Water is a special substance because through its natural form it can replenish and purify itself by allowing impurities to clear up through the process known as sedimentation. It can also dilute the impurities to a position where they contain harmless elements. Conversely, this natural process takes a lot of time, and therefore becomes impossible when there are excessive impurities that have contaminated the water.
Human beings contribute greatly towards polluting the water that they use. Prolonged pollution of water has even caused some plants to grow in the water, which pose danger to the living entities that have their inhabitants in the water. This paper shall succinctly explore on causes of water pollution and the present environmental solution towards the ongoing pollution of water.
The term pollution can be defined in various ways. Water pollution happens when energy and varying materials are set free, thus debasing the value of water for users. In another perspective, water pollution comprises of all the waste products that the water cannot break down in its natural form.
In simpler terms, any substance that is added to water and cannot be broken is referred as Pollution. In certain instances, the root cause of pollution may be through nature itself, for instance, when water runs all the way through soils containing acidic components. Human beings are however, the greater causes of water pollution (Canadian Broadcasting Corporation).
Source of Pollution
Water pollution has two major sources: the point and the non-point sources. The point sources include those sources that visibly discharge pollutants into the sources of water. For example, sewerage treatment and discharge from factories among others. Similarly, the non-point source becomes very difficult to discover because their sources cannot be traced with ease. Examples of non-point sources include fertilizers, animal and chemical wastes, wastes from mining factories among others (Canadian Broadcasting Corporation).
Categories of Water Pollution
The first category of pollution is based mainly on human and the animal waste. Such kind of wastes is called the environmental waste. They are capable of producing a source of energy, which enhances growth of bacteria. The source of energy produced (organic compound) is transformed into carbon dioxide and water, which when in large components can lead to atmospheric pollution and acidic rain. The type of pollution that is formed here is widespread and very difficult to control than any other type of pollution.
The second category is the type of pollution that results from sewerage treatment. Such water contains components of phosphates and nitrates and these are directly discharged into water. Such pollution is very hazardous to both the human and aquatic life.
Heat is the third category of water pollution. When the temperature of water increases, the amount of the oxygen gas that is dissolved in water tends to lower. In some instances, such kind of pollution may be said to be natural. Mostly, the industrial equipments and other plants may be cleaned and cooled respectively by use hot springs and shallow ponds, then the used water is discharged into water body without being treated. Consequently, these tend to decrease the aquatic life since the oxygen component is also affected.
The fourth and most common source of water pollution is sediment pollution. The organic particles and other minerals from the land are washed and blown into water sources. Such source of pollution is very difficult to identify since it emanates from the non-point sources.
The fifth and most widespread source of water pollution is the discharge of chemicals into water, which mainly comes from the industrial wastes. Controlling this source of water pollution has proven difficult since industries are still discharging waste products into water sources; farmers are still using agro-chemicals.
The last category is water pollution through radioactive pollutants. These comprise of discharges from production industries, from hospitals and Uranium Mines. Radioactive pollutants are considered hazardous to both human and aquatic life since they take a long period before they become inactive and harmless (Environment Canada).
Environmental Solutions to Water pollution
Water pollution is an issue that has been present in our midst for ages. It has been there since time immemorial, despite the fact that its relentless has lately struck environmentalists all over the world. Implementation of strict laws concerning the way forward to prevent water pollution have been amended year in year out, but they have always lacked a follow up since they have always fallen on deaf ears.
In fact, the problem has become adverse and this has compelled the EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) to declare most of the lake, some streams, and even rivers as being dangerous for both swimming and fishing.
Therefore, besides implementing ways on how this issue can be prevented, there is also a need to put to a stop this problem. In that connection, the following are some of the present water pollution solutions that we can implement and make this world a better place to be (Environment Canada).
Charity Begins at Home
Before we start pointing fingers to those we think have greatly contributed towards polluting water, it is advisable to have a look on the inside. Each one of us has contributed in one way or another in polluting the environment. Having done this, therefore, puts us into a better position of implementing some changes within ourselves, which may turn into a revolution: ensuring that the discharge of the wastes from whichever sources is directed towards the right places and they are treated.
Setting up programs to ensure that the septic tanks are periodically cleaned might also be a step ahead that one ought to implement within his or her locality and in this case everyone within the neighborhood should be involved. Above all, kids should also be educated on the importance of saving water, as this is one of the major solutions in saving water.
This will help in maintaining the old septic systems. In addition, refraining from using plastic equipments saves life when it comes to water pollution. Plastics are said to be non-biodegradable and therefore when dumped they tend to release chemicals and products that becomes hazardous to life.
Amending On Present Laws
Amending and making Water protection laws more stringent is the only possible way in fighting with those that cause water pollution. Any person found breaking the laid down rules and regulations concerning preservation of water should be highly penalized. Likewise, it may prove to be the most difficult solution to implement since most of those people involved in polluting the environment are those in power. This will only become efficient and effective to all, if there is a genuine concern for human and aquatic life (Environment Canada)
Prevent Deforestation
There is a linking point between the causes of environmental pollution. For instance, a forest plays the major part as main source of rainwater and infuses it up. Conversely, due to the extensive expansion of emerging companies and residential premises, that occurs at the costs of forests, and thus resulting into widespread deforestation, the role of the forests comes into a standstill. The resultant is that rainwater flows into streams carrying sediments and other particles into water bodies. The only way to stop this is practicing a forestation (Terra Daily).
Stopping Oil Spills
For ages, the oil discharged from the industries has affected the marine life. The only possible and best way to evade from this problem is to increase the rate at which the vessels that carry this oil moves. Government interventions through inspecting the way ships moves, and also provide civic education about the repercussions of such problems (Environment Canada).
Conclusion
Water is a natural substance that is essential for living things, and requires protection from any pollution. The points discussed in this paper are just few of the possible solutions for water pollution. If we fail to implement water pollution solutions and analyze this major environmental issue, human life and the natural environment may experience difficulties coexisting in the world.
Prevention of water pollution is one of the major steps in having a sustainable “green” environment. Governments need to set up laws that protect the environment from pollutions. Having international laws that are driven to educate and guide people on environmental protection will benefit all things that depend on water. It is therefore important to focus on preserving water sources and ensure that natural resources are used wisely, be it for production or for business services.
Bibliography
Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. Annual Checkup. 2004. Web.
Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. Down on the Farm: Water Laws. 2004. Web.
Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. On the Nutrient Trail. 2004. Web.
Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. Up the Creek. 2004. Web.
City of Saskatoon. Wastewater Treatment Process. 2007. Web.
Environment Canada. Clean Water – Life depends on. 2004. Web.
Environment Canada. Quick Facts. 2006. Web.
Environment Canada. The State of Canada’s Environment – 1996. 1996. Web.
Environmental protection has been at the forefront of people’s minds for a number of years recently, with a lot of effort going into protecting and conserving the planet we all live on. The reduction in personal waste, as well as systematic change both work towards the same goal of reducing carbon emissions and protecting the sanctity of natural resources. Many politicians and activists notice and understand the importance climate action has on securing a future for the entire human population. However, there are also significant problems that still have to be solved, many of which might uproot the entire foundation of modern economy. For the most prime example, it is interesting to explore the fossil fuel industry. The term used to describe a combination of oil and petroleum-related businesses, fossil fuel has been continuously cited as being dangerous for the planet.
1 (Fossil fuels and climate change: The Facts).
The acquisition of oil, as shown by research, as well as its processing, emits gasses into the atmosphere, creating pollution. In addition, oil fuels cars and other types of vehicles, all of which contribute to the global pool of CO2 emissions. 2018 research has cited fossil fuels and the connected industries as 89% of the reason responsible for global CO2 output (Fossil fuels and climate change: The Facts). This means that a number of companies and organizations involved in this industry have an incredibly large influence over the wellbeing and prosperity of the planet. Furthermore, it has been noted that the oil firms knew and understood their own impact even in the past. As shown by investigations, the members of the fossil fuel industry with political power have been pushing against clean air legislation for years, all in an effort to protect their profits (Oil firms knew decades ago fossil fuels posed grave health risks, files reveal 2021). The presently existing setting puts a small minority of people responsible for the problems the rest of humanity has to solve, which becomes a point of contention for many.
All people live on the same planet, and protecting the environment is important. To breathe clean air, have fresh water, and to be able to enjoy nature’s wonders, we have made progress in restoring and conserving different parts of the Earth. However, there are still many problems people have not managed to solve, many of which are extremely important. Fuels that cars, planes, rockets and many other modes of transportation run on are made from oil. Oil is drilled from the earth, processed and shipped all across the globe for sale. However, scientists and experts now say that this process is dangerous to the planet and its inhabitants. By working with oil, big companies create pollution, one which makes the air quality worse and has the potential to affect the quality of water as well. The dangers associated with fuel industries and their work might have to be overlooked if people want to protect their planet. Furthermore, experts have found out that many working in oil firms have lied about the potential harm their work does, and tried their best to prevent politicians from regulating it. It is more important than ever for people to talk about and consider the dangers fossil-based fuels present to the world. To move towards a better future, society might have to change their preferred methods of transport, and the way they lead their lives altogether.
The environmental health of the world has become increasingly a part of the economic discourse for many countries. This is reflected in two articles recently featured in The Economist (The Economist staff) (The Economist staff).
