Due to different aspects of companies’ and plants’ operation and the exhaustibility of natural resources, the United States faces multiple environmental issues. Speaking about the major problems, it is important to pay attention to the land, air, and water pollution (Theodoulou & Cofinis, 2012). Pollution continues to influence the flora and the fauna of the United States, as well as people in urban and even rural areas.
Different types of environmental pollution affect people and animals, even though many policies are currently in place to reduce the problem. Thus, the Energy Policy Act implemented in 2005 promotes the use of renewable energy sources to reduce harmful emissions (Theodoulou & Cofinis, 2012). Additionally, there are the Clean Air Act, the Clean Water Act, and other federal policies regulating the use of insecticides and fungicides. Therefore, the government recognizes various forms of pollution, and this concernment finds reflection in policy-making.
Among the aspects of pollution that bothers me most of all are the safety of waste disposal and the presence of opportunities for recycling. With that in mind, I would support the enactment of new policies to make the process of waste disposal safer and even more transparent. Concerning the things that are changing, it can be said that the U.S. environmental policies are contributing to the popularization of alternative energy sources.
At the moment, it does not affect me to a great extent, but this tendency is expected to further promote technological advancement. Before getting acquainted with this week’s reading assignment, I regarded the presence of environmental policies as the key feature of healthy societies and, unfortunately, an area of colliding interests. The assigned readings have reinforced my perspective since I have learned more about anti-environmentalist moods in the U.S. Congress in the past and the evolution of American society in terms of environmental protection.
Reference
Theodoulou, S. Z., & Cofinis, C. (2012). The policy game: Understanding U.S. public policy making. San Diego, CA: Bridgepoint Education, Inc.
Water contamination is a major public health problem in Africa. This topic is of interest because water is a necessity for survival. Looking at this problem helps to illuminate a serious issue that needs quick attention. The people affected the most are children who do not understand the importance of purifying drinking water. This discussion is based on a UN report on CNN in 2010 on the need for purifying polluted water.
According to the report, contaminated water claims more lives than any form of violence. In the 21st century, the world faces a crisis of contaminated water, which is the result of industrialization and is a major problem in developing countries. Wastewater is a mixture of fertilizer runoff, sewage disposal, agricultural waste, and industrial wastes (UN Report, 2010).
The utilization of chemicals in farming is a serious matter for environmentalists globally. Africa’s drinking water sources include streams, lakes, rivers, and rainfall.
A report by UNEP in 2002 dubbed ‘The Africa Environment Outlook’ recognizes ground water pollution coming from nitrates, phosphates and additional chemical residues used in Africa as a cause for alarm. However, this is common in regions that rely on underground aquifers for drinking water (Nweke & Sanders, 2009).
Agriculture is a source of a variety of water pollutants owing to run-off and leaching. Poultry and livestock farming are forms of agriculture that are not excluded from this pollution. Excessive rainfall on the ground flows into rivers and groundwater supplies carrying dissolved pollutants in the process (Schwarzenbach et al., 2010).
The pollutants contain sediments from eroded soil as well as phosphorus and nitrogen compounds contained in chemical fertilizers. Animal waste is also part of the pollutants that harbor disease pathogens. These contaminants diminish the concentrations of oxygen in water. Subsequently, this impedes the development of plants and suffocates aquatic animals.
The intensity of pollutants is high during drought because it is a time of high water demand. Consequently, there is reduced flow rate in rivers thus the ability to dilute chemicals is lowered (Schwarzenbach et al., 2010). These effects are severe in the developing world due to the pressure of feeding a growing population.
Several points are identified as sources of water pollution in the Zambezi River Basin of South Africa (Nweke & Sanders, 2009). The points include agricultural activities on farms, sewage-treatment facilities, mining activities and chemical industries. These points affect the surface water and groundwater quality.
It is projected that the Zambezi River is contaminated with 93,000 tons of factory waste each year. A joint initiative report between the University of Nairobi and the United Nations Environmental Program (UNEP) indicates that discharge into the Nairobi River Basin in Kenya contains higher than the recommended waste contents (Nweke & Sanders, 2009).
This is according to the local effluent guidelines given. The samples used to generate this report are waste substances collected from factories that release their waste into the Nairobi River. It is stated that the concentrations of nickel, lead and copper are higher than those required by local guidelines (Nweke & Sanders, 2009).
From the observations, managing water pollution due to agricultural run-off is very challenging. Agricultural overspill takes place in large areas, and it is often difficult to recognize the source of the overspill. The overspill rate also changes with time depending on how the land is used.
Issues such as poor implementation of laws, rampant bribery and incompetence worsen the pollution problem. Legislators should combine environmental laws with farming laws.
In addition, farmers should be assisted to control harmful materials that bring about pollution. The UN, through the World Water Day initiative, is working to sensitize people on the importance of clean water thus lessons on proper waste management (UN Report, 2010).
References
Nweke, O. C. & Sanders, W. H. (2009). Modern environmental health hazards: A public health issue of increasing significance in Africa. Health Perspectives, 117(6), 863–870. Doi: 10.1289/ehp.0800126
Schwarzenbach, P. R., Egli, T., Hofstetter, B. T, Gunten, U., & Wehrli, B. (2010). Global water pollution and human health. Annual Review of Environment and Resources, 35(2010), 109-136. DOI: 10.1146/annurev-environ-100809-125342
When I visited Beijing over the December holidays last year, I was baffled by the concerted efforts that the national and local governments are putting in combating air pollution. One of the outstanding aspects of pollution in the country is that the Chinese are highly desensitized and aware of issues surrounding this matter. I noted, with keen interest, that the few people that I met, who were conversant in English, mentioned particulate matter (PM) 2.5 at least once in their conversations. Before I traveled to China, my perception of the country was one with poor visibility levels due to heavy clouds of haze hanging in the atmosphere. The mainstream media had painted this erroneous picture on the status of air pollution in China and I had believed everything I heard or read. However, the moment you enter China you realize that the government is doing a commendable job to prevent air pollution and reverse the damages that have been caused in the past.
