Ugochukwu C. Opiah. 2007. Hydrocarbon contamination of a terrestrial ecosystem: the case of Oshire-2 oil spill in Niger Delta, Nigeria. Journal of Environmentalist. Volume 37. pp: 337-340
7. Wiens John A. 2007. Applying Ecological Risk Assessment to Environmental Accidents: Harlequin Ducks and the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill. Journal of Bioscience. Volume 57. Issue 8. pp: 769-778

2.

One of the major problems facing major cities and towns in the world is pollution; wastes from firms and households are the major causes of pollution. The United States in general is undergoing fast industrialization; the resultant is a country with high rates of pollution. Air and water pollution are the major pollution that occur in the United States cities and towns (Calhoun 68). This paper discusses air and water pollution in Los Angeles, the United Stated second largest city.

Los Angeles

Los Angeles is United States of America second largest city; it was discovered by the Chinese in 1781, but upgraded to city status in 1850. It is the home of a number of ethnicity, with the white Americans being the majority at 46.9%. African American follows with 11.2%, Asians at 10.5% other small tribes that include Native American. The diversity of different tribes in the county has created a metropolitan city: the city covers an area of 3,041.3/km^2. Population census conducted in 2009n recorded that the city population was four, 094,047 up from 3,694,820 in 2000(The city of Los Angeles Official Web Site).

Air and water pollution in Los Angeles

California Air Resources Board has gauged Los Angeles as one of the most polluted environments in the United States. Air is a natural occurring resource that surround human beings; pure clean air is odourless, colourless and particle free; air pollution is any activity of man or nature, which contaminates the air; contamination mean any element what so ever that is added to the atmosphere and reduces the sanity of air.

Air pollutants may be visible or invisible; the result is that there is pollution of the atmosphere. Breathing air should be pure and “holy”, but the activities of man hinder it to hold these characteristics; Los Angeles is considered as the most air polluted country in the region.

Water pollution on the other hand, involves any activities that affect the degree of purity of the water; clean water is healthy for drinking by both human beings and animals. Water is polluted if any particle whether soluble to insoluble in water has been added to it, in Los angles water can be broadly categorised in naturally flowing or the tapped water in our estates. Human activities are the major causes of water pollution; this is through disposal of solid, gaseous and liquid materials into the water bodies.

When man disposes his wastes into the water bodies, it means that some new elements that have reduced the purity of the water. The water at an ideal situation should be as pure as it is when it is coming out of the rocks. Over 70% of the earth’s service is covered with water and thus its purity is of great concern; human beings and animals for their live hood use it (Mazurek and Clarence 68).

Causes of air pollution

In 2007, a research conducted by South Coast Air Quality Management District came up with a list of possible polluters. They classified them as; household air pollutants, industries and factories air pollutants transport industry gasses emission, Electricity production (electricity is mostly produced from diesel and coal) and construction industry (South Coast Air Quality Management District).

All these human factors are in the process of production of goods and services to feed the increasing population (see the graph below for the current trend in air pollution).

(South Coast Air Quality Management District)

Human activity that leads to air and water pollution

Household pollution involve the activities that take place at home as human beings try to have comfort in life, they include cooking gases emissions, burning of fossil fuels , water materials, sewage, dirty waters, burning of plastics and other wastes. When these wastes get their way in to the atmosphere, they pollute the air and water.

The transport industry is quoted as one of the sectors that pollute the environment greatly: this happens because as we move the motor vehicle produces some smoke that gets into the air and cause pollution. The motor vehicles produce carbon monoxide. When this goes into the air, it is immiscible. When in the atmosphere, it remain there for a long time, when it rains the particles are mixed with water and what is referred to as acid rain falls. When the acid rain falls, the entire emission from transport modes finds its way to the water bodies.

Industries and factories pollute air in the course of their operation: they do of through disposal of gaseous wastes, liquid and solid wastes into the environment that finds its way it to the air polluting it. Los Angeles is industrializing fast with industries in different sectors coming up; as they produce goods and services, they have some wastes materials disposed to the environment.

Such materials include smokes, dirty waters, wasted chemicals and other solid wastes disposed on land, water and into the atmosphere. Some of them are soluble in water while others are invisible when in air, thus they cause massive danger to the human beings and animals since when they drink the water they have no clue that the water may have been contaminated (Calhoun 68).

Consequences and effects of air and water pollution

When pollution occurs, it distorts the natural operation of the world resources, when nature is affected, it cuts back to human beings with some negative effects. When air has been polluted, it lacks the salinity and purity for breathing safely. When animals and human beings breathe the impure air, they suffer from disease like cancer and Asthma.