The burning of fossil fuels, long taken for granted as a driver of economic development, is now identified with massive climate change trends. For some nations, fossil fuel prices have been subsidized for many years. This practice is receiving a wide and searching re-examination. Its economic impacts have may have been more negative than positive (The Economist staff).
Although there are direct economic reasons for considering discontinuing fossil fuel subsidies, there are other, less immediately obvious long-term benefits to taking a hard look at environmental policy. Nations may find that environmental improvement has economic benefits for individual citizens as well, and thus, for the whole country. Research suggests that lifetime health and income outcomes are worsened by exposure to air pollution.
This may go against expectation because heavy industry is usually associated with prosperity, in popular thinking. However, long-term comparisons of areas that implemented air quality regulations with those that did not demonstrate that reduced pollution improved both chronic disease morbidity and adult labor market performance (The Economist staff).
In their article on fossil fuels subsidies, the Economist’s writers note that several countries are contemplating reducing fuel subsidies. These include Malaysia, Indonesia, Egypt, Jordan, and India. Their governments have been spending substantial percentages of their gross domestic product on such subsidies. The article cites a global figure of 2 trillion dollars spent on underwriting fossil fuel use, or more than 8%, when losses due to sacrificed tax revenues are taken into account.
The article also notes that these expenditures are non-productive. They lead to inefficiencies in the economy, perhaps because due to unresponsiveness to market forces. Another problem is subsidies make national governments vulnerable to unpredictable budgetary expansion when the price of fossil fuel jumps. The government must pay the world market price, no matter the price charged to consumers or transportation systems.
The most severe indictment of fossil fuels subsidies asserted by the authors of this article is that the benefit of any fuel subsidy accrues not to the poor of a country, but rather to the wealthy. This is an eye opening insight and supports the idea that all that money could be better spent on improving the economic potential of the poorest citizens.
However, increased energy costs raise the cost of living, and this is one potent objection to eliminating fuel subsidies. This can be an inflammatory move on the part of a government, and the article cites popular protests against subsidy cuts in places like Malaysia.
This article brings to light an element in the economic health of a nation that may be new to many student readers. These subsidies, doubtless well-meant, may have the effect of sapping the economy of significant resources, while at the same time, not helping the people it should help (The Economist staff). The danger that this student sees is that the benefits could go to industrial interests that perhaps should not need it.
The reasons cited for reducing or eliminating did not include much concern for the environmental impact. Governmental support for fossil fuels does not encourage the development of alternative energy technologies. This problem connects this article with the other story because alternative fuels are hoped to reduce pollution. The second article details the disturbing long-range effects of pollution on economic prospects and health.
However, the good news is that areas of the USA that have implemented the 1970 Clean Air Act were higher lifetime earners than their neighbors in places that somehow avoided this regulation. This means that the loss of dirty and polluting heavy industries is not the unmitigated disaster that politicians and corporate interests often assert. This should be reassuring to economists concerned about the impact of ‘Not In My Back Yard’ (NIMBY) objections to the siting of dangerous industrial activities.
On the other hand, these findings make it all the more disturbing to consider the impact of dirty industries on lifetime health. The article cites heart disease and diabetes, as well as reduced life expectancy, as results of being conceived, born, brought up, or living in polluted locales. These are serious problems that also affect could affect the economy in several negative ways.
These diseases cost substantial money to the health care system to treat, and they increase absenteeism and reduce productivity in business. They take people out of the work force before necessary. This reduces the efficiency of the economy overall to some extent.
However, the most distressing implication of these findings is that by saying no to dirty industry in the USA, the problem is not solved for the whole world. The pollution is an externality that does not disappear when it is offshored. A dirty industry that merely moves from a first world location to a third world location as a result of The Clean Air Act, or the equivalent regulations in other countries does not eliminate the impact of the toxins. Instead, it simply shifts the unpleasantness to people who are less able to protest.
This is a dramatic example of why environmental justice is more than merely a matter of ethics and morals. Instead, the findings described in this article show that shifting polluting industries to less advantaged communities does them no favors in health or economic terms. This must be a concern for the whole world. It supports the notion that finding environmentally sound ways to produce what we need should be a central pursuit of economists (The Economist staff).
Both articles demonstrate that policies can have unintended consequences. They should be considered for all their economic impacts. These can include unexpected externalities.
Works Cited
The Economist staff. “Energy Subsidies: Fuelling Controversy.” 2014. The Economist. Web.
The Anacostia River is one of the oldest rivers located in Washington D.C. With a watershed of about 170 square miles, Anacostia remains to be the largest tributary of the Potomac River. Similarly, its watershed extends to some parts of the District of Columbia. For many years, the river was the reason behind the improved ecosystem and scenery1. However, this is no longer the case due to human activities: it is now very shallow besides being a destination for about 50 percent of the polluted water within the county. According to research, much of the dumping/ pollution was started by the Washington DC metropolitan area. The new development/construction that took place around the country’s capital saw the surface become less impervious. This, in turn, led to soil erosion with a large amount of silt ending up in the river2. Another issue that contributed to the pollution concern in the Anacostia River is the modern septic systems.
The Anacostia River was nicknamed by the town’s people and visitors as the abandoned river. In fact, the river shows a clear picture of the ugly side of the capital’s population. The efforts by some local and environmental groups to restore the dignity of the river are yet to bear some positive results. The good news is that several environmental and lobby groups have been at the forefront when it to champion the protection of the rivers: they have petitioned EPA for negligence3. Overall, despite the worrying nature of the river, a larger percentage of the populace continues to use and enjoy it.
History
The Anacostia Rive, as indicated above, is considered one of the oldest rivers in the larger area of Washington DC. The River has a watershed of about 176 square miles. Anacostia’s major distributaries include Northwest, Northeast, Paint and Little Paint Branches. Other distributaries include Sligo Creek, Indian Creek and Beaverd and Creek. The river flows for 8 miles before joining the Potomac River located in the District of Columbia—it is located approximately 110 miles upstream of Chesapeake Bay4. The river also used to have other small streams flowing into it until the modern sewer system was introduced: it completely enveloped most of these streams.
Another important historical milestone that gives a true picture of what Anacostia River used to be is through Captain John Smith’s expedition. His journey saw him sail up to the Chesapeake Bay, through the Potomac River and eventually along the shores of the Anacostia River5. The Captain was intrigued by the beautiful sceneries of these two rivers. In addition to this, John Smith found the Nonchtank Indians to be the most unique Native American Culture coupled with clean and blooming shorelines6. In fact, the name Anacostia traces its origin to the Native American Word, “anaquash” a native-based trading center7. Additionally, the Captain observed the Anacostia River to be very productive: it was rich with different specifies of fish including even the hickory shad and white and yellow perch. Other fish included herring, catfish, red-breasted sunfish and American shad.
Captain John Smith, overwhelmed by his adventures along the river, decided to share the news with other European settlers. The European settlement, in return, brought about major changes in form of agriculture8. They were excited by the fertile soil that surrounded the river and its distributaries. The European settlers, protected by the Civil War, started clearing much of the forests which served as the main landscape of the river and its tributaries. The settlers after clearing the forests decided to grow corn and tobacco. They further relied on Anacostia’s deep water to transport tobacco for export to England9. In addition to this, the river’s strategic position allowed large trading ships to sail to the port of Bladensburg which was the nation’s main trading center.
The tobacco and Corn agri-business continued to flourish but, at the same time, signaled a series of unending misfortunes for River Anacostia. The high demand for tobacco around the globe compelled the settlers to encroach further into the river by clearing many trees. The heavy rains that followed suit ended up eroding the topsoil and depositing it at the bottom of the river10. Towards the end of the 19th century, soil erosion made the river shallower, thus making it difficult for large trading ships to sail to Bladensburg. In addition, the unending sedimentation affected the river’s ecosystem due to the lack of sunshine, especially at the bottom of the river.
In 1902, Congress made an attempt to address the issue by approving funding for the US Army Corps of Engineers. Their tasks included dredging parts of the river with the aim of repairing boat channels located along the Washington Yard which once acted as a naval experimentation center11. Instead of addressing the problem of the river getting shallower, the team ended up complicating the situation. As explicated in Kwiatkowski’s study, “they further injured the river’s fisheries by tearing up established habitats on the riverbed”12. However, as evidenced in research, this was only but the tip of the iceberg.
How the pollution issue in the anacostia river began
The pollution issue in the Anacostia River started after the Washington DC area embraced the idea of urbanization which was later followed by endless suburban sprawl. These two periods were marked by major construction projects, such as modern buildings, which attracted many people to move along the river and its tributaries13. An increase in population coupled with poor sanitation saw the river become the dumping side of the city’s sewage. Earlier efforts to address the sewage problem compelled the city to commission the construction of several dams and one large treatment plant. Although the city spent a lot of resources in building the Blue plant, it failed to address the sewage problem due to population growth14. What was once considered a state-of-the-art technology failed to meet the needs: it ended up contributing to the pollution problem.
The immediate problem the Blue Plains Water Treatment Plant encountered was in the design structure of the pipelines—they carried both rainwater and human waste from sewer systems. The pipelines could not handle withstand the high pressure caused by heavy rains15. This, as Wang et al. explained in their study, “resulted in a back-up in the pipes that overflows and dumps the rainwater mixed with raw sewage into the river”16. Being a tidal river, Anacostia was a slow-flowing river compared to Potomac. This means that the sewage overflow stagnated in the river for several days before eventually flowing downriver into the Chesapeake Bay.