One of the leading initiatives by the government is to cut industrial coal production and consumption as a source of energy. To achieve this goal, the government has embarked on an aggressive initiative seeking to close down companies or cancel their operating licenses. For instance, in March 2017, “the national government announced the closure or cancellation of 103 coal-fired power plants, capable of generating a total of more than 50 gigawatts of power. It said it would also cut steel production capacity by another 50 million tons” (Gardiner). Moreover, factories are required to observe some operational standards geared towards reducing environmental pollution. The Chinese Ministry of the Environment has been on alert to enforce the set rules and ensure compliance. For instance, in 2017, over 80,000 factories were charged with flouting environmental conservation rules as the involved ministry intensified its efforts by sending thousands of inspectors around the country to monitor the situation (Schmitz). Meanwhile, the blue skyline is reappearing as I witnessed during my recent visit to the country. One of my friends indicated that the majority of inspectors are incorruptible because the punishment for such crime is criminalized in the country. Consequently, factories have to comply with the set rules or risk closure and other associated fines.
According to Parker, a columnist with The Economist, the 2013 “National Action Plan on Air Pollution” is the blueprint that the Chinese government is using to deal with the biting problem of air pollution. This plan placed a nationwide cap on the usage of coal in different provinces across the country. Specifically, all the affected regions are required to reduce coal consumption at a given rate on a year-by-year basis. For example, Parker notes that Beijing was required to cut its overall coal consumption by 50 percent from 2013 to 2018. The results of these concerted efforts are promising. A study conducted in 2017 by Greenpeace East Asia showed that concentrations of “PM 2.5 – the smallest polluting particles, which pose the greatest health risks – were 54% lower in the Chinese capital during the fourth quarter of 2017 than during the same period of 2016” (Parker). Overall, all provinces in China have been experiencing reduced air pollution over the last five years due to the government’s deliberate efforts to curb this problem and attain internationally accepted standards of clean air.
Another thing that I noted during my visit was the extensive use of electric cars. During my weeklong stay in China, I was driven in electric cars operating as cabs. According to Wu and Stanway, while the government is focused on cutting coal usage and steel manufacturing, it also seeks to have 2 million electric cars sold for use in the country by 2020. I learned that the government has been offering subsidies of around 110,000 Yuan for every electric car purchased (Lee). Additionally, the government is set to build 120,000 charging stations for the public to charge their electric cars by 2020 (Lee). The Chinese are excited about this project and my friends could not stop talking about how, in the near future, China will have a cleaner sky and atmosphere as compared to some of the western countries.
The government is also keen to ensure that households transition from using coal to natural gas for their energy purposes. According to Silverstein, carbon dioxide levels are falling in the country due to its coal-to-gas transition efforts and already it has achieved its 2020 carbon intensity objectives. The demand for natural gas is set to grow by around 15 percent in 2019 alone with consumption of between 30 and 40 billion cubic meters (Aizhu and Gloystein). Villages are being banned from using coals with the government confiscating coal stoves and replacing them with an adequate supply of natural gas. A friend in China recounted how they would store coal in their homes for usage during winter and the amount of dirt they had to deal with in the process. He was grateful that the government is showing authentic interest in addressing the air pollution problem.
Citizen watchdogs have also become popular in the country and the government is encouraging such initiatives. Gardiner posits that the government has abandoned its usual bureaucracy when dealing with citizens and adopted unexpected transparency when dealing with the issue of air pollution. Gardiner argues that pollution is “one problem in China about which there is a robust public conversation.” As such, in the last few years, an extensive network of monitors has been established to track the levels of PM 2.5 in real time. Consequently, citizens can now track the level of air pollution in different local areas using smartphones. In case facilities are found to be contravening the set regulations, citizens can report the same to the relevant authorities through social media. The Chinese government has been authoritarian and this change of governance style to engage citizens in decision-making and implementation of policies points to a regime committed to conserving the environment.
In conclusion, air pollution remains one of the major challenges facing China contemporarily as it struggles to balance economic growth and environmental conservation (Greenstone). However, the government is working strategically to address the problem of air pollution in the long term. While the mainstream media focuses on the challenge, a visit to the country will change the perception concerning the status of air pollution in China. During my recent visit, it was clear that the government is managing the situation sustainably to the point of involving its citizens as watchdogs and key stakeholders in the country’s wellbeing and development. Some challenges are being experienced here and there, but the established strategies will ultimately yield positive results and, most probably, China will win the war against smog and haze pollution.
Currently, the Arab world materializes to be amongst the fastest growing countries in terms of population. The perceived population growth brings about expenses related to pollution. The commonly observed pollution include air and water pollution.
Environmental pollution in the Arab region result from fuel combustion, draughts, use of pesticides, clinical wastes, improper industrial and households’ waste disposal. These activities negatively impacts on the health of Arab world members.
Water pollution
Arab countries face multiple environmental challenges. The scarcity of fresh-clean water has raised many concerns. From Arab future environmental challenge report, Arab countries face desertification, marine pollution and fresh water scarcity which are anticipated to increase due to climate variations. In Arab region, it is estimated that environmental degradation is 5% of the total GDP (Frederiksen 670).
In Arab world, water scarcity proves to be a key dilemma. It is reported that out of the 22 Arab countries, 15 fall under water poverty line. Very few individuals have access to clean water. Besides, the sea level is expected to rise in the next decades by four meters.
This will affect 18,000 kilometers of the total populated Arab coastal region (UN 45). Whilst Arab world apparently does not contribute above 5% to the universal climate change causes, water pollution effects will severely impact on the region. At the end of 21st century, the Arab region surface temperature will rise by 2 to 5.5oC.
Due to improper industrial wastes dumping, excessive application of pesticides and fertilizers, merely 84% of the entire population has access to fresh- clean water. About 21 years ago, the figure was reported to be 80% and the increase might increase the rate of diseases which would lower health and productivity rate. This region also fails to meet the set UNDP clean water target program which is to be realized by 2015. The organic water pollutants emissions are high and are approximated to be 500 metric tons (UNDP 23).
Air pollution
Though Arab countries are the major oil producers and exporters in the world, they are also the leased greenhouse emitters in the world. A huge volume of oil produced by the Arab countries are not utilized within but are rather exported to developed countries.
Carbon dioxide emitted from greenhouse causes a rise in world temperature. UNDP report stipulates that greenhouse gases have increased in the atmosphere due to increased fossil fuel usage (p.27). Arab countries are however below the average contributors albeit there is a remarkable rise in their emissions.
UNDP estimate that by 2003, the amount of emissions in the Arab world rose to 1013 metric tons from 586 metric tons in 1990 (p.21). The rise in carbon emissions was attributed to increase in transportation which contributes 90% of the total emissions. As an economy grows, people use un-roadworthy private cars that lead to increased demand for unleaded fuel.