When a population is not healthy, then it will have reduced production and the expense on medical attention increased. Air is used by both animals and plants, carbon dioxide is used in the synthesis process to make plant foods, when air is polluted then the plants cannot make food that animals depend on, thus the pollution threatens life on earth. Another consequence of air pollution is the un-comfort it causes on human beings. Living in a polluted environment is not pleasant thus, people feel uncomfortable.

Water is used for domestic and industrial use, when polluted, this noble use will go unsatisfied, human beings will suffer lack of clean water and when they take, the polluted ones they are likely to suffer from diseases water borne diseases like Cholera. There is life in water, when the waters are polluted, then aquatic life is affected; some aquatic animals and plants are human food thus food is affected. Finally, when living in an area that water is polluted, human beings miss an opportunity to enjoy life to the fullest.

Conclusion

Human activities in Los Angeles have been blamed for causing air and water pollution; the pollutions comes from waste materials disposed into the atmosphere as households, firms, factories and industries conducts their activities. California Air Resources Board in 2010 gauged Los Angeles as one of the United States most polluted city: this has been attributed to its high population and fast industrialization. When water and air are polluted, they have negative effects on human health and threaten life.

Works Cited

Calhoun, Yael. Water Pollution. New York: Infobase Publishing, 2005. Print.

Mazurek, Jan, and Clarence Davies. Pollution control in the United States: evaluating the system. New York: Resources for the Future, 1998. Print.

South Coast Air Quality Management District. Air Quality. Apr. 2010. Web.

The city of Los Angeles Official Web Site. The City of Los Angeles. 2011. Web.

The Effect of specific land use practices (sewage treatment, arable farming, livestock farming) on the dispersal of these pollutants to surface waters. The nitrogen cycle has a problem in that human beings are contributing to twice the nitrogen entry into the land-based nitrogen cycle (Vitousek et al, 1997).

The alterations due to human domination have resulted in the increase in global concentrations of the greenhouse gas or nitrous oxide and the formation of photochemical smog (nitric oxide). Land use practices have been faulty to a large extent. Long-term fertility of the soil has been affected due to the loss of essential ingredients calcium and potassium.

The soils and water resources like streams and lakes have become acidified. Policies need to be implemented at the political level for total commitment to prevent water pollution. Management schemes should be need-based and demand-driven.

Decision makers have to understand the requirements of the farmers at grass root levels. Rural settlement problems of agriculture are highlighted as different from urban ones by some ecologists. Water containing the nitrogen has been carried to the estuaries and the coast where it is a major pollutant (Vitousek et al, 1997).

A comprehensive knowledge of the nitrogen distribution to the land and acquatic systems would convey a picture of the nitrogen distributed to the coastal zone (Green et al, 2004).

Simultaneously plants growing in low-nitrogen soils have almost disappeared and the animals and insects which depended on them have also been lost. Plant and animal lives thus have been altered changing the ecosystems. Decline and reduced biodiversity have been seen in the marine life and fisheries (Vitousek, 1997).

Farming

Figure 1 Nitrate pollution originating from agricultural practice (Perry and Gaskell, 2006)

Agriculture accounts for 70% of pollution of soil by nitrates (Sweeten and Auvermann, 2006). Human beings are responsible for increasing fixation, releasing stored nitrogen and also mobilizing nitrogen from the storage pools. The fertilizers contribute the greatest to the human-delivered nitrogen fixation and resultant contribution to the cycle.

Manures and organic nitrogen fertilizers are not included in the contribution of nitrogen fixation by fertilizers: these are involved with mere transfer of previously fixed nitrogen from place to place. There is no new fixation involved with organic fertilizers.

Organic farming adds to the challenges of nitrogen management (Bergstrom, 2005). The substantial increase in nitrogen fertilizer production for the past seventy years has further contributed to the upsets in the nitrogen cycle. The uncontrolled population growth and urbanization have both added to the issue; the increased demand for food would only increase the problem making the future bleak.

Biologically available nitrogen is found only in one-third of the land surface of the earth where crops like soybeans, peas, alfalfa and other leguminous crops grow (Vitousek et al, 1997). The growth of rice too helps in the nitrogen fixation from the atmosphere. It is difficult to measure the amount that is biologically fixed; it could be considered to be 40Tg (teragrams) per year.

Fertilizer fixation comes to about 80Tg per year. Crop residues can replace the nitrogen in rotational arable farming (Wivstad, 2005). Management must include the “mineralisability” of the nitrogen in the crop residue.

Fertilizers may be recommended as a complement to the previous year’s crop residue (Fertilizer recommendations, 2000). Planting earlier or delaying planting may actually cause more pollution as mineralization would continue and cause leaching during the next harvest (Shepherd, 1996).