In line with the above, the silt deposits also contributed heavily to the pollution concern in the Anacostia River. From a scientific point of view, silt deposits create a barrier between the seabed and sunshine: This affects the ability of plants to manufacture food through the process of photosynthesis17. Similarly, silt deposits, as observed by Wang et al., affect the ability of water to pass between tissues and, in the process, provide a medium for gaseous exchange. It is important to note that less transparency affects plant life by reducing the amount of sunlight needed for photosynthesis18. A decline in plant habitat, in turn, affects the fish habitats and food sources19.
Lastly, pollutants such as Polychlorinated Biphenyls20, Chlordane21, and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons, which were common in the 1930s, contributed a lot to the pollution problem. These chemicals were carried into the river via run-off water after the settlers cleared the forests for farming22. The aforementioned chemicals, although some of them are no longer in use due to their carcinogenic properties, could be traced in the Anacostia River’s tributaries until the late 2000s. Besides these chemicals being harmful to humans, they also affect the wildlife around the river. Up until recently, many animals have been found to have cancer-related diseases such as tumors.
Maryland and the District of Colombia also contributed partly to the current pollution status of the Anacostia River. While they shared a common goal of making the river great again, they held competing interests that had counterproductive effects on the river. They later agreed to focus their attention on dredging in order to increase boat access to the river. Dredging is also aimed at ensuring large ships access the upstream, with the small crafts being limited to the shallow waters23. However, on the flip side, dredging ended up reducing the capability of the fish to move freely while, at the same time, hindering plants from growing due to inadequate sunlight24. The issue was compounded by murky water, which affected plant growth due to the lack of sunlight at the riverbed.
It is evident that the Anacostia River had fallen way below the vibrant attention it once received in the 17th century when the European settlers first arrived. However, the future looks more promising as the river is slowly but steadily receiving the necessary attention. In fact, Washington, DC has already put measures in place to reclaim the once-forgotten waterways.DC has already commissioned several projects in order to restore the ecological health of the river. For instance, the Urban Waters Federal Partnership (UWFP) has already put in place several measures in an effort to restore the river to its original status: a river with beautiful scenery and an ecosystem. This plan, according to its founders, represents “a bold and unparalleled initiative25”. No other restoration plan in the United States has systematically identified the thousands of projects needed to retrofit an entire urban watershed26. The UWFP comprises “local, state, and federal agencies, environmental organizations, and private citizens27” working in tandem toward a cleaner and healthier watershed.
Another project that has made efforts to restore the river is the Anacostia Waterfront Initiative (AWI). AWI allocated $ 10 billion to spearhead the revival of Anacostia’s troubled shoreline into a vibrant asset to the community. Its main vision for Anacostia is to see it transformed, specifically the many abandoned stretches of waterfronts, into parks, recreational facilities, walking paths and commercial centers aimed at job creation.
Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC), founded in 1970, is currently working with other partners to promote and help with the implementation of a long-term solution to the “runoff-laden stormwater that is responsible to about 75 percent of the river’s pollution”28. The solution, dubbed low-impact development, consists of evidence-based measures that integrate technology with common sense in developing beds of native plants, rain barrels, porous parking lots and courtyards to ensure rainfall evaporates back into the atmosphere or soaks into the ground as opposed to washing into the river
Environmental laws
For the purpose of clarity, environmental law can be described simply as sets of protections with a common goal of safeguarding the environment. Some of the commonly cited environmental laws include National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) which was passed in 1970 alongside Environmental Quality Improvement Act, National Environmental Education Act and Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). The main objective of these laws was to protect the environment against harm. EPA, for instance, is responsible for monitoring and analyzing the environment, conducting research and partnering with state and local governments in establishing pollution control policies.
Another notable law that was developed in the effort to regulate the nation’s waterways is the Clean Water Act (CWA) which was introduced back in the year 197729. The Act was introduced to help address the shortcomings/limitations of the Federal Water Pollution Control Amendment (FWPCA) of 197230. CWA was strengthened further following the establishment of the Water Quality Act of 198731. Unlike other laws, the CWA is responsible for establishing the basic structure that regulates the discharges of waste products in the bodies of water. Similarly, the Act was established to help regulate quality standards of surface waters.
The most notable accomplishment of the CWA in improving water quality was through giving EPA the mandate to provide measures and policies to control point sources of pollution. A point source refers to “any discernible, confined, and discrete conveyance, including but not limited to any pipe, ditch, container, or vessel or other floating craft, from which pollutants are or may be discharged”32. However, a point source does not apply to agricultural stormwater and associated return flow33. This explains why these sources of pollution, commonly referred to as non-point sources, are hardly addressed. More specifically, most of the pollutants within the Anacostia River were considered to be non-point sources of pollution. These pollutant sources, such as stormwater run-off, are responsible for up to 70 percent of the total waste in the river.
The Impact of the Clean Water Act
Although indirectly, the CWA has made some attempts to address several challenges facing the Anacostia River. For instance, the Act has, in the past, introduced several measures aimed at controlling the pollution problem in the Chesapeake Bay: Anacostia River is its indirect tributary34. The Act initiated the creation of the Chesapeake Bay Program Office (CBPO) within the EPA whose mandate includes coordinating scientific research into the problems facing Chesapeake. Similarly, CBPO is responsible for providing the much-needed grants for local investments with the aim of reducing pollution and improving the quality standards of Chesapeake35. It goes without saying that the CBPO should be concerned with the Anacostia River since it is one of the largely populated tributaries of Chesapeake Bay. While much of the governmental focus revolves around Chesapeake Bay because of the income it generates to Maryland, there is a need to resolve the Anacostia River’s problem in order to prevent the decline of the fish population.
Total Maximum Daily Loads (TMDLs)
Every state, as highlighted in the Clean Water Act is required to come up with “lists of impaired water” that cannot meet the quality water standards put in place36. In addition to this, the Act requires that all states with polluted waters to put in place priority ranks for the listed water as well as establish proper TMDLs37. TMDLs, according to EPA refer to “calculation of the maximum amount of a pollutant that a water body can receive and still safely meet water quality standards”38. In the U.S., the common causes of impaired water include sediment, pesticides, metals, mercury, heat deposits and pathogens.
The EPA went a step further to codify the regulations guiding the TMDL program based on the already established regulations measures39. However, these regulations hold that all responsibilities should be performed by the states in line with the Clean Water Act. According to EPA, every state must strive to identify waterways that should be classified as troubled waters. In addition to this, it is mandatory for every state it regularly updates its data record on waterways and ensures it reports the same to EPA40. Most importantly, each state must come up with TMDLs for water quality based on a pollutant-by-pollutant state. Finally, each state is required to submit an accurate “list of waters, pollutants causing impairment, and the priority ranking including waters targeted for TMDL development41” to the Regional Administrator after every two years for approval.
Public interest
Litigation
For many years, private groups have been at the forefront of suing the Environmental Protection Agency on different accounts. Most of the lawsuits focus on EPA’s regulations for rivers and other water bodies. Private groups such as Earthjustice, Anacostia Riverkeeper, and Potomac Riverkeeper have, in the past brought lawsuits against EPA42. These groups often claim that they represent the local people who regularly visit the river for leisure purposes. The groups also argued that EPA’s actions and omissions prevented their members from using the rivers43. In other words, the private groups are suing the EPA, not for their selfish gains but rather for the interests of their injured members. Similar to the approach used for class action suits, individuals tend to find it difficult to sue EPA regulations: they require the resources of well-established environmental groups.
Another critical issue that prevent individuals from suing EPA is the matter of jurisdiction. A good example is the case of Friends of Earth v. EPA44 which went all to the Court of Appeal. However, the case was dismissed because it did not meet all the requirements: it lacked jurisdiction. The Court ruled that “original jurisdiction over EPA actions not expressly listed in section 1369(b)(1)45 lies not with us, but with the district court”46. Although CWA outlines several punitive measures against the EPA as per the court of Appeal’s jurisdiction, the US District Court has jurisdiction over those challenges that do not meet the set requirements (108). The aforementioned groups have, in the past, filed lawsuits against EPA’s regulation standards on behalf of Anacostia River.
In line with the above, private groups also accuse EPA of failure to follow the regulations put forth by CWA as well as uphold its own regulations. Although such attempts to petition EPA started many years ago, the private groups are yet to achieve a significant result. For instance, in 2002, Earthjustice and Friends of Earth filed a lawsuit accusing EPA of its failure to regulate the number of waste products being deposited in the Anacostia River. According to the Anacostia Watershed Society, “about two billion gallons of a mix of stormwater and untreated human waste flows into the river each year”47. The private group also argued that in 1997 both the CWA and EPA allowed limited TMDLs for specific wastes from authorized source points to be deposited in the river. In their defense, EPA claimed that the allowed permits were in line with CW and that the word “daily” in TMDLs was ambiguous. However, the Court ruled that EPA is responsible for giving the correct and accurate meaning of its own regulations.