The efforts to moderate unleaded petrol usage are unsuccessful. Some countries introduced unleaded fuel without additives necessary for efficient operation of old engine. According to From New York Times, these types of vehicles are fuel inefficient and thus produce ground ozone with devastating health effect (p.1).
To manage carbon emission in gulf region, transport system must be dealt with. More efficient vehicle engines must be produced such as modern hybrid vehicles that use cleaner fuel. A sensible urban planning that reduces the use of cars while promoting efficient public means to communicate between work, residential and leisure locations ought to be introduced. There is the need to increase thermal energy efficiency utilization via adopting high technological advancement, hydropower source usage alongside other renewable energy.
Works Cited
Frederiksen, Harald. “Addressing water crisis in developing countries.” Journal of Environmental Engineering. New Haven: Yale UP, 2005. 667-75. Print.
“Fresh start in the Middle East”. Editorial. The New York Times 5 Mar. 2009. Web.
UN. The Millennium Development Goals in the Arab Region 2005. New York: Longman, 2005. Print.
UNDP. “Strengthening the rule of law in the Arab States: Project on the modernization of public prosecution offices.” Environmental Crimes in the Arab States, New York: Pearson/Longman, 2009. Print.
——. Making Progress on Environmental Sustainability: Lessons and Recommendations from a Review of over 150 MDG Country Experiences. New York: Longman, 2006. Print.
Last week I was having a conversation with my friend about the environment and we expressed our shared concerns about the ever-increasing rate of global warming – a problem compounded by political correctness. We were overly concerned that governments around the world are not doing enough to address this problem and my friend was quick to highlight some statistics. He said, “Did you know that over 2 million premature deaths occur in China annually due to air pollution?” Before I could respond that I was not aware of such data he added, “This problem costs the country’s economy over 40 billion US dollars.” I became curious and decided to do some research on this issue with specific interest in China, but what I uncovered is different from my friend’s (and most people) perception. It is true that air pollution is a major problem in China – one that threatens the very existence of its people. However, the government is doing an exemplary job to address this problem and significant strides have been made with tangible results.
In 2013, China introduced punitive anti-pollution measures under the “National Action Plan on Air Pollution” initiative. Under this program, a cap on the nationwide usage of coal was introduced to ensure that different provinces reduced coal consumption to acceptable levels within set timelines. For instance, Beijing was required to cut its coal usage by 50 percent between 2013 and 2018 (Parker). Additionally, the initiative prohibited new coal-burning capacity, which means only existing plants were allowed to carry out such activities. These efforts have paid off and provinces, such as Beijing are experiencing cleaner air for the first time in many years. A 2018 study by Greenpeace East Asia showed that the concentrations of particulate matter (PM) 2.5, which is the smallest and one of the most harmful polluting particles, were 54 percent lower in the last quarter of 2017 as compared to the same period in 2016, specifically in Beijing (Parker). Additionally, according to Parker, it was established that PM 2.5 concentrations in 26 cities in northern China had dropped by over 33 percent. These statistics underscore the genuine efforts by the Chinese government to address air pollution, but such news is not common in the mainstream media.
I wanted to understand more about the government’s quest to deal with air pollution and thus I visited another friend – an environmental enthusiast who has been critical about China’s contribution to global warming. I did not expect my friend to say anything positive about the Chinese government and the fight against air pollution. However, I was surprised when he said, “China’s efforts to clean up its air pollution have borne faster and better results as compared to the post-industrial United Kingdom.” I learned that the government is encouraging its citizens to stop using coal stoves and furnaces and opt for natural gas as a cleaner energy source alternative. For instance, in September 2018, 300 residents of Tangzitou village were surprised and equally enthralled when the government confiscated their coal ovens before installing gas systems (Kearns et al.)
In other words, coal usage in the village was forbidden and residents are now experiencing clean air and environment for the first time in many years. Reminiscing on the situation one of the residents said, “You had to refill the coal several times a day and it was extremely dirty and very tiring. We stored it in our homes and each winter we needed tons of it” (Yu para. 4). The government is playing a central role in ensuring that air pollution levels are within the globally allowed limits. According to government reports, over 4 million households in the northern parts of the country have abandoned coal for natural gas since 2017 (Yu). Besides, car owners are required to use high-quality diesel and gasoline for reduced emissions into the atmosphere. In its strategic plan, car emissions from 2020 are expected to be comparable to the American and European ones (Wang et al. 317). However, the major focus has been on heavy industry, which is the leading contributor to air pollution in China.
In March 2017, the Chinese national government closed or canceled operations of 103 coal-fired power plants. Additionally, the government promised to cut steel production by over 50 million tons (Gardiner). On March 4, 2014, the Chinese Premier, Li Keqiang, indicated that the country was at war against smog. Such a declaration, which went against the conventional policy approach of economic growth at the expense of the environment, underscores the government’s commitment to addressing the problem of air pollution sustainably. This declaration was accompanied by concerted efforts to actualize the dream of a clean atmosphere in China. For instance, in July 2018, the State Council, in its 2018 to 2020 pollution action plan, stated, “China will cut coal consumption, boost electric vehicle sales and shut more outdated steel and coke capacity in the coming three years” (Wu and Stanway para. 1). This plan covers 82 cities across the country especially in major coal-producing provinces including Shanxi and Shaanxi.
Different regions are required to cut coal consumption by certain percentages to achieve the set limits. For instance, Tianjin, Shandong, Hebei, Beijing, and Henan are required to cut coal consumption by 10 percent annually for the next three years (Wu and Stanway). Similarly, steelmaking capacity in Hebei – China’s largest steelmaking province, would be capped at 200 million tons, by 2020, from 286 million tons in 2013 (Hao). The government is also keen to deal with small-scale pollution sources that are scattered across the country. In a bid to achieve these goals, companies that do not comply with the set regulations are being fined on top of having their water , electricity, and raw materials supply being cut off.
The government is also adopting other unconventional and innovative measures to curb air pollution. Speaking on TED X in April 2017, Roosegaarde noted that they had created a large smog vacuum cleaner and the Chinese national government is currently supporting the initiative to create local clean-air parks using this innovative technology. Additionally, the government has built an extensive network of monitors to track the levels of PM 2.5 and take appropriate mitigation measures based on the available data.