Burning of fossil fuels like coal and oil releases nitrogen-based trace gases back to the atmosphere from the long-term storage. Vehicles, factories, power plants and combustion processes also make their contribution of about 20Tg (teragrams) to the atmosphere (Vitousek et al, 1997). Humans are also responsible for mobilizing stored nitrogen from the soil organic matter and tree trunks.

About 10Tg per year could be mobilized following the drainage of wetlands. Clearing of land for crops could contribute about 20Tg of nitrogen per year. All the quantity measurements are just approximate values and no one is too sure. Human activities are believed to transfer double the nitrogen from the atmosphere to the land-based nitrogen (Vitousek et al, 1997).

Livestock farming

Livestock contributes to phosphorus pollution by manure production and soil compaction by trampling evidenced by the areas around the water troughs (Sweeten and Auvermann, 2006). The consumption of plants and animals help the farm animals obtain their reactive nitrogen while soil or water provides the reactive nitrogen of plants (Fields, 2004). Livestock farming requires an adequate water supply.

However protection of the water quality and air quality are also part of the livestock farming. In addition nutrients are to be appropriately used for the benefits of the livestock. Mortality disposal is to be in a scientific manner. Energy efficiency and biosecurity have to be specifically attended to (Sweeten and Auvermann, 2006).

Figure 2 Phosphate pollution originating from agricultural practice (Perry and Gaskell, 2006)

The pollution by nitrates can occur due to the inconsistency of nitrate deposition in the fields. The shed which houses the livestock would hold the slurry especially in the winter while the fields do not have the nitrates. Slurry if deposited on the land due to the shed being over-filled would make the situation worse as there is less plant intake and the runoff is disturbed due to the frozen surface.

Nitrate losses could be minimized by efficient management of the slurry stores (Sweeten and Auvermann, 2006). The figure on page 3 shows how water is contaminated with nitrates and the places where best management practices could work.

Phosphorus excess could occur due to application of slurry and organic manure in the fields (See figure on page 5). The application would be assessed by the nitrogen content without bothering about the phosphorus content. Automatically after application, there is excess of phosphorus.

The N: P ratio of inorganic fertilizers is 8: 1 while cattle manure has the ratio 6: 1 and pig manure has 3:1. In both the livestock manure more phosphorus content is combined (Sweeten and Auvermann, 2006). The bioavailability also varies between the nitrogen and the phosphorus. Phosphorus is mostly bioavailable while the nitrogen is only half bioavailable.

Sewage treatment

Appropriate treatment of sewage before release into the rivers is essential for preventing pollution of water. Treated effluent has its uses: in gardening and for cooling (Pollution, Chapter 5). Planning for sewage treatment plants, crematoriums and low cost sanitation facilities must be the responsibility of the local policy makers and planners. Sewage treatment plants decrease the burden of heavy pollution on the sea waters.

The impacts of the pollutant on water quality and ecosystem function

Land-based nitrogen has produced a vast increase of nitrates in the surface waters. Bodies of water have shown a six-fold to twenty fold increase. The input would have come from watersheds polluted from the atmosphere and fertilizers.

Lakes in Norway and rivers in the US have shown more than double the rise in concentration of nitrates. The rise in the density of population has a direct relationship to the rise in concentration of nitrates. However the total nitrogen may not rise in the same proportion as the nitrates (Vitousek et al, 1997).

Nitrates in surface water have shown an increase in agricultural land. It is difficult to measure the extent of the problem. The nitrates in the surface water may not contribute much to the ground water. Drinking-water pollution with high level of nitrates can cause problems in infants especially (Vitousek et al, 1997).

Conversion of the nitrates to nitrites causes problems when absorbed into the blood. Methemoglobin is formed from hemoglobin. Elevated level of this is methemoglobinemia which causes brain damage or death. It is however rare.

Acidification of lakes and streams are occurring in to two ways. The acid rain, snow, fog and other such climatic issues contribute to the acid deposition in soil and water. This acid deposition is prevented by controlling the atmospheric emissions of sulphur dioxide. However the nitric oxide which forms nitric acid is neglected in the process.

One point to note here is that soils are becoming saturated and cannot neutralize the acid deposition before the surface water flows to the streams (Vitousek et al, 1997). The streams get all the excess nitrates. The winter snowpacks produce another problem. With the melting of snow, there is a sudden rush of nitric-acidic water into the streams. A sudden rise in acid concentration would have its ill-effects on the vegetation and fisheries.

Ecosystems are also rich in phosphorus. When the inorganic nitrogen reaches the freshwater systems, eutrophication and acidification occur (Vitousek et al, 1997). The plant and animal species become less diverse. The fish populations reduce in number and diversity. Control of the sulphur dioxide emissions alone will not control acid rain and its deposition on the ground soil and streams and lakes.

In temperate zone fresh-water lakes phosphorus is responsible for the eutrophication by limiting the activity of the algae and other plants. In temperate zone estuaries and coastal waters it is the nitrogen inputs which control the situation.