A few years later, Earthjustice together with Friends of the Earth and Anacostia River Keeper, filed a case in which they challenged EPA‘s approved caps for bacteria, sediments, and metals. Earth Justice maintained that EPA “must correct several remaining pollution limits that are only based average annual loads, rather daily loads”48. This was in line with the previous ruling by the Court. The EPA ignored the Court’s ruling and instead continued to allow 15 existing limits that were controversial. They further claimed that “daily” in TMDLs truly means per day. The plaintiffs also indicated in the lawsuit that the idea of using daily limits only endangers the lives of those using the river. However, despite the continued litigation efforts, the problems of sewage overflow, silt deposits and human pollutants still persist.
Legislation
According to statistics, a large percentage of the population is unaware that most plastic bags from grocery find their way into the Anacostia River. The continued accumulation of these bags end up blocking small tributaries and, at the same time, killing plants and fish49. However, it is important to note that the plastic bag pollution issue is not limited to the Anacostia River alone but rather a national and international problem. This explains why many countries around the globe have already enacted legislation aimed at controlling the circulation of plastic bags. A good example of such legislation is asking members to pay a small fee for plastic bags, especially in retail stores50. Ireland is often cited as a country with a well-controlled plastic bag circulation after it implemented several measures aimed at charging a small fee for plastic bags.
The same trend has been witnessed in the United State for the past few years consumers are required to pay a certain fee amount for every bag. IKEA, a Swedish retailer, recorded an overall improvement in waste control with a reduction of paper usage of up to 97 percent after adopting a fee-for-bag policy51. Based on these findings, many lobby groups across the US have been petitioning governments to implement such legislation.
Washington DC, in the year 2010, instructed all businesses in the District to adopt the policy that requires consumers to pay a small amount of money (5 cents) for plastic or bags. The DC’s plastic legislation further claims that citizens can easily avoid the fee and reduce the number of plastics by bringing their own bags. The revenue collected from the bag fee initiative was to be used in funding the Anacostia River Clean Up and Protection Fund in its attempt to install trash traps in the Anacostia and its tributaries. In the year 2016, Foam Free DC was introduced with the aim of banning businesses and organizations from serving food using expanded polystyrene (EPS) containers. The expanded polystyrene included plates, cups, clamshells and foam peanuts.
In the year 2019, Washington DC banned plastic straws in restaurants and other businesses. The move saw DC become the second major city to do so. According to anti-straw activists, consumers in the United States use up to five million straws every day. For instance, in Washington, the volunteers who took part in the organized trash cleanup of the Anacostia River collected more than four thousand straws. The straw ban was introduced because it is considered to be a gateway plastic—it is only used once but adds up when used by millions of people every day. The straw ban was passed in 2014 as part of the legislation that prohibited Styrofoam from containers.
The Break Free From Plastic Pollution Act of 2021 provides clear requirements and incentives aimed at reducing the production of several products and materials, such as plastics. The same bill aims at increasing efforts to collect, recycle or compost products and materials. The bill will make some producers of products such as packaging, paper and single-use products liable for collecting, recycling, or compositing products. Starting January 2023, the bill aims at phasing out a variety of single-use products such as plastic and utensils. In addition to this, the bill has put in place measures to encourage the reduction of a single-use products. To achieve this, the bill has established programs to refund consumers for returning beverage containers. Finally, the bill will also put in place measures to limit the export of plastic waste to other countries.
Conclusion
The pollution issue currently facing the Anacostia River traces its roots back to European settlement. Upon settling in the area, they started clearing the forest to grow corn and tobacco. The high demand for these products compelled them to continue clearing the trees and, in the process, making the land less impervious. As discussed above, the pollution issue worsened after the Washington DC area embraced the idea of urbanization which was later followed by the endless suburban sprawl. These two periods were marked by major construction projects such as modern buildings which attracted many people to move along the river and its tributaries. While there have been several attempts to revive the river through lobbying, litigation and legislation, the issue continues to persist.
This paper recommends the need for EPA and private environmental groups to consider working together in an effort to achieve the same objective. The problem private groups face in their quest to lobby against EPA regulations is that they waste a lot of resources both personal and environmental. They should consider using mediation to achieve their objective instead of filing costly lawsuits. Most importantly, the resources such as taxpayer and donor money channeled towards petitioning the EPA could be used to address the primary causes of Anacostia river pollution.
Footnotes
Arnold C. Anthony. Social-Ecological Resilience of an Eastern Urban-Suburban Watershed: The Anacostia River Basin. Idaho L. Rev. 51 (2014).
Avni, Nufar, and Raphaël Fischler. Social and Environmental Justice in Waterfront Redevelopment: The Anacostia River, Washington, DC.Urban Affairs Review 56, no. 6 (2020).
Id.
Ranganathan, Malini, and Eve Bratman, From Urban Resilience to Abolitionist Climate Justice in Washington, DC.Antipode 53, no. 1 (2021).
Solomon, Caroline M., Melanie Jackson, and Patricia M. Glibert.Chesapeake Bay’s” Forgotten” Anacostia River: Eutrophication and Nutrient Reduction Measures.Environmental Monitoring & Assessment 191, no. 5 (2019).
Christophers, Brett. Risk capital: Urban Political Ecology and Entanglements of Financial and Environmental Risk in Washington, DC.Environment and Planning E: Nature and Space 1, no. 1-2 (2018).
Wang, Mingming, Yi Zhu, Lirong Cheng, Bruce Andserson, Xiaohui Zhao, Dayang Wang, and Aizhong Ding, Review On Utilization of Biochar For Metal-Contaminated Soil and Sediment Remediation.” Journal of Environmental Sciences 63 (2018).
State of the Nation’s River 2008: Potomac Stormwater Run-off, fig. 1, POTOMAC CONSERVANCY.
Ranganathan, supra note 4
Cherie V. Miller, et al., Water Quality in the Upper Anacostia River, Maryland: Continuous and Discrete Monitoring with Simulations to Estimate Concentrations and Yields, 2003-2005, 2007-5142 U.S.
Phelps, Harriette L. Identification of PCB, PAH and chlordane source areas in the Anacostia River watershed.Report, DC WRRI, Washington, DC (2005).
Id.
Ranganathan, supra note 4.
Wang, supra note 2.
Wang, supra note 2.
Nnachi, Uchechukwu. Linking Humanitarian and Development Interventions into A Joint Resilience Continuum: World Food Programme (WFP) and International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) Collaboration on Building Climate Resilience in Nepal. El Salvador and Ethiopia (Doctoral dissertation, NUI Galway) (2019).
Id.
Id.
Arnold, supra note 5.
See 33 U.S.C. § 1251(a)-(g) (2010).
Clean Water Act, Pub. L. No. 92-500 (1972); Water Quality Act of 1987, Pub. L. No. 100-4 (1987)
33 U.S.c. § 1313(d)(1) (2010), which states: Identification of areas with insufficient controls; maximum daily load; certain effluent limitations revision (1 )(A) Each State shall identify those waters within its boundaries for which the effluent limitations required by section 1311 (b)(1 )(A) and section 1311 (b)(1 )(B) of this title are not stringent enough to implement any water quality standard applicable to such waters. The State shall establish a priority ranking for such waters, taking into account the severity of the pollution and the uses to be made of such waters.
Id.
Impaired Waters and Total Maximum Daily Loads, supra note 72.
Riverkeeper, In Anacostia, EPA’s approval of TMDLs for the Anacostia River, claiming the TMDLs were not designed to achieve water quality standards applicable to all designated uses (which included primary and secondary contact recreation); rather, the TMDLs focused only on the designated use of” the protection and propagation of submerged aquatic vegetation.”
See id. § 130.7(c)(2)-(d)(I).
See id. § 130.7(c)(2)-(d)(I).
See Complaint for Declaratory and Injunctive Relief at 4, Anacostia Riverkeeper and Friends of the Earth v. Stephen L. Johnson, Administrator, Envtl. Prot. Agency (D.D.C. IS, 2009).
See supra note 99.
F.3d 140 (D.C. Cir. 2006). States: Review of Administrator’s actions; selection of court; fees (1) Review of the Administrator’s action (A) in promulgating any standard of performance under section 1316 of this title, (B) in making any determination pursuant to section 1316(b)(l)(C) of this title, (C) in promulgating any effluent standard, prohibition, or pretreatment standard under section 1317 of this title, (D) in making any determination as to a State permit program submitted under section 1342(b) of this title, (E) in approving or promulgating any effluent limitation or other limitation under section 1311, 1312, 1316, or 1345 of this title.
U.S.C. § 1369(b)(l).
Friends a/the Earth, 333 F.3d at 189.
Friends of the Earth v. EPA, 446 F.3d 140 (D.C. Cir. 2006).
Manchik, Estie, Friends of the Earth v. United States Environmental Protection Agency: A Battle for the Proper Forum to Protect the Nation’s Forgotten River.” Ecology LQ 31 (2004).
David Alpert, Get plastic bags out of the Anacostia, GREATER GREATER WASHINGTON (2009).
There are many problems in the modern world that create challenges for people. The lack of access to health care or pure water, as well as poverty, famine, and other problems make the lives of millions of individuals rather difficult. At the same time, there are also manmade disasters that hinder the happy and healthy living of people. Air pollution is one of such crucial issues, and it demands immediate consideration.