Interestingly, the Chinese government has become very transparent with its efforts to curb air pollution. Gardiner posits, “What’s perhaps most striking about the Chinese war on pollution is the degree to which the government has dropped its habitual guardedness to embrace an unprecedented level of transparency” (para. 11). The data collected from the PM 2.5 monitors and the different measures taken in different factories around the country are made public. People can now check local air quality using smartphones and if particular facilities are violating the set rules, they can be reported to local enforcement agencies via social media. Therefore, while air pollution remains a big challenge in China, the government is working tirelessly to address the problem, and so far, the efforts have yielded recommendable results.
Roosegaarde, Daan. “A Smog Vacuum Cleaner and Other Magical City Designs.” TED, 2017. Lecture.
Wang, Li, et al. “Taking Action on Air Pollution Control in the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei (BTH) Region: Progress, Challenges and Opportunities.” International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, vol. 15, no. 2, 2018, pp. 306-333.
One of the leading causes of global warming in the world today has been identified as carbon emissions resulting from the use of fossil fuels. The levels of pollution have indeed gone up by an alarming rate over the past few decades. This calls for the application of integrated efforts towards the reduction of the various sources of pollution.
The Automobile sector has been identified as one of the leading causes of fossil fuel emissions; this can be attributed to the heavy usage of fossil fuels in the Automobiles that are used on the roads all over the world (EIA, 2007).
In order to reduce the levels of pollution, there is a dire need to adopt new technologies that are aimed at reducing the amount of fossil fuel that is consumed in the automobile engines. Indeed it is very important to note that the problems that are associated with the emissions from the automobiles are not only limited to pollution, but also present numerous health problems to the users of the automobiles.
There have been numerous attempts to address the issue of the pollution that results from the use of automobiles in the transport sector; these efforts have been varied but they have all been aimed at reducing the amount of emissions that result from the use of fossil fuels in the engines of these automobiles.
Efforts ranging from engine modifications to the development of hybrid vehicles and the use of special environmental friendly fuels such as bio-fuels are all aimed at creating a cleaner environment in the greater society. Overall the issue of automobile pollution has been addressed from a variety f angles but there is a need to look at the particular technologies that have been developed and whether they effectively solve the problem of pollution or they further on aggravate the situation (Farrell & Brandt, 2006).
With the increase in the world population the number of vehicles has also been increasing at a very fast rate and the issue of pollution has been posing a great challenge for the entire community. Thus technology remains the only option to enable in the reduction of the amount of emissions as a result of automobile use.
There are various technologies that have been advocated for use in order to enable the reduction of the amount of pollution from automobiles, these technologies include the use of improved gasoline and diesel technology, use of hybrid cars that use fuel cells or the use of bio-fuels as an alternative to the conventional fuels.
In this essay the use of bio-fuels as an alternative to the use of fossil fuels will be considered and the merits that it brings in terms of environmental pollution will be outlined. Ultimately the applicability of the use of bio-fuels in an organization will be considered and the associated recommendations will be given for the use of bio-fuels by an organization (Farrell et al., 2006a).
The Bio-fuel Technology
The use of bio-fuel technology has become advanced over the past few years and it has been adopted in many countries as an alternative to the use of fossil fuels such as petrol and diesel which are considered to be major environmental pollutants. Bio-fuel technology incorporates two products and these include bio-ethanol and bio-diesel; however there are also numerous challenges that arise in an effort to promote the use of bio-fuels as an alternative to the use of fossil fuels (Farrell et al., 2006a).
Some of these challenges may include the sourcing of feedstock and the scaling up of the levels of production so as to be able to produce the fuels on a large scale level. There is also the challenge of engine modifications that are required to ensure that a vehicle can be able to run purely on bio-fuels as most of the current engines can only run on a mixture of bio-fuels and diesel or petrol.
Bio-fuels are a product of living organisms and they result from metabolic action on by-products which may entail both organic and waste products. It is however important to consider that there is an important benchmark that must be met by these products in order to be considered as bio-fuels; 80% of the materials that are used as raw materials for the production of bio-fuels must be renewable materials.
The origin of most of the materials that are used to produce bio-fuels is the process of photosynthesis; in this regard therefore, the process can be referred as having the origin of the energy from a solar source (Graboski, 2002).
Bio-fuels generally entail the use of biomass to provide a suitable source of energy, by decomposing these biomass products, a suitable by-product is obtained and it is this product that is used as an alternative to fossil fuels mainly in the internal combustion engines. As stated earlier on the use of bio-fuels has been spurred by the growing debate on the need to reduce the amount of atmospheric pollution that results from the use of fossil fuels in the internal combustion engines.
The most common bio-fuel technology specializes in the production of bio-fuels from biomass based wastes; these wastes include agricultural manure, crop residues as well as by-products from animals.
One of the biggest advantages that attracts the use of bio-fuels technology is the fact that there is an abundance of wastes that are readily available and can be used to prepare the bio-fuels, most of these wastes can be found in the local areas in large amounts, the conversion of the wastes to bio-fuels also leads to the production of another by-product that can be used as a fertilizer.
The production and use of bio-fuels also ensures that the wastes are used in an environmentally friendly manner; this technology also offers a new business opportunity to the residents who wish to venture in the production of bio-fuels as a source of energy (Perlack et al., 2005)
It is also very important to note that the production of bio-fuel also presents its own unique challenges that must be addressed if the technology is to be successfully adopted by an organization. One of these challenges relates to the competition of the bio-fuel materials with other uses that might be adopted for the same products such as fodder crops.
However, the use of bio-fuels is advocated on the grounds that it presents a unique opportunity due to its ability to integrate well within the existing fuel distribution infrastructure in most of the nations worldwide. With the abundance of domestic supplies for the same, it is essential to note that the growth opportunities offered by bio-fuels for organizations are immense.
Negative environmental aspects for bio-fuels
There are various negative environmental effects that can be associated with the use of bio-fuels and one of these has been associated with the heat trapping of the emissions an aspect which is considered to contribute to global warming to some extent. The effect of the bio-fuel production process depends on the type of feedstock used and the production process and the inputs as well as the assumptions that are made in the process.
There are also a number of concerns that are associated with the conversion of large amounts of land to be used for the purpose of growing the crops to be used for the purpose of producing the bio-fuels. In the production of bio-fuels there is a need to ensure that the issues that are related to the trapping of heat by the bio-fuels that are produced.