Here the nitrogen that flows into the water is minimal. The fixation of the nitrogen by the plankton is also low. At the same time microbes found on the sea floor rapidly release the nitrogen back into the atmosphere (Vitousek et al, 1997). So very little nitrogen is lost.

When surface waters are loaded with nitrogen, there is no mixing of waters of different temperatures. The colder water is below the surface which has warmer water. The bottom layer will be anoxic or hypoxic. However this phenomenon is less seen in freshwaters.

Cost effective measures for mitigating the impacts of the land use practices either at source or in the receiving water

Proper use of land, timely application of the right amount of fertilizers, waiting for the right climate, ensuring proper drainage and the best management practices influence nitrate pollution (Sweeten and Auvermann, 2006; Shepherd and Chambers, 2007). Reducing the production of nitrogen fertilizer could slow down their use and mobility.

Increasing its efficiency is another means of solving the problem. Usually the fertilizer applied will be half lost to the air and water. The agricultural plants do not utilize all of it. This loss can be reduced and the efficiency increased (Vitousek et al, 1997).

Figure 3 Prevention of Environmental Pollution from Agricultural Activity www.defra.gov.uk/evidence/statistics/foodfarm/…/observatory/…/obs03.

The fertilizer that is wasted has all the nitrogen that causes the pollution. This waste is expensive and produces harmful environmental changes and has to be reduced. The best management practices would decrease the amount of fertilizers used and reduce the losses into air and water. Yields or profits must not be affected.

One method of preventing waste is to mix the fertilizer in irrigation water and allow the plants to receive the nutrition below the surface. Channels of water should not be allowed to run in between the plants in the agricultural land. Riparian forests should not be cleared and wetlands should not be drained so that fertilizer is not wasted (Vitousek et al, 1997).

Excess nitrogen can also be prevented from polluting streams and lakes by restoring wetlands and areas of riparian forests. Emissions from fossil fuels need to be reduced in the coming years. Fuel combustion must be controlled and made more efficient so that airborne by-products are reduced. This is especially significant with the rapid global growth of economy and industry (Vitousek et al, 1997).

In the livestock farming application of slurry or manure is avoided in the winter to prevent runoff. Phosphorus pollution occurs when slurry or manure is applied without regard to the climate, soil type, geography or with inappropriate management. Spreading the slurry in partially dry, cracked soil before a rain is advisable. Slurry application needs to be optimal so that it is done only in favorable conditions.

Slurry storage also must be limited to reduce losses. Application techniques could include injection and incorporation of manure. In the process, nitrate leaching could increase and must be avoided. Precision farming could prevent an excess of phosphorus in the land (Sweeten and Auvermann, 2006).

Non-inversion tillage led to greater phosphorus in the surface when compared to ploughing in a study (Sweeten and Auvermann). However in both techniques drainage water had little phosphorus. Controlling the livestock density, providing access to water courses and targeting the grazing area based on soil conditions help to control the phosphorus levels in the soil (Sweeten and Auvermann).

Sulphur dioxide emissions can be controlled to prevent acidic deposition. Appropriate sewage treatment plants, planned sites for crematoriums and low cost sanitary facilities help in reduction of pollution of air and water.

Best management practices must be redefined (Shepherd and Chambers, 2007). The attempt to manage the nitrogen cycle more biologically than before poses a challenge (Millenium Ecosystem Management, 2005). The figure 3 on page 9 indicates how integrated management of of the environment can prevent pollution.

Several papers have reviewed and listed these practices (Jarvis, 2000). Single practices have been researched with the aim of refining the protocol (SUM, 2005). Pollutants could interact with each other and produce further damage to the environment and water.

Research had indicated an increase in ammonia emissions when slurry was applied in June when previously it was done in October to reduce the leaching of the nitrates (Williams et al, 2006). The slurry had infiltrated less into the soil because of the warm temperature and dry soil.

Different cycles of nutrients also can have “pollution swapping”. Efforts of researchers must focus on increasing the efficiency of nutrients. Protection of soil quality by research of the biological, physical and chemical properties would evolve a new ecosystem protocol and this must be a priority (Stockdale, 2002).

Another strategy is to keep the price of the fertilizer and the product at an optimum. This would reduce over-fertilization. The present problem of over-fertilization to increase the yield needs to be managed. Research may correct the situation (Shepherd and Chambers (2007).

Nitrogen-use efficiency has been found to be much greater in organic arable systems than organic dairy systems. Efficient management of manure production include changes in the diet of the livestosck, the thin spreading of manure over a large piece of land and making the manure more manageable.