Polluted air has a negative effect on people’s health and complicates the condition of those who already suffer from some diseases. One of the most vulnerable population groups is presented by pregnant women. Moreover, the health of fetuses can also be seriously damaged due to unclean air. Recent research performed in western Washington state has identified 117 cases of preeclampsia (Lee, Roberts, Catov, Talbott, & Ritz, 2013).
Scholars reported a high risk due to “ambient CO and PM2.5 exposures” (Lee et al., 2013, 546). Apart from preeclampsia, such serious conditions as gestational hypertension and gestational diabetes can develop in this population group (Malmqvist, Jakobsson, Tinnerberg, Rignell-Hydbom, & Rylander, 2013). The problem of air pollution is closely related to the issue of the energy supply of the US. According to the Pickens Plan, it is necessary to develop renewable energy sources in the country (“The plan,” n.d.). Pickens remarks that using solar and wind power could improve the country’s economy (“The plan,” n.d.).
However, it is possible to apply these arguments to the problem of air pollution as well. Through the exploitation of renewable energy sources, the nation will reach a decreased level of pollution, which will have a positive impact on the population. The key terms in this paper are “air pollution,” “environment,” and “sustainability.” Air pollution is defined as the process of making air dirty through industrial activity and traffic fumes. The environment is explained as the entity of air, soil, and water that is affected by humans. Sustainability is interpreted as a process of continuing without causing harm to the environment.
Due to the high level of air pollution in Washington state, there is a growing threat to the health of some population groups, such as pregnant women and people suffering from heart disease and respiratory infections. It is time to take action against the drastic statistics that continue to become worse. Many young adults living in Washington state do not bother thinking about the environment and considering what they could do to reach sustainability and eliminate harmful practices.
Meanwhile, vulnerable populations, such as people with acute lower respiratory infections (ALRIs) or heart disease, pregnant women, and young children, fall victim to the dangerously high amount of negative particles in the air. Undoubtedly, achievements in the country’s economy are necessary for its successful development. However, if accomplishments in the sphere of the economy create obstacles for citizens’ health, the situation should be thoroughly analyzed, and some serious measured should be taken.
Many plants and factories that work hard to produce goods for people also produce a large amount of air-polluting fumes. Also, transport that people need every day for commuting contaminates the air they breathe. Every individual should understand that clean air is much more important than satisfying consumerism needs. Factories the activity of which infects air should be situated in remote regions.
Or, what is more important, they should change their methods of production to reduce infectious fumes. The same issue concerns cars and other kinds of transportation. Everyone should realize that using public transport or riding a bicycle is much better for the environment than driving a car. People need to think not only about the present but also about the future for themselves and their children.
The Effect of Polluted Air on Pregnant Women and Newborns
Figure 1. Air pollution during early pregnancy can harm babies (Desmon, 2016).
Pregnant women and babies are severely affected by air pollution (see Figure 1). Due to the detrimental effect of contaminated air on the organism of a pregnant woman, such serious disorders as gestational hypertension, gestational diabetes, and preeclampsia can develop (Lee et al., 2013; Malmqvist et al., 2013). Specifically, the first-trimester exposure to particles (mostly fine particulate matter (PM2.5) and ozone) has the potential to elevate the risk not only for gestational hypertension and preeclampsia but also for preterm delivery and small for gestational age infants (Lee at al., 2013).
Moreover, there is a high risk of premature births due to being exposed to polluted air. As Desmon (2016) remarks, the cost of preterm births associated with air pollution in the US reaches $4 billion annually. Even if the level of pollution is low, a baby can develop serious health problems. Although particles from power plants, exhaust fumes, and other industrial sources get to the body through the lungs, recent evidence indicates that pollution can also affect pregnant women’s placentas (Desmon, 2016). It is crucial to focus more research on this problem, as well as alleviate the impact of industrial contamination on this vulnerable population.
The Impact of Air Pollution on ALRIs and Life Expectancy
Figure 2. Acute respiratory illness is linked to air pollution (Nyarko, 2017).
Another severe problem initiated by air pollution is the increased number of ALRIs, especially in young children, which leads to the reduction of life expectancy (see Figure 2). Globally, ALRIs are responsible for 20% of mortality cases among young children (Mehta, Shin, Burnett, North, & Cohen, 2013). According to researchers’ data, there is a causal connection between exposure to PM2.5 and the ALRI prevalence (Mehta et al., 2013).
The most serious cases of ALRIs are represented by bronchiolitis and pneumonia, which compose the largest “single cause of mortality” among young children (Mehta et al., 2013, p. 69). Out of the two diseases, 90% of mortality cases are attributable to pneumonia, which means that there is a need to eliminate air pollution in order to reduce the danger posed to the lives of young children (Mehta et al., 2013).
The reduction of life expectancy is a serious outcome of exposure to air pollution. Correia et al. (2013) note that a reduction of 10 μg/m3 in PM2.5 concentration is identified with the rise in mean life expectancy of “0.35 years SD= 0.16 years, p = 0.033” (p. 23). Scholars also remark that urban areas and remote counties are more likely to demonstrate the association between PM2.5 concentration decline and life expectancy growth (Correia et al., 2013). Therefore, since Washington state is densely populated, there is a high likelihood that its population is under the threat of reduced life expectancy due to air pollution issues.
The Rate of Heart Failure Incidence as Related to Air Pollution
Figure 3. The effect of environmental pollutants on the heart (Sheikh, 2014).
There is a close relation between air pollution and heart failure hospitalization, which frequently results in heart failure mortality. As Shah et al. (2013) remark, there is a positive association between heart failure hospitalization and all particulate and gaseous air pollutants with the exception of ozone. Figure 3 demonstrates the influence of polluted air on one’s heart. Air pollution is a prevalent public health issue negatively affecting the cardiovascular system, and the negative outcomes of such prevalence are critical. Overall, the effect of air pollution on people’s cardiovascular system is highly negative, and it is important to take measures to increase citizens’ awareness and eliminate detrimental outcomes.
Taking into consideration the arguments mentioned above, it is crucial for every citizen to take action and eliminate the detrimental effect of air pollution on health. One of the possible options to do so is using public transport and riding bicycles instead of driving cars.
A sensational breakthrough has been introduced by inventors of a stroller that can be converted to a bicycle (In the know, 2018). This device allows eliminating pollution while doing physical exercise and taking children for a walk. The targeted population of this bicycle is represented by parents, especially mothers. By using such a convertible means of transport, one can move around without producing any danger to the air.
However, we need to bear in mind that it is everyone’s responsibility to keep our state and the planet cleaner and make it a better place for our children. The problem of polluted air is too urgent for people to neglect it. Many children and adults die every day because of contaminated air. It is in our power to stop the dramatic tendency. Everyone should think they can do to increase the quality of air and reduce the damage to the environment. We should think sustainably so that we could live something good and healthy for the generations to come.
References
Correia, A. W., Pope, C. A., Dockery, D. W., Wang, Y., Ezzati, M., & Dominici, F. (2013). The effect of air pollution control on life expectancy in the United States: An analysis of 545 US counties for the period 2000 to 2007. Epidemiology, 24(1), 23-31.
Lee, P.-C., Roberts, J. M., Catov, J. M., Talbott, E. O., & Ritz, B. (2013). First trimester exposure to ambient air pollution, pregnancy complications and adverse birth outcomes in Allegheny County, PA. Maternal and Child Health Journal, 17(3), 545-555.
Malmqvist, E., Jakobsson, K., Tinnerberg, H., Rignell-Hydbom, A., & Rylander, L. (2013). Gestational diabetes and preeclampsia in association with air pollution. Environmental Health Perspectives, 121(4), 488-493.
Mehta, S., Shin, H., Burnett, R., North, T., & Cohen, A. J. (2013). Ambient particulate air pollution and acute lower respiratory infections: A systematic review and implications for estimating the global burden of disease. Air Quality, Atmosphere & Health, 6(1), 69-83.
Shah, A. S. V., Langrish, J. P., Nair, H., McAllister, D. A., Hunter, A., Donaldson, K., … Mills, N. L. (2013). Global association of air pollution and heart failure: A systematic review and meta-analysis. The Lancet, 382(9897), 1039-1048.
The modern world faces numerous ecological problems resulting from the rapid rise of industries and extensive use of natural resources. A significant scale of the problem is evidenced by diverse pollutants and their sources that affect the environment and result in drastic changes. Smog is one of these.
Definition and Sources
Smog can be defined as the mixture of solid and liquid fog and smoke particles that are formed under the impact of high humidity and calm air (Editorial Board, 2013). The combination of these factors preconditions smoke and fumes accumulation near their sources (Editorial Board, 2013). There are several major reasons for the appearance of this pollutant which are transportation emissions, industrial plants and their activities, and heating caused by anthropological factors (Editorial Board, 2013).
Nonpoint Pollutant
Moreover, smog could be classified as a nonpoint-source pollutant. The given type could be described as the introduction of contaminants and other harmful substances into the environment over the widespread area (Editorial Board, 2013). Regarding smog, vehicles, plants, and other objects producing it could be found everywhere which means that a vast area becomes affected. That is why it is a nonpoint-source pollutant.
Harm
Because of numerous harmful substances that are found in smog, it can seriously damage the health of individuals increasing the risk of cancer and decreasing lungs working capacity (Editorial Board, 2013). Additionally, it can irritate eyes, respiratory tract, and cause problems with aspiration. People with heart or lung diseases are especially vulnerable as their states might become critical under the impact of smog.