While recognizing the fact that bio-fuels play a crucial role the reduction of the consumption of fossil fuels that result in most of the carbon emissions in the environment, it is also equally important to consider any negative effects that result from the use of bio-fuels; this will aid in the development of appropriate technologies to ensure that the emissions are reduced and that the production of bio-fuel is wholly adapted as a process that reduces global warming to a significant extent.
The sustainability of bio-fuels as a source of energy can only be proven if it causes a significant reduction in the carbon emissions that usually result from the use of fossil fuels (Williams, 2005).
It is very important to consider the extent to which pollution from the automobile sector causes the depletion of the ozone layer; it is also very important to consider the fact that the depletion of the ozone layer results from the accumulation of the carbon emissions in the environment.
Of equal importance is the recognition of the fact that the automobile sector is considered to be one of the greatest contributors to the issue of global warming, this there is a dire need to control the state of pollution right now and the bio-fuel technology presents a great opportunity to attain the relevant reductions in the amount of emissions that result in automobile pollution (Tilman & Hill, 2007).
The production of lead from the leaded gasoline is considered to be one of the key causes of the automobile pollution; the effects of this pollution are far reaching and they ultimately affect a person’s state of mind.
The effect of the health of a person is usually affected by the carbon monoxide that is emitted from the use of fossil fuels in the automobile engines, the effect of carbon monoxide is very pronounced because carbon monoxide is a very dangerous gas. The vehicular emissions also comprise of carbon dioxide that is considered to be a heat trapping gas; this means that carbon dioxide has the ability to trap and retain heat and cause a subsequent rise in temperatures.
The reduction in green house gas (GHG) emissions that can be achieved through the use of bio-fuels can be quite substantial depending on the source of bio-fuel that is used. Studies have shown that the use of ethanol from sugarcane results to a GHG emission reduction of between 80-100% and between 30% -50% for corn ethanol.
As aforementioned, there are also other negative effects that are associated with the production of bio-fuels that need to be addressed effectively if the bio-fuels produced are to be used to cause a substantial reduction in the amount of emission that is produced by the automobiles that use fossil fuels as a source of energy (Worldwatch Institute, 2007).
There are some gases that are emitted that are potentially harmful and these include Nitrogen II Oxide and these need to be addressed effectively before the use of bio-fuel technology can be adopted in any organization.
Recommendations
Therefore in the adoption of bio-fuel technology in any organization, there is a dire need to consider the following before the technology can be considered to be successful in the organization that has adopted this technology.
The adverse effects that are associated with the use of bio-fuels on the environment can be greatly reduced through the use and practice of sustainable agricultural management practices. It is very important to consider the choice of feedstock which will be determined by the overall demand for the bio-fuels.
The production limits are a key factor to be considered in the bio-fuel production because they ultimately determine the demand and applicability for the bio-fuel production technology.
The use of organic wastes for bio-fuels ensures that the gains that are attained in case of environmental effects are more pronounced as opposed to the use of agricultural land to produce energy crops; biomass in this context can therefore be use for material purposes, later it can be reused and recycled and ultimately the energy content of the biomass material is ultimately regained and the benefits are enhanced.
The use of feedstock rich in cellulose ensures that the bio-fuels that are produced are rich in terms f the energy content and environmental friendliness; therefore in order to maintain the long-term productivity of these systems, it is very crucial to ensure that there is addition of nutrients such as potassium into the process (Williams, 2005).
There could also be consideration for the production of fuels that are more suitable in the process of bio-fuels production. This includes the production of new liquid hydrocarbon fuels that are obtained from cellulosic biomass materials.
The production of the liquid hydrocarbon fuels is seen and considered to be a better alternative as opposed to the production of ethanol from the cellulose; the advantages offered are considered in terms of the yields that are produced and in terms of the environmental effects. It is also important in the reduction of the conflicts that are likely to occur in the competition with the traditional industries that are based on the use of wood for the industrial processes.
It is also important to consider the method of combustion that is used for the bio-fuels. This is because the method of combustion used will ultimately determine the magnitude of the environmental effect that can be attributed to the bio-fuels. The most preferable means of applying bio-fuels is to combust them directly in the engines to produce heat and electricity as opposed to their conversion to liquid fuels such as ethanol.
It is also very important to consider the technologies that might be used to improve the production process for the bio-fuels. The technology used plays a critical role in determining the type of feedstock to be used as well the conversion technology to be utilized. The technology also plays a key role in ensuring that the biomass feedstock is effectively utilized in the production process.
Thus in line with the production process, it is very important to put in place policies to ensure that there is sustainable bio-fuel production and that all the tools are in place to be able to monitor the implementation of the production process (Graboski, 2002). The ultimate goal for any organization adopting this technology should be the attainment of a product oriented certification for the bio-fuels.
It is also very important to develop clear guidelines for the certification of the programs that are implemented by organizations in relation to the production of bio-fuels.
This is important in determining the life-cycle of the products as well as the farming standards for the biomass materials; the criteria to be developed should effectively address all the issues in relation to land use, types of feedstock used and the utility for the products that are obtained.
The use and application of liquid bio-fuels should be considered in line with the potential environmental effects and the aspect of creating competition with the food crops; it is important to consider meeting these goals without resulting to large scale conversion of large pieces of land.
Conclusion
It is quite evident that automobile pollution creates a great challenge in terms of its contribution to the issue of global warming. It is therefore very important for organizations to adopt technologies that are aimed at reducing the carbon emissions by using fuels that do not emit carbon to the environment. The use of bio-fuels presents an attractive alternative to the use of fossil fuels; however there are also environmental and sustainability challenges that should be addressed before bio-fuel technology can be adopted for use in organizations.
References
Energy Information Administration (EIA). (2007). Annual energy outlook 2007 with projections to 2030. DOE/EIA-0383(2007). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Energy.
Farrell, A.E. and Brandt, A.R., (2006). Risks of the oil transition. Environmental Research Letters 1(0104004):6.
Farrell, A.E., Plevin R.J., Turner B.T., Jones A.D, O’Hare, M., and Kammen, D.M. (2006a). ERG biofuel analysis meta-model. EBAMM Spreadsheet Model (v. 1.1). Berkeley, CA: Energy and Resources Group and Richard & Rhoda Goldman School of Public Policy, University of California–Berkeley. Web.
Graboski, M. (2002). Fossil energy use in the manufacture of corn ethanol. St. Louis: National Corn Growers Association, 108.