Conclusion

Human activities have doubled the nitrogen that enters the land-based nitrogen cycle and causes serious environmental changes. Soils and waters are being acidified producing a change in the flora and fauna. Diversity is being lost or reduced in aquatic and land ecosystems. Human contribution for alterations in the nitrogen cycles has to be controlled to prevent eutrophication and acidification of freshwaters.

The threat to the ecosystems must be prevented. Farms are to initiate best management practices to reduce the load of pollution to the environment, fresh waters and marine waters. Management of the nitrogen cycle at the farm level has many challenges but solution of conflicts should eliminate losses of nitrogen to the environment. Change can be implemented through the right policies.

References

Bergstrom, L., Bowman, B.T., and Sims, J.T. (2005). Definition of sustainable and unsustainable issues in nutrient management of modern agriculture. Soil Use Management Vol. 21:76-81

Fertilizer recommendations for agricultural and horticultural crops (MAFF Reference Book 209).The Stationery Office, London

Figure 3 Prevention of Environmental Pollution from Agricultural Activity www.defra.gov.uk/evidence/statistics/foodfarm/…/observatory/…/obs03.

Fields, S. (2004). Global Nitrogen: Cycling out of control. Environmental Health Perspectives Vol. 112(10): A56- A563 July 2004

Green, P.A., Vorosmarty, C.J., Meybeck, M., Galloway, J.N. Peterson, B.J. and Boyer, E.W. (2004). Pre-industrial and contemporary fluxes of nitrogen through rivers: a global assessment based on typology. Biogeochemistry, Vol. 68:71-105 Kluwer Academic Publishers

Jarvis, S.C. (2000). Progress in studies of nitrate leaching from grassland soils. Soil Use Management Vol. 16: 152-156

Millenium Ecosystem Assessment, Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Synthesis, Island Press, Washington D.C. (2005)

Perry, H. and Gaskill, P. et al. (2006). Agricultural change and environmental observation programme: Quantitative approaches to assessment of farm level changes and implications for the environment. Final Report, October 2006.

Shepherd, M.A., Harrison, R. and Webb, J. (2002) Managing soil organic matter-implications for soil structure on organic farms. Soil Use Management Vol. 18: 284-292

Shepherd, M. and Chambers, B. (2007). Perspective managing nitrogen on the farm: the devil is in the detail. Journal of Sci Food Agric.Vol. 87: 558-568 Society of Chemical Industry

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Introduction

• The environment impacts infant health;
• Air pollution is a problem in urban and rural settings;
• The lack of caretakers’ knowledge endangers infants.

Infant health relies on a variety of factors, the surrounding environment being one of them. For example, the quality of air and the presence of pollutants are among some of the most influential aspects of the environment. Adults and children suffer from allergies, asthma, and respiratory diseases every year (World Health Organization [WHO], 2018a). However, caretakers may not recognize some immediate risks or lack awareness of how air pollution can be challenged. This presentation offers some information about the damage of air pollution and presents a health promotion plan with helpful resources and evidence from research.

Environmental Factor: Air Pollution

Indoor air pollution sources

• Fuel for cooking: kerosene, coal, wood, crop waste, animal dung;
• Tobacco;
• Poor ventilation.

Outdoor air pollution sources

• Vehicle fuel fumes;
• Waste emissions;
• Ozone;
• Smog.

Air pollution refers to the contents of indoor and outdoor air and the presence of toxic particles and gases that negatively affect one’s health. For example, one of the known pollutants is tobacco – smoking is widely regarded as harmful to both active and passive smokers (World Health Organization [WHO], 2018b). Another risk factor is fuel fumes from vehicles or machinery (Knittel, Miller, & Sanders, 2016). Nonetheless, many types of pollution are not as commonly recognized, including lead, soot, biomass fuel fumes, and ozone. Many mothers and children are exposed to these substances without knowing their harmful effects.

The Impact of Air Pollution

Infant mortality

• 45% of infant deaths from pneumonia are due to poor indoor air quality (WHO, 2018b);
• Childhood pneumonia leads to lung and heart diseases, cancer;
• Pollution increases infant mortality.

Long-term impacts

• Asthma;
• Allergies;
• Bronchitis.

For infant’s fragile health, air pollution can lead to long-term damage. Poor household air quality is responsible for almost half of deaths from pneumonia for children under five years old (WHO, 2018b). It also doubles the chances of developing pneumonia, which can entail permanent lung damage, heart problems, and cancer (WHO, 2018b). In low- and middle-income countries and all areas that continue to use kerosene, wood, and other natural sources for heating and cooking, pneumonia remains one of the leading causes of infant death. However, developed countries also suffer from high pollution rates due to the abundance of manufacturing and transportation. Long-term exposure to high levels of nitrogen dioxide, a gas that is produced during power generation, heating, and various engine’s work, increases the rates of bronchitis and asthma in children (WHO, 2018a). According to Rich (2017), air pollution is directly connected to the levels of infant mortality regardless of the country’s economic prosperity or healthcare quality.