Ecology
Animals and ecosystems also suffer from this very pollutant. Investigations show that smog inhibits the growths of plants and can cause significant damage to crops, trees, and vegetation processes (Editorial Board, 2013). Additionally, animals are not able to adapt to new conditions and live under the constant impact of toxic substances. In such a way, ecosystems become altered and need years to recover.
Measures to Reduce Pollution
Considering the harm done by smog, there are specific measures introduced to eliminate its sources and mitigate its negative impact. First, numerous attempts to reduce transportation emissions by using environmentally friendly engines are made. Second, the functioning of coal power stations is reconsidered to decrease the level of emissions (Editorial Board, 2013). Third, cleaning installations are used to minimize the harmful impact of plants and factories.
Norms and Regulations
Additionally, there are specific norms and regulations that are introduced to monitor the state of this pollutant. For instance, standards for exhaust and evaporative emissions are accepted to regulate the state of vehicles and this sort of pollution. The significance of the problem results in the appearance of technologies to control the pollution. Thus, specific wearable technologies are used nowadays to measure how many toxic substances are now in the air and how they might impact health (Gallucci, 2015).
Educational Program
The world’s largest organizations are looking for ways to make the impact of pollution less detrimental to humans. The international environmental science education program GLOBE strives to find the best ways to analyze the current state of air and its purification (Akbari et al., 2016). The representatives of this program take an active part in discussions regarding the issue, and GLOBE has representative offices in many countries of the world. That is why it received such a name.
Current Progress and New Measures
Unfortunately, the problem remains topical as smog endangers many industrial regions. Evidently, the latest regulations improved this problem and resulted in the decrease of emissions in areas adhering to them. However, in heavily-industrialized regions, smog causes harm to the environment. For this reason, more severe regulations are needed to reduce the number of factors causing the appearance of smog by reducing the number of industrial emissions (Editorial Board, 2013).
Conclusion
Thus, smog is one of the relevant problems significantly affecting the human life. Despite active measures taken, it is still the issue that deserves discussions at the international level. Specific measures are taken to eliminate the consequences of the air pollution; however, many problems exist and continue to harm people.
References
Akbari, H., Cartalis, C., Kolokotsa, D., Muscio, A., Pisello, A. L., Rossi, F.,… Zinzi, M. (2016). Local climate change and urban heat island mitigation techniques – The state of the art. Journal of Civil Engineering and Management, 22(1), 1-16.
Editorial Board. (2013). Environmental science. Schaumburg, IL: Words of Wisdom.
The Pollution Prevention Act is a piece of the U.S. legislation targeted at offering new measures for reducing the environmental threat caused by anthropogenic factors. It relates to other laws aiming to protect the environment, which can be applied differently depending on the industry. The Congress has passed the Act after years of research and political attempts to control pollution levels. The main difference of this law compared to the previous legislation is that it aims to reduce pollution at source rather than manage waste at the final stage of a production process.
The history of evaluating harm to nature caused by people is not very long, counting just over five decades. In 1962, Rachel Carson published the research that examined the effect which pesticides and technological tools had on the environment (Ashby, 2013, p. 100).
This became one of the first works in the long list of findings, which showed the extent of consequences for nature from industrial manufacturing, agriculture, and individual consumption traits. The process of recognizing this threat was rather slow and had several phases. The shift went from ignoring the situation by major industry players to the current state of looking for ways to reach sustainability throughout all processes (Ashby, 2013, p. 101). Nowadays, there are various programs that support the eco-friendly tendencies among production owners and customers.
The growing awareness of this problem has made governments of many countries to pass laws for solving the issue. In the United States, the overview of the previous legislation shows that the government used to enforce measures that would deal with pollution control which occurred at the final stage of production processes. For example, the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), which was amended by Congress in 1984, stated that the amount of potentially hazardous waste had to be minimized if the option was available (Cheremisinoff & Cheremisinoff, 1995, p. 107). The focus of the Act was on steps taken to manage waste.
However, in October 1986, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) published the report called Minimization of Hazardous Wastes” that was presented to the Congress (Cheremisinoff & Cheremisinoff, 1995, p. 109). The key points of that work showed that waste management, as well as other pollution control measures, were not effective enough. The agency called for drafting a program that would minimize waste generation at the earlier stages of production.
The next year, the report issued by the Office of Technology Assessment (OTA) published the research of waste reduction efficiency (Cheremisinoff & Cheremisinoff, 1995, p. 109). The findings suggested that controlling waste generation on each of the production stages resulted not only in better environmental outcomes but also in economic benefits. The biggest issue, according to the researchers, was the system that did not let production owners know about the better ways of organizing their manufacturing processes, while the technological development of that time allowed to implement new techniques of source reduction.
The described works became a platform for developing a piece of legislation that would raise awareness among industry workers about pollution reduction, as well as help them with technologies and financing required for implementing new strategies. The Pollution Prevention Act was discussed in the Congress in the autumn of 1990. There is no record of individual voting results, as the process was conducted by voice.
The Act passed the Congress and was signed by George H. W. Bush in November 1990. According to the Act’s findings, the Environmental Protection Agency is in charge of developing a program that would provide informational, technical, and financial support to States (U.S. Government Printing Office, 1999, p. 5968). EPA also administrates strategic programs like the Planning for Federal Sustainability in the Next Decade signed in 2015.
References
Ashby, M. F. (2013). Materials and the environment: Eco-informed material choice (2nd ed.). Waltham, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann.
Cheremisinoff, N. P., & Cheremisinoff, P. N. (1995). Hazardous materials and waste management: A guide for the professional hazards manager. Park Ridge, NJ: Noyes Publications.
U.S. Government Printing Office [GPO]. (1999). Chapter 133 – Pollution prevention. Web.
Stockholm Convention Principle 21
In the 1960’s, the United Nations representatives realized that the rapidly changing state of the environment required a series of goals and strategies for preventing further pollution growth. The process of globalization, which was started to develop fast in those years, also played its role since environmental issues could not be solved anymore only by measures taken inside a single state. By the end of the decade, the UN’s General Assembly offered two resolutions that contained a declaration to hold an international conference in Stockholm in 1972 (Handl, n. d., para.3). It became the first global event that discussed the issues concerning the state of the environment with such dimension.
Since there was no previous experience of discussing environmental safety issues on such a wide level, members of the Stockholm conference faced the issue of how specific their offers had to be. As a result, the conference ended with creating a document that described standards declaring the importance of sustainable production, pollution control, and other matters associated with nature preservation. Those standards were called “principles,” the total number of which was twenty-six. The last six principles differ from the others since they have an international dimension and declare ways, in which different countries must act regarding the matter.
Principle 21 is, perhaps, one of the most fundamental international standards, as its purpose is to set a standard for sustainable operations inside a country that might affect other states. In general, it declares that countries’ authorities have the right to use natural resources with accordance to their environmental legislation while ensuring that their actions do not harm other states (Declaration of the United Nations conference on the human environment, 1972).
In other words, governments were charged with international responsibility for their actions regarding the environment. This principle is one of the most interesting ones from the point of the international legislation development. It is now viewed as a customary international environmental law that various states accept to follow in addition to their local jurisdiction (Shelton, 2008, para. 17). This condition created many debates around the Principle 21 before it could be accepted. Many states’ representatives found the nature of the obligation to be somehow confusing and unspecific. While some conference members discussed the concept of sovereignty, others linked the responsibility principle to the existing norms of the international legislation.
Since Principle 21, along with the whole document, became one of the first ones of its kind, it does not provide any specific details on how countries must ensure environmental safety. It is rather an acknowledgment that every state is responsible for the global nature preservation. At the time of its declaration, Principle 21 raised questions about the legal nature of its obligation, but nowadays it has become an essential part of the international law (Handl, n. d., para. 11).
The principle had a huge effect on the way governments today think about their strategies of sustainable development (Ashby, 2013, p. 100). In my opinion, the importance of this standard lies in the idea that there exists a shared responsibility for the planet’s wellbeing. While every country has a right to raise its prosperity level by using local natural resources, the economic growth must not cost other territories their environmental safety. Principle 21 is also useful because it sets the base for drafting future laws that would utilize the idea of shared responsibility regarding sustainability.
References
Ashby, M. F. (2013). Materials and the environment: Eco-informed material choice (2nd ed.). Waltham, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann.
Declaration of the United Nations conference on the human environment. (1972). Report of the United Nations Conference on the human environment.
Life cycles of different products vary depending on many factors, and it is important to understand what happens at each stage, for example, to perform an accurate eco-audit. According to the theory, a life cycle of every product includes material production, manufacturing, use, and disposal (Ashby, 2013, p. 52). All these stages are additionally associated with transportation resources and emissions. Below is a description of the life cycle of a cotton shirt, including all possible resource inputs and emissions that happen at each step.
The first stage is the production of materials required for tailoring a shirt. People are familiar with using cotton for making clothes for many centuries. It may seem like a very basic material that does not take much input in its production. However, there are many resources required from the beginning, where cotton is a product of agriculture. Growing it requires at least water and sun energy. Farmers need to protect their fields from plant pathologies, so pesticides and insecticides are widely used. In fact, the cotton sector is accounted for using around ten percent of all agricultural chemicals (“Cotton,” n. d., para. 1).