Perlack, R.D., Wright L.L., Turhollow, A.F., Graham, R.L., Stokes, B.J. and Erbach, D.C. (2005). Biomass as feedstock for a bioenergy and bioproducts industry: The technical feasibility of a billion-ton annual supply. TM-2005-66. Oak Ridge, TN: Oak Ridge National Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy.
Tilman, D., and Hill, J. (2007). Corn can’t solve our problem. Washington Post. Pg, 17.
Williams, R.H. (2005). Climate-compatible synthetic liquid fuels from coal and biomass with CO2 capture and storage. Presentation to the California Energy commission.
Worldwatch Institute. (2007). Biofuels for transport: Global potential and implications for sustainable energy and agriculture. London: Earthscan.
Measures to address food insecurities can become a reason for water pollution. Today, products bought at supermarkets are heavily processed and packaged. Food packaging is a source of water pollution, as much garbage ends up in the ocean affecting different ecosystems. According to National Geographic, in the North Pacific Ocean, there is a collection of marine debris consisting of plastic bags, bottle caps, plastic water bottles, and Styrofoam cups. The majority of the trash comes from land activity, specifically from the food industry. Therefore, food distribution is one of the central reasons for water pollution.
One of the ways to diminish the negative impact on the water supply people should reduce the amount of plastic used daily. According to Greenpeace, one of the ways to improve the ecology of the planet is by creating healthy food markets. Pledging to buy sustainable or organic fresh produce whenever possible and avoiding processed food can reduce not only the amount of plastic used for packaging but also cut greenhouse gas emissions (Greenpeace). Therefore, everyday individual choices can significantly influence the ecological situation in the world.
Oceans are vital to the environmental well-being of the planet because they have a range of functions. For example, they produce over one-half of the global oxygen amount and absorb fifty times more carbon dioxide compared to the atmosphere. Nevertheless, oceans continue being polluted by the by-products of manufacturing, consumption, and oil, and other resource mining. The range of adverse outcomes for ocean ecosystems can be discussed in volumes; however, the current discussion will focus on trash in the ocean waters, acidification, and the disruption of the marine life cycles.
Trash pollution is of concern when it comes to ocean ecosystems. Any trash that is disposed of by humans includes human-made solid materials abandoned in waterways, beaches, and the ocean itself. Plastic, paper, wood, metal, and other non-organic materials can be found near water sources worldwide as well as the depths of oceans. According to the Ocean Health Index (2019), between 60% and 80% of marine pollutants are plastic. Each year, 8 million metric tons of plastic debris enter the ocean waters, with around 150 metric tons already circulating in the marine environment (Ocean Conservancy, 2019). Trash contained in ocean waters can be hazardous to marine life and lead to the death of animals. Small plastic or metal waste can be consumed by smaller organisms, which are later consumed by larger ones. Thus, debris makes its way up the marine life food chain and can return to people’s food.
Ocean acidification refers to the steady decrease in the pH level of waters that is triggered by the inflow of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Since the occurrence of the industrial revolution and the rise of production, the volume of carbon dioxide has increased. Absorbed by ocean waters, the chemical leads to a series of reactions that result in the increased concentration of hydrogen ions. This, in turn, makes seawater more acidic since the carbonate ions decreased in amounts. The latter represent essential components of contributing to the health of such organisms as seashells and corals. Carbonate ions are crucial for sustaining the health of ocean ecosystems because they reinforce calcium carbonate structures that fuel other forms such as clams, oysters, deep-sea corals, calcareous plankton, and multiple others. Non-calcifying ocean organisms also suffer from acidification (NOAA, 2013). For instance, such fish as pollock loses their ability to detect predators while larval clownfish cannot detect suitable habitats.
With the increased pollution of ocean waters, marine ecosystems steadily deteriorate. Whether the oceans are polluted by oil spills or debris, sea life is challenged to a great extent. For example, oil spills can float to the surface of the water and prevent light from reaching plants and other organisms, thus affecting photosynthesis. Over prolonged periods, marine life is subjected to such problems as eye and skin irritation as well as liver and lung problems. Agricultural and industrial waste in the form of chemicals represent risks for ocean animals. Pesticides can accumulate in their fatty tissues and limit animals’ reproductive function.
To conclude, it is essential to mention that reducing the impact of pollutants on ocean ecosystems is only possible with radical action. Governments, corporations, and consumers must come together to regulate the production and the use of disposable materials and resources as well as establish policies limiting the discharge of harmful elements into oceans.
Oil has a very high demand all over the world since it is a major source of energy. Therefore, constant exploration and extraction to meet this demand is undertaken. Unfortunately, this exploration and extraction comes at a cost, with danger of causing loss of life, property and pollution of the environment.
Prevention of oil pollution and disasters entails costly daily operations that integrate preventive measures into operations through planned industrial processes. Cleaning spillages after a disaster takes a lot of time and money not to mention that the damage that they cause is not completely reversible.
The best that we can do is to reduce its effects. However, disasters are preventable through careful design and extensive consultation before exploration of oil commences. That not withstanding constant maintenance and troubleshooting of oilrigs to avert the risk of a disaster is done.
Overview
Oil pollution has a devastating effect on the environment particularly on aquatic life not to mention the high cost of mitigating an oil spill disaster. Oil tankers, drilling rigs, petroleum products as well as offshore platforms may cause pollution when they release crude oil. In some instances, natural oil may pollute the marine environment if it seeps through fissures.
Therefore, to prevent incurring high costs and destruction of aquatic life it is important to prevent potential oil disasters by implementing sound mechanical engineering measures with a view of averting such risks. The various stages of well drilling, work over and repair operations present challenges since oil spills are likely to occur during these operations.
Purpose of the report
This report explores possible causes of disasters in oil drilling and the preventive measures that can be undertaken to mitigate these disasters. The report also evaluates actual disasters and attempts to outline their causes.
Preview of issues
The Macondo Deep Sea Horizon oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico in 2010 served as a wake up call for oil drilling companies. The disaster elicited an outcry from environmentalists and transferred a heavy financial burden on BP. This is just an example of the consequences of neglecting safety procedures in oil drilling. Prevention of engineering disasters is cheaper than dealing with the consequences of the disasters (Don 7).
Oil rigs
There are two types of oilrigs; where in one drilling of oil is done offshore while in the other drilling is done on the land. The offshore drilling rig otherwise called an oil platform and is most prone to cause extensive pollution of the marine environment. The oil platform extracts and temporarily stores the crude oil before transportation to the shore for further refining.