Health Promotion Plan

Plan’s goals

• Educate caregivers about sources of pollution;
• Provide strategies for safety promotion;
• Share resources with additional information.

Carbon monoxide (CO)

• Gas, kerosene heaters;
• Tobacco;
• Chimneys.

The goal of this health promotion plan is to educate caretakers about sources of pollution and strategies to protect infants from them. Three types of pollution are the focus of the plan – carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide and ozone, and soot.Carbon monoxide is an odorless gas that is produced by kerosene and gas heaters, wood stoves, fireplaces, generators, tobacco smoke, and vehicle engines (Apte & Salvi, 2016). Carbon monoxide poisoning leads to respiratory conditions, headaches, nausea, and death. This gas affects the quality of both indoor and outdoor air. To protect infants from CO poisoning, caregivers should annually check appliances that burn fuel, including chimneys and flues. Next, gas ovens and burners cannot be used for heat, and kerosene and gas heaters have to be properly ventilated. To prevent accidents, these heaters should be turned off during sleep. A CO alarm should be installed to monitor the levels of CO in the room.

Nitrogen dioxide and ozone

• Outside air pollutants;
• Hot, sunny weather;
• Power generators and heaters.

Nitrogen dioxide and ozone can make respiratory symptoms worse and make breathing difficult for infants. The concentration of these gases in the outdoor air changes with location and climate – ozone levels rise in polluted areas with hot temperatures and sunny weather (AirNow, 2020). To protect young children from this type of pollution, caretakers should monitor the quality of air using a tracker. During days with high levels of ozone, infants should spend time indoors to limit exposure to polluted air. Otherwise, any outdoor activities should be planned for mornings or evenings, when the levels are usually lower. To limit the production of nitrogen dioxide, households may avoid power generation and heating that involves combustion.

Soot

• Small particles traveling through the air;
• The consequence of other pollutants.

Similar to the other sources of air pollution, soot appears from vehicles with combustion engines, heating, and cooking with gas and wood. The gasses described above interact with air components and create tiny bits that travel through the air or concentrate on surfaces. Inhaling soot, an infant may develop respiratory problems such as asthma (AirNow, 2020). To ensure children’s safety, caretakers can clean their home as often as possible and make sure that rooms with heaters or cooking appliances are ventilated.

Examples from Research

• Awareness campaigns are a pillar of change (Rich, 2017);
• Air pollution should be targeted at all levels;
• Knowledge can turn into policy.

According to Rich (2017), awareness-raising is one of the most critical interventions for combating the impact of air pollution on infant health. Knowledge is vital at all levels of influence; for example, caretakers can use the promotion plan outline above to assess their home and other environments for infant safety and accident prevention. Furthermore, they may feel encouraged to create and support new policy or other local, state, or national action to lower the level of pollution. Advocacy for a lifestyle change, namely using less toxic fuel and implementing clean energy sources, is another outcome of knowledge projects.

• Policy leads to positive change;
• Bans and specific requirements lower mortality;
• Low emission zones, better transport, and clean fuel are impactful.

Nevertheless, individual action cannot be the only path for meaningful change. As Lee, Yoo, and Nam (2018) find, such national programs as the Clean Air Act in South Korea, can make urban, highly polluted regions cleaner and less toxic for infants. The authors find a link between the act and infant mortality rates, noting a positive impact of reducing air pollution on a major scale.

Burns et al. (2020) also find that bans on the use of coal and wood have some positive effects on mortality, along with specific vehicle standards for emission levels and engine types. Therefore, collective action is necessary to protect infants from the long-term effects of pollution.

Community Resources

Air Quality Index

• Website: www.airnow.gov;
• Daily index and forecasts for air quality.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

• Website: www.epa.gov;
• A list of ideas for accident prevention.

The first community resource is the website for the United States Air Quality Index. This national project allows people to check the quality of outside air in their city and state (AirNow, 2020). This resource is valuable for areas where ozone pollution is a serious issue. The site also offers air quality forecasts and recommendations for activities during high-risk times.

The second resource is the online collection of advice for caretakers to protect infants and young children from environmental threats, including air pollution (Unites States Environmental Protection Agency, 2019). Apart from mentioning recommendations listed in the health promotion plan, it also offers suggestions for lead and mercury poisoning, breathing techniques, and clean transport ideas. This is a helpful guide for individual activities that is easy to share with friends and coworkers, and it provides evidence-based information.

Conclusion

• Air pollution is a reversible problem;
• Some sources of heating and cooking expose infants to long-term health risks;
• Awareness-raising is essential for improving air quality.