Collecting cotton by hand in modern times is rare, and this task is performed by machinery run on fuel. As a result, the soil and air become contaminated with CO2 and the products of chemical reactions. Nowadays, there is a tendency of growing cotton in a sustainable way, but the percentage of it remains rather small since the outcomes for farmers are less predictable, and the economic benefit is not as obvious (Marie, 2017, para. 4). Finally, cotton is transported for the further production of fabric.
Apart from the cotton fabric, a classical shirt requires buttons, which are nowadays often made of polymers. This step requires resources like oil for the polymer production itself, as well as the fossil fuel energy for transportation purposes. Another material required for crafting a shirt is dye. Historically, people used natural pigments for dying their clothes. Currently, they are often substituted with chemical formulas for creating a long-term color stay. Depending on the color, different compounds are used, which puts chemicals and water among additional resource inputs. If a manufacturing process is poorly controlled, this stage may result in water pollution, as used solutes are damped in natural reservoirs like rivers and lakes.
The product manufacturing stage is focused around cotton fabric being tailored into a shirt. Production workers utilize pre-made particles like fabric, threads, and buttons, to create the final item. Energy resources that are required at this stage are associated with this work. For example, it is the electricity used for running sewing machines, lighting the working space, ironing shirts, as well as for other operations. Emissions are represented mostly by fabric leftovers, which are usually recycled to be used for creating other products. Transporting shirts to warehouses and stores is a source of large CO2 emission, especially if production takes place far from the retail spot.
The stage of product use varies in its duration. Some people may wear a favorite shirt for decades, while others change them every season. Since shirts have to be washed occasionally, most resources required at this stage are associated with laundry. Water, electricity, and detergent are used as a part of cleaning a shirt in a washing machine. Low-grade heat and contaminated water are among the emissions that happen during the product’s use.
Finally, there are many ways of how this type of shirt can be disposed. Usually, clothes made of natural fabrics are recycled to provide materials for further tailoring. Recycled cotton is currently a popular option among brands that view sustainability as one of their principles. Recycling processes utilize electricity, fossil fuel energy for transportation purposes, water resources, and other materials required for maintaining the machinery. Unfortunately, some companies may burn shirts that were not sold, which results in CO2 emissions. People as individual users may either bring their shirt to a recycling spot, use it to craft new items like blankets, or simply throw it away. The latter option may lead to soil contamination at waste collection spots.
References
Ashby, M. F. (2013). Materials and the environment: Eco-informed material choice (2nd ed.). Waltham, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann.
A smart phone is a product that most people have nowadays. Prices on these devices vary depending on the model and the brand. Companies that sell smart phones create new versions frequently. For example, Apple Inc. presents a new iPhone every year. This strategy is designed to stimulate buyer behavior, making customers purchase new devices and dispose the old ones. It is common to sell an old smart phone over the Internet or give it away to children. However, if the old phone is broken, it cannot be transferred to another person for usage since it does not function properly.
If the damage is not crucial, I will take my smart phone to a fixing point, where broken parts can be repaired or substituted. At the same time, if the device cannot be recovered, I would have to dispose of it. Having a completely broken smart phone usually means that I would need a new device. Since prices on them are rather high, I would typically try to get profit out of the broken item. Many places like electronics fixing points require details for repair. Managers often buy broken devices if there are parts that are valuable and still functioning.
I have recently discovered that some stores and electronics producers in my community offer recycling options for smart phones. For example, Best Buy, a nationwide retailer, allows choosing between in-store, event, or online options. The information on the company’s website states that free recycling is available for resident individuals with a maximum of three items from a household in a day (“Electronics and appliances recycling at Best Buy,” n. d.).
More information about places that accept used electronics can be found on the official website of the United States Environmental Protection Agency (“Electronics donation and recycling,” n. d.). In addition, the page gives valuable advice to people who think about disposing their electronic devices. Those, who wish to find local end-of-life programs for computers, televisions, and other technologies, may also study the E-Cycling service.
The end-of-life options are represented by re-use, re-engineering, recycling, combustion, and landfill, with the latter being the least favorable. Although landfill is the destiny of most used products nowadays, the capacity of territories is limited, and governments charge taxes for dumping waste (Ashby, 2013, p. 81). In the case of a broken smart phone, the end-of-life scenario would strongly depend on the damage type. Re-use or re-engineering is possible if, for instance, the only required fixing is to substitute a broken glass on display. This step does not require any special infrastructure except for repair spots.
A smart phone contains different materials, many of which are valuable. EPA has published the infographics, where the composition of the main parts is described (“The secret life of a smart phone,” 2016). For example, circuit boards contain precious metals that can be collected after recycling. The infographics explain that a million of recycled smart phones contains as much as 75 pounds of gold. Other metals include copper, silver, and palladium, which makes circuit boards so expensive and valuable. LCD displays can also be recycled, as they are made of glass, plastic, and liquid crystalline. Finally, smart phones have lithium-ion rechargeable batteries, which are also subject to recycling. Most people are aware that batteries can heavily contaminate soil if sent as waste for landfill. Nowadays, there are many spots where batteries may be given away for recycling separately from a device.
References
Ashby, M. F. (2013). Materials and the environment: Eco-informed material choice (2nd ed.). Waltham, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann.
A pollution prevention audit is one of the tools that are helpful in changing industrial production processes to make them more sustainable. While it may look similar to eco-auditing, its focus is much broader. As Cheremisinoff defines it, a P2 audit helps to reduce the amount of released pollutant substances, hazards associated with health and environment, and increases the efficiency of raw material usage or protects natural resources (2002a, p. 24). In other words, the focus is not only on energy inputs and CO2 emissions but rather on balancing resources at each stage of a production process.
Below is a P2 audit for the standard HDPE bag production. These polyethylene bags are widespread in grocery shops and are usually made for single use. The steps for this P2 audit are chosen based on the specifics of the manufacturing process (Cheremisinoff, 2002b). For example, the HDPE bag production does not require significant amounts of water. As a result, steps that are associated with water usage are not included.
Steps chosen for the initial and the final phases are roughly general and can be applied to any industry. The Phase II steps are focusing on inputs and outputs of the process, and the creation of the material balance sheet. Evaluating material balances is not possible due to the lack of the actual observed data from a real production site, so this stage is omitted. The step of targeting and characterizing problem wastes presents theoretical assumptions on material or energy losses at certain stages that should be eliminated.
The Pre-Assessment
Audit Focus and Preparation
The first task is to identify the scope of the P2 audit, its purposes, and goals. Preparation would include assembling the team, defining objectives, and getting employees participating in the process.
Assemble the audit team
Invite head managers of every operational unit that have an in-depth knowledge of the processes they control. Include a specialist who is in charge of controlling the health and environmental safety on the site, who has measurements of waste and pollution amounts. Also, invite specialists from the accounting department to help set up a budget for required changes that would be found necessary at the end of the audit.
Define the audit objectives
To allocate any problem waste or material and/or energy loss at each step of the HDPE bag production process.
To reduce pollution levels and eliminate any excess inputs or outputs by using low-cost/no-cost means.
To upgrade production to a more sustainable level by the end of the fiscal year.
Gain employee buy-in and participation
Every employee is encouraged to share ideas and recommendations for process improvement. Best ideas are to be discussed and applied at the end of the audit if found useful for reaching the defined goals. All employees that actively participate in the process will receive extra payment before Christmas holidays. A worker who offers a low-cost/no-cost solution for an issue at his or her unit will be regarded as a candidate for promotion.
List of the Unit Operations
The HDPE bag manufacturing process has four stages (Gopura & Jayawardene, 2009, p. 2):
Film extrusion. Plastic pellets are melted in a single screw extruder and extended radially forming a bubble. The film is collected by nip rolls that are carried away for storage or subsequent transformation.
Printing. The film is passed through a series of flexographic rollers that stamp text and/or image on it. The paint is made of the alcohol-based ink, which is safer than toxic chemical dye.
Cutting and sealing. Two printed pieces of film are pressed together at the edges under high temperature to make them sealed. The item is later cut according to the desired model.
Packaging. Ready-to-use HDPE bags are collected in stacks and packaged in a polyethylene cover. Other types of packaging are rarely used as it usually requires ordering and shipping them from side facilities.
Constructing Process Flow Sheets
The process flow sheet is made in a form of a diagram that helps to understand every stage by presenting a visual algorithm of the product’s transformation. In addition, process inputs and outputs are drawn for each box representing a unit operation. The process of making HDPE bags is represented by a linear sequence of four operations, each using outputs of a previous stage as an input resource. The step of sealing and cutting creates HDPE leftovers, which are later recycled or used for other products, which has to be marked on the scheme. Process flow sheets must be both printed and constructed using a computer program so that it is easy to include changes or comments to it as new data appears during the audit.
The In-Plant Assessment
Determining the Inputs
The inputs are determined for the functional unit of 1000 HDPE bags with the mass of 7 grams each. Since the plant receives PE in a form of plastic pellets, the inputs for the primary material production are disregarded. The end-of-life scenarios are also not taken into consideration except for the recycling of leftovers, so there is a calculation of an energy input for this process.