These platforms also house the oil extraction workforce. The platforms may be floating, fixed or consist of an artificial island. According to how stuff works (2), the oil rig system has various components which include; power systems, mechanical systems for hoisting heavy loads and the drilling apparatus and the circulation system which pumps the drilling mud and expels rock cuttings.
Causes of oil disasters and prevention
Natural gas and crude oil under high pressure may cause blowouts during drilling causing loss of life, property and environmental pollution. A drilling fluid is pumped into the well bore to prevent natural oil from surging up the well the by creating hydrostatic pressure in the wellbore.
After completion of the drilling, a completion fluid with sufficient density to prevent escape of oil from the rock formation is filled into the well bore. However, the design of completion and drilling fluids must be ensure that they do not create excessive hydrostatic pressure that may cause wastage.
High hydrocarbon pressures are taken care of additives in the drilling fluid preventing aqueous fluid loss from the wellbore. An example of additive used is barium sulphate. If a well is rendered uneconomical after drilling and analysis of the amount of oil it can yield, leakage cementing the wellbore is done.
If the well is economical, for instance in the Macondo Deep Sea horizon, well a casing wider than the drill pipe is lowered into the well and cement slurry is pumped through the casing. This cement slurry also contains additives with retarders, which delay the rate of cement hardening until the desired location in the wellbore receives the cement slurry.
Tests are performed to determine whether hydrocarbons are entering the well bore once the cement is hardened. The test is then repeated a few hours. Squeeze cementing is done incase of leakages which involves sealing the leaking cracks in the well bore by injecting small amounts of cement slurry at high pressure.
Memagazine website postulates that a blowout is a can be prevented by the use of a blowout preventer (3). Blocking the oil from escaping through the well bore is done by blowout preventer that closes the valves and seal the drill pipe and well casing by use of shear rams. Incase a blowout occurs a seal is formed by the shear rams that cut through and crush the pipe.
The shear rams have two blades each one at the top and the other at the bottom. The crushing of the drill pipe is occasioned by powerful springs that push the blades through it. A barrier is formed when the ram blades seal against each other thus preventing fluid flow. In deep waters, the blowout shear rams are designed to have sufficient power to cut through thick drill pipe which is usually thicker than the drill standpipe.
Transfer operations pose a great risk for disaster especially where a ship is used for transportation. Fuelling and defueling must be undertaken cautiously by examining and checking all piping systems for tightness and correcting all leaking glands, gaskets and seals. Spilling oil on the bilge while changing oil should be avoided as it may also result to oil pollution.
Centrifugal purifiers should be constantly checked while in operation to prevent loosing the water seal causing them to discharge the oil on to the bilge. Oil pollution may also occur during de-ballasting operations hence care must be taken to ensure that oil is not pumped overboard along with the water emanating from the ballast tanks. A sludge barge should be used to contain all oily waste. Prevention of oil pollution from ships is a complex task given the various sources of shipboard oily waste.
Therefore, control systems that prevent such pollution should be installed on ships consequently reducing pollution by reducing oil waste generation rates, storage and monitoring of oily waste, transferring oily waste to offshore facilities and processing the waste. Furthermore, all engineering personnel are trained thoroughly on the maintenance and troubleshooting procedures for oil pollution control systems.
Engineering disasters
On 20 April 2010, a disaster occurred on a drilling rig in Deepwater Horizon on the Gulf of Mexico. The semi-submersible drilling rig was as result of poor well design that resulted into a blow out and consequently an oil spill. This disaster was as result of inadequate cement between the production and protection casings. This disaster culminated into a severe environmental impact and efforts to stem the spill were by the use of an insertion tube. Furthermore, drilling of two adjacent relief bores that intersected the MC 252 well bore was effective.
Another disaster occurred in 1993 when an oil pipeline in Virginia ruptured spewing oil into the air to a height of up to 30m. Over 400,000 gallons of oil released polluted the environment severely (Cesar 2-5) due to pipeline material failure. The design of a pipeline must consider the conditions under which the pipeline is to be operating hence ensuring a viable choice of material properties for the pipeline.
Conclusion
Oil is a precious resource and the whole world for depends on it for the generation of energy. Its extraction and transportation is particularly risky because of the remoteness of oil reserves. Moreover, it is highly flammable calling for extra caution when handling this resourceful product.
From the time of exploration, extraction to transportation, due procedure must be followed while adhering to strict safety guidelines to avoid disasters. The personnel working at oilrigs must be thorough on safety procedures and response in event of a disaster. The material used for design of the oilrig must be tested and constantly checked for signs of failure and appropriate corrections undertaken.
Works Cited
Cesar, Azevedo. “Failure analysis of a crude oil pipeline”. ND, 2011. Web.
Don, Lawson. “Engineering disasters”. Lessons to be leaned. ND. ASME Press, 2004.
One of the primary goals of the paper is to investigate people’s understanding and recommendations on London’s air pollution control policies related to congestion charge zone and ultra-low emission zone through questionnaires, focusing on the public’s perception. The purposes of this literature review are to summarise findings related to the transport-related air pollution policies in London from the public viewpoint, as well as identify the potential gap in the current literature.
The articles and reports used for the analysis are selected based on their timeliness and contents. The primary questions for consideration are the public perceptions of air pollution and related policies in London and other cities of the United Kingdom, previous surveys regarding existing policies related to the environment or air quality, and the significance of citizen participation in policy effectiveness. The literature review features both peer-reviewed articles and official reports from local and national authorities.
Methodology
Article searches were performed through academic databases, books, and official websites. The databases that were used to conduct the analysis include BioOne, PubMed, PubChem, ScienceOpen, and Scopus. All of these databases feature peer-reviewed articles on biomedical and chemical topics, as well as environmental sciences and ecology. The materials found on official websites were selected based on their relevance to the problem and timeliness. The keywords used to perform the search included perceptions of air pollution policies, air quality public polling, public attitudes to air quality, public participation, and citizen participation.
Public Perceptions of Air Pollution and Related Policies
People living in London, other cities of England, and the UK, in general, have a relatively high awareness of air pollution issues. It is vital to mention that in the UK, cars are the most dominant mode of travel, meaning that people prefer using them regardless of air pollution issues (Bergman, Schwanen & Sovacool 2017). The study by Xu, Chi, and Zhu (2017) shows that the majority of individuals living in the UK believe that such vehicles remain the most significant air pollution sources. Thus, it is evident that the individuals’ perspectives on existing policies should be analysed.