Indoor and outdoor air pollution is a well-known problem among researchers, but many risk factors are unknown to people around the world. Caretakers, concerned with infant health, should consider various sources of pollution, including heating and cooking appliances and fuel sources that produce toxic gases and particles. Infant’s respiratory systems are fragile, and breathing in carbon monoxide or soot particles can damage their lungs and hearts in the long term. An awareness health promotion program that explains the dangers of these substances and ways to keep the air clean is a great way to protect infants from pollution.

References

AirNow. (2020). Using the Air Quality Index. Web.

Apte, K., & Salvi, S. (2016). Household air pollution and its effects on health. F1000Research, 5. Web.

Burns, J., Boogaard, H., Polus, S., Pfadenhauer, L. M., Rohwer, A. C., van Erp, A. M., … Rehfuess, E. A. (2020). Interventions to reduce ambient air pollution and their effects on health: An abridged Cochrane systematic review. Environment International, 135, 105400.

Knittel, C. R., Miller, D. L., & Sanders, N. J. (2016). Caution, drivers! Children present: Traffic, pollution, and infant health. Review of Economics and Statistics, 98(2), 350-366.

Lee, S., Yoo, H., & Nam, M. (2018). Impact of the Clean Air Act on air pollution and infant health: Evidence from South Korea. Economics Letters, 168, 98-101.

Rich, D. Q. (2017). Accountability studies of air pollution and health effects: Lessons learned and recommendations for future natural experiment opportunities. Environment International, 100, 62-78.

Unites States Environmental Protection Agency. (2019). What you can do to protect children from environmental risks. Web.

World Health Organization. (2018a). Ambient (outdoor) air pollution. Web.

World Health Organization. (2018b). Household air pollution and health. Web.

Introduction

Pollution is one of the major threats in the whole world. These problems can be dealt with them fully by various bodies across the world which are responsible for controlling pollution. They usually draft policies that govern the whole world on the control strategies which need to be applied. Some of these bodies include; Regional bodies which ensure that policies are adhered to in regional areas which makes control strategies more specific since they usually control a small area, another body that deals with the control strategies are the local planning authority which deals with the issue of pollution at a local level. Therefore, the global issue of pollution needs to be addressed well since it results in great problems globally which usually affects so many sectors.

Global warming

Global warming results in climate change it is usually a result of increased temperature in the earth and ocean and this took place in the mid 19th century and it is anticipated to continue for a long time if the current pollution situation continues. Global air temperature increases near the earth which increases its effects. The effects of global warming are usually a result of greenhouse effects, industrial emissions, and also as a result of various human activities.

Global warming poses a great problem for the global biosphere since it affects the habitat of most of the natural occupants of the global hemisphere (Gwartney, 2005). The effect felt results in climatic and biological changes. These changes affect both plants and animals since they experience quite different effects from the ones they have been coping with. This can lead to hibernation in animals and the death of plants as a result of unbearable climatic conditions and high temperatures.

Change in climatic conditions can result in early breeding of animals whereby in most cases they do not produce viable offspring.

Migration is another aspect felt in care of global warming since animals tend to move to those zones where climatic condition is favorable. Plants and animals finally end up occupying those regions that are not very hot. Global warming can also result in the death of some organisms due to the high concentration of toxic gases in the atmosphere such as increased carbon dioxide concentration and other gases from the factories and industries. These gases accumulate in the environment hindering animals and plants from leading a normal life. As a result of Global warming, the total biomass production has decreased in most of the forest regions especially in tropics and northern latitudes.

In economics, global warming has brought about quite a several problems since the change in climate which is a result of global warming can bring the productivity of a country very low. The effect is felt in Agricultural products from both plants and animals which are the raw material for industrial use. When there are few or no raw materials for industries and factories, the economic status can be affected since there will be no trading materials.

Global warming can bring about so many unprecedented costs to the economy globally. It is anticipated that if the current climate change continues, it can result in a loss of 20% of the global output in a few years to come (Gwartney, 2005). Global warming has consequently increased the cost of living since a lot of money has been used to deal with the issue of global warming which could hence be used for other purposes.

Another problem brought about by global warming is intergenerational externalities since there is the issue of the production of fossil, fuels. This threatens the country’s future cost of other fuels which could have brought revenue to the country’s economy.

A carbon tax sceme

Therefore, global warming has posed a lot of problems to the economy of the country since it results in a lot of expenditure and less input in the country’s economic status.