Li et al. (2018) and Brunt et al. (2017) note that many individuals living in London report that air pollution continues to decrease their subjective well-being. It means that the population may believe that the current policies are not fully effective. Many individuals think that there are extra policies that can be implemented. For instance, they suggest that the government should tax vehicles based on the amount of produced pollution (Aditjandra, Cao & Mulley 2016).
Other policies that have been offered by people living in the UK include forcing the population to shift from high-polluting means of travel, such as airplanes, to low-polluting ones, by using taxes and fees (Higham et al. 2016). The current peer-reviewed articles do not report detailed information on the public perception of existing policies related to air pollution, which shows that there is a significant gap in the literature on the topic.
People living in other cities of England, such as Manchester, experience significant effects of air pollution, too. However, Cox and Goggins (2018) report that few individuals are aware of the urgency of air pollution policies in the area, regardless of the national and local authorities’ actions towards minimizing the problem’s impact. At the same time, an extensive level of pollution can be measured outside schools, on busy shopping streets, and in other populated areas of the city (Cox & Goggins 2018). Residents of Cardiff have a different perspective on air pollution-related policies, as they believe that national policy formation does not take local authority data into account (House of Commons 2018). Thus, there are challenges expressed by the public living in many cities of the United Kingdom.
Findings of Surveys
The literature review shows that there is a lack of data published in authoritative sources regarding previous surveys about existing air pollution or environmental policies. London Councils’ (2019) latest report on the public understanding of policies associated with air pollution control shows that more than 90% of respondents from London believe that they are aware of air quality problems, while more than 80% think that controlling policies should be a priority issue. In addition, more than 60% of respondents reported that London’s air quality has changed within the past year; nearly all of them think that the change is negative. However, no of the official sources presented individuals perceptions of existing policies in detail.
Turner and Struthers (2018) conducted a survey in several cities of the United Kingdom, including London, Manchester, Birmingham, Cardiff, Lydgate, and Exeter. The participants were divided into seven groups and included individuals using public transport regularly, non-commuting and commuting drivers, rural residents, people vulnerable to air quality, and rural domestic solid fuel users. The study revealed that air pollution was considered one of the most significant environmental concerns in the United Kingdom from the public perspective; individuals living in the urban areas were more concerned about air quality and related policies compared to those living in the rural ones (Turner & Struthers 2018). The findings of the study did not reveal differences in individuals’ perceptions of policies based on their place of residence.
Significance of Citizen Participation
Various studies reveal that citizen participation is highly significant in policy effectiveness. Kochskämper et al. (2016) note that citizen participation in air pollution control policies is substantial, as it is associated with positive environmental and social outcomes. For instance, one part of the authors’ study that was performed in the UK and showed that individuals’ participation enhanced the communication between the public and authorities, which, consequently, could improve the effectiveness of existing policies.
The study by McKinley et al. (2017) shows similar findings and reveals that for municipal and federal agencies, public participation and engagement are crucial in for environmental protection. The authors report that the law requires federal agencies to interact with citizens in the questions of the environment and air pollution, as the government must disclose the impact of its policies. Citizens’ participation can improve policy effectiveness by engaging in research about local environmental issues, changing their management practices from the perspectives of ecology, and include diverse opinions in decision-making (McKinley et al. 2017).
In addition, individuals can improve policies simply by being aware of existing local problems and understanding possible solutions (Brunt et al. 2016). The study by Brunt et al. (2018) also shows that local and community-based participation can empower the government to address diverse environmental issues on all levels by providing information about the challenges they encounter regarding air pollution. It is possible to conclude that public partaking is especially significant for improving policies on a local level.
Another significant part of citizen participation is communication with the authorities. Kirkman and Voulvoulis (2017) note that the role of individuals’ perspectives is vital in developing policies related to environmental issues, as people can propose vital solutions based on their experiences. In addition, by enhancing public participation in establishing control policies, the government can ensure that the social acceptability of what it proposes is improved.
Discussion
It is notable that the impact of air pollution and the significance of related policies are perceived differently in various areas of the UK. For instance, the analysis of studies shows that in London, people are highly aware of the need of regulations aimed at reducing the level of pollution, while in Manchester citizens are not as concerned about the issue although they also experience adverse effects of the problem. Notably, although many individuals do not express their opinions on existing policies, they note that air pollution affected their health negatively and that the level of pollution is growing. In addition, many citizens propose changes the government can make to eliminate the issue, which means that the public is willing to advocate for change and minimize the effects of the problem.
It is notable that many of them are ready to compromise fast travel options, such as flights, to reduce air pollution. Moreover, although many people use cars as the primary transport for commute, they suggest implementing taxes to motivate individuals to use public transport. It means that the impact of air pollution and the lack of effective policies have become significant.
The reviewed studies also show that public participation is highly significant for guiding air pollution-related policies, as individuals can address and report the issues local communities encounter, that the government may overlook. The analysis proves that the government should cooperate with both local organizations and individuals while developing control policies. Such cooperation is vital because people living in various areas may encounter different challenges related to air pollution, which is evident from the examples of London, Manchester, and their residents’ perspectives.
The literature review allows for concluding that currently, there is a gap in understanding public opinion on air pollution-related policies in London and the United Kingdom in general. As mentioned above, no official reports addressed public perspectives of existing control policies. As there is a lack of up-to-date data on public perceptions of the government’s actions, it may be challenging to assess the level of the UK citizens’ awareness of problematic issues and the significance of their participation in resolving them. In addition, the lack of current studies on the public attitude towards air pollution policies in the United Kingdom is notable because there are many articles concentrating on environmental problems in other world’s areas, such as China.
Conclusion
The literature review provides information from peer-reviewed articles and official reports. It features the information collected in London, Manchester, Cardiff, and other cities and reveals that there is a significant gap in current sources regarding the public opinion on existing policies associated with transport-related air pollution. Only a limited number of surveys of policy opinions are available; they do not provide detailed information on individuals’ perspectives. The analysis of the literature shows that citizen participation in policy effectiveness is highly significant, which means that the government should strive to cooperate with local communities in developing regulations.
Reference List
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Kochskämper, E, Challies, E, Newig, J & Jager, NW 2016, ‘Participation for effective environmental governance? Evidence from Water Framework Directive implementation in Germany, Spain and the United Kingdom’, Journal of Environmental Management, vol. 181, pp. 737-748.
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