A carbon tax is taxed regarding the emission of carbon dioxide and it is also taxed on the emission of other greenhouse gases which contributes to global warming (Boyer, 2000). A carbon tax is one of the examples of pollution tax that is favored by most economists. The tax that is usually taxed should be equal to the marginal damage cost so that the amount of money that is realized can be used to some of the problems of carbon pollution. This tax is mainly taxed on the use of Fossil Fuel only and other greenhouse gases (Haites, Bruce, 1996). The carbon tax is usually taxed so that the emission of carbon dioxide can be reduced which will help in slowing down the effect of global warming. It is usually used when Fossils are burnt down to release fuels which are usually rated to the amount of carbon dioxide which is produced. The tax can be used to fund environmental projects which aim at dealing with the issue of environmental pollution. The money that is realized from the tax paid for the amount of carbon emission should be used to fund various schemes, which aim at dealing completely with the issue of global warming.

A tradable permit scheme is meant to deal with the issue of global warming. A tradable permit scheme deals with market approaches that are meant for carbon dioxide emissions. In economic concept, the policy is also referred to as marketable emission Permit (Dobes 1998). This is mainly meant to the aggregate level of the emission from reaching the targeted level which will limit the relative effect of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.

These permits are allocated equally in all the countries so that those who want to trade with substances/fuels which result in the emission of these gases can be given authority regarding the conditions that are set globally of the issue of carbon trading. This scheme can serve as a regulatory standard globally and this can equally reduce the effect of carbon dioxide in the universe.

This scheme would lay a great impact on the fossil trade of fuels since the scheme is meant to reduce the use of fossil fuels as an energy source to the economy of the world. This scheme will have a great effect on the industries and policies that govern land use.

Pros of a carbon tax

• By imposing this tax, consumer behavior can be changed on the use of the fossils which emit carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Through taxation, also companies can move efficiently on the use of these fuels which will hence reduce the effect of these gases in the atmosphere.
• Carbon tax can help in changing the behavior of the destructing environment and this can result in the use of private utilities so that the technology that applies can be clean which usually profits the shareholders of those private utilities.
• Carbon tax can be used to share the cost globally so that the effect of greenhouse emissions can be reduced in all economic sectors. This is because each country will have the contribution of tax collected from its members who are trading on carbon.
• With a carbon tax, any kind of trading system can be acquired, which is aimed at emission credit which would hence result in a competitive corporation that can result in doing better environmentally.

Cons of Carbon Tax

• People view these taxes as a grab to benefit the government since they do not realize how the money is used to eliminate the effect because the effect is continuously increasing.
• It can have a great impact on big projects which include oil ore, sand which usually deal with a tight schedule and projected demand.
• The tax could be inflationary which results in additional costs. These additional costs can affect the industry’s expenditure which will hence result in a high cost of productivity and as a result the total cost of the industrial products increases.

Pros of Carbon Trading

• It has boosted trade in many countries since those countries which have but their emission rates can have money from the other percentage which they are not using by selling the permit to those countries with increased emission rates.
• Greenhouse emissions are reduced since public transit is encouraged since facilities can be sold to carbon markets. The money realized can hence be used for funding projects which are aimed at reducing emission (Boddy, 2004).
• Companies can reduce production costs since they will not be forced to install expensive machinery which is aimed at reducing the effect of carbon dioxide.

Cons of Carbon Trading

It will result in excessive pollution in the environment since the companies will acquire licenses for polluting the environment and therefore the effect of these gases will increase greatly which will result in global warming (Boddy, 2004).

The two forms are quite potential in boosting the government revenue, but as an economist, the government should adopt the tradable scheme since this scheme will be entirely left for shareholders of the scheme to trade. The scheme can be more efficient in meeting the goals of shareholders and this results in the company benefiting since they will experience total control of the scheme (Cline R., 1992). Government benefit since no much effort and time is required for it to carry out the operation of the scheme and this brings less effort to the regulatory body of the government.

Therefore, the issue of global warming has a major economic impact which has resulted in government intervention so that the effect can hence be reduced to boost the productivity of the globe. All the governments need to put extra effort into ensuring that the issue of carbon dioxide is under control since it has resulted in major problems both to the environment and in the economic status of the country. A carbon trading scheme can be used to alleviate this problem since it will benefit both the countries in dealing with the issue of pollution and also industries can also benefit from the scheme since it will help in trading with those things which lead to emission of carbon dioxide.

References

Pearson C, 2008, Helping to simplify Economics, Web.

Dobes L., 1998, Carbon tradable scheme, Web.

Michael M., Kuik O., 2003, Emission trading and competitiveness: Journal of Energy policies, 32(16) 737-745.

Boddy S., 2004, Pros and Cons of Trading. Web.

Cline R., 1992, The Economics of Global Warming, United Kingdom: Peterson Institute.

Gwartney D., 2005, Economics: Private and Public Choice, United Kingdom: Thomson.

Haites E., Bruce P., 1996, Climate Change 1995: Journal of Economics and Environment 16(2) 156-166.

Boyer j., 2000, Warming the World: Journal of Economics 46(2), 52-71.