Determine the inputs to unit operations
The process flow sheet shows that each production stage, starting from the second, uses material results from the previous one. In addition:
Inputs for film blowing include PE pellets and the energy to mold them, to run the nip rolls and to blow air into the system.
Printing stage uses electricity to run the flexographic rollers and tanks filled with alcohol-based ink.
Cutting and sealing required electrical energy inputs to run the machinery.
Consider the energy inputs
1000 bags weigh 7 kg. The polymer molding energy is 24 MJ per kg average (Ashby, 2013, p. 499). If considered, that no extra film is being cut off, then 168 MJ are required to mold pellets at the first stage. Other energy inputs that are required for running the machinery are calculated based on the appliances’ electricity consumption levels.
If the cutting takes place, leftover parts of the film are later recycled. The energy for PE recycling is 50 MJ per kg average (Ashby, 2013, p. 499). If, for instance, 10% of the 7g film is cut off to make a bag, then 1000 items produce 0,7kg of leftovers. The energy for their recycling is then 35 MJ.
Quantifying Process Outputs
Process outputs, depending on the stage, are represented by the film, the printed film, and the stacks of bags, cut, sealed, and packaged. HDPE bag production is associated with CO2 emissions at the molding stage. The value is 1,8 kg CO2 average per 1 kg of molded PE (Ashby, 2013, p. 499). As a result, it creates 12,6 kg of this greenhouse gas to mold PE pellets to make 7 kg of film.
Construct a Material Balance Information Sheet
Measure the mass of plastic pellets that are put in the extruder for film blowing. The next step is to measure the mass of the film roll that has been collected as a result. Calculate the difference and compare it to the theoretical values.
Measure the volume of dye in a tank and evaluate how many prints it can be used for. Compare the value with the number of actual prints that are made before the dye ends.
Weigh the rolls of printed film before cutting and sealing. Measure the weight of the functional unit and the leftovers after the process. There should not be any difference.
The weight of the packaged functional unit must increase by the value of packaging mass.
The process of making HDPE bags is not associated with significant material loss, so the difference between input and output at each stage must be minimum.
Synthesis, Benchmarking, and Corrective Actions
Low-cost/No-cost Recommendations
The material loss during the HDPE production is usually associated with poor resource handling. If the mass of plastic pellets put in the film blowing extruder is less than the plant has received, there must be an issue at the storage point. If the dye runs out before the calculated amount of film is printed, there must be a leakage. The easiest recommendations for this production process include:
Storing PE pellet packages in transportable containers so that small particles are not lost while carrying the material from one unit to another.
Printing large portions of the film with the same colors instead of frequently changing the dye in a tank for a small number of bags. The step helps to reduce the dye waste that must be drained before new pigment fills the tank.
Targeting and Characterizing Problem Wastes
Two potentially problem waste groups are excess dye from the printing stage and film leftovers from the cutting operation. Besides, the alcohol-based ink requires chemical solvents with different speed of action, depending on the image space and the temperature inside a printing unit. These solvents evaporate in the air if the tank system is not closed, which presents a threat to workers’ health.
Developing Long-Term Waste Reduction Options
Film leftovers cannot be reduced significantly as the technological process of making HDPE bags does not allow the PE pellets to be molded directly to a final shape of the object. However, there is a potential to use the material again after the recycling process. There should be a mechanical system that allows all film leftovers to be collected without a loss for the following recycling. The printing unit must be a spacious room with closed-system ink reservoirs. The unit must be supplied by the latest technical equipment to clean the air from solvent vapor emissions.
References
Ashby, M. F. (2013). Materials and the environment: Eco-informed material choice (2nd ed.). Waltham, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann.
Cheremisinoff, N. P. (2002a). How to conduct a pollution prevention audit – Part 1: Do an audit in-house and avoid surprises. Pollution Engineering, 34(3), 24-28.
Cheremisinoff, N. P. (2002b). Conduct a pollution prevention audit – Part 2: Do an audit in-house and avoid surprises. Pollution Engineering, 34(4), 16-19.
Gopura, R. C., & Jayawardene T. S. S. (2009). A study on a poly-bag manufacturing system preliminary analysis and simulation. Industrial and Information Systems (ICIIS) Conference. Web.
Pollution Prevention Practices in Oregon’s Electronics Industry
The electronic industry carries many risks for the environment and its workers. The article discusses research conducted in the electronics production sector of Oregon (Jones & Harding, 1997). The survey aimed to discover whether there were any pollution prevention practices implemented in the studied facilities, what was their effect, and what was the level of interest for those changes among the industry members. The researchers have found that almost half of the facilities tried to substitute hazardous materials with safer versions, with worker safety, ethics, and commercial benefits being among the primary reasons.
The primary benefit from using P2 in the electronics industry is caring for workers by supporting their health during a production process. The industry is associated with hazardous waste that comes from using solvents and heavy metals. For example, the production of circuit boards is associated with chemicals that may cause issues with a reproductive system. Another benefit is cost saving that came as a result of effective new products and resource management. Electronics made with safer compounds performed well and saved worker time. Finally, adopting sustainable production practices helps companies in raising their public image.
There were some process modifications and chemical substitutions mentioned among the attempts to become more environmentally friendly. For example, one way to reduce sandblasting and cropping, which are a part of the silicon chip production, is to control formations of crystal growth. Another process modification is to use computers for slicing wafers so that items become thinner and more uniform. Chlorofluorocarbons were presented as an example of a chemical substitution. Ammonia and sulfur dioxide had been replaced by this compound. Also, there was an example of switching from freon products and degreasers to high-temperature water.
The costs of making a switch towards pollution prevention differed for organizations. Some admitted that adopting changes in processes or substituting hazardous materials had resulted in reduced cost of production. Besides, a good public image that came as a result of those changes assisted in acquiring new markets. At the same time, other companies were not satisfied with the quality of new products and found the cost of transforming the processes too high.
There were several problems defined that prevent organizations from switching to safer options. They include the issues with new products that appeared to have lower quality, the unwillingness to invest in the change, and the overall lack of belief that their practices carried harm to health and environment. Besides, companies did not experience pressure for change from controlling agencies. Researchers suggest raising awareness among the industry specialist about the working ways of substituting hazardous compounds, determining the “green” concept, and reward those organizations that change their processes to become more sustainable.
Reference
Harding, A. K, & Jones, C. L. (1997). Pollution prevention practices in Oregon’s electronics industry. Journal of Environmental Health, 59(6), 21.
Optimal Deployment of Emissions Reduction Technologies for Construction Equipment
Nonroad construction equipment is accounted for significant emission levels that pollute the air in Texas. The article describes a computer-calculated optimization model that utilizes several objectives and helps in deciding on which technology to use for emission reduction (Bari, Zietsman, Quadrifoglio, & Farzaneh, 2011). Three technologies were chosen for the study, including hydrogen enrichment, selective catalytic reduction, and fuel additive.
Oxides of nitrogen (NOx) were selected as the type of emission. The goal was to find a correspondence between NOx emission reduction, fuel savings, and budget expenditure in NA and NNA counties. The research provides that model is rather general, but this fact allows for it to be utilized for different technologies and types of emissions.
There exist several emission reduction options that differ based on treatment categories. This research focuses on hydrogen enrichment (HE), selective catalytic reduction (SCR), and fuel additive (FA) technologies. There are three main groups, including exhaust gas aftertreatment, engine, and fuel technologies. Selective catalytic reduction belongs to the first group. It can reduce NOx, hydrocarbon (HC), and particular matter (PM) emissions. FA and HE both belong to the group of fuel technologies. The former can reduce engine emissions or improve fuel economy and is performed by injecting the additive into the fuel system of equipment. Hydrogen enrichment systems are used to make a better engine flame, which helps in reducing emissions of NOx and CO. This technology helps in decreasing fuel consumption levels as well.
All three of these technologies have both advantages and disadvantages associated with the target objectives. FA does not provide high levels of emission reduction or the fuel economy. Moreover, it is not very selective, as this technology cannot be applied to a single equipment unit and must be used for the whole park. However, this is the cheapest option among the three of them. HE is more expensive and provides moderate emission reduction. It is also the best choice based on the fuel economy ranking. Finally, SCR is the most expensive technology. It is also associated with a fuel penalty, but the level of emission reduction is high.
The provided computer model does a satisfactory job of determining the best technology. Firstly, it utilizes many objectives that help to analyze each case from different dimensions. Operating with such a big amount of interrelated data is best done by a computer program. Secondly, the model is flexible and can be applied to determining the best option among other technologies. However, it relies heavily on external data such as the cost of fuel, technology effectiveness, and information provided by manufacturers. Inaccuracies in this field may lead to false results and misleading recommendations for industry.
I cannot recommend a single strategy for emission reduction among the discussed options. The decision must be made based on the budget, the number of nonroad equipment, the goals, and other factors. HE seems like the best option based on the balance of cost-effectiveness and emission reduction. I believe that fuel economy is one of the primary characteristics that must be taken into the consideration, so HE should be used if there is no other technology that allows achieving better emission reduction results while being cost- and resource-effective.
Reference
Bari, M. E., Zietsman, J., Quadrifoglio, L., & Farzaneh, M. (2011). Optimal deployment of emissions reduction technologies for construction equipment. Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association, 61(6), 611-630.
Flue Gas Desulfurization
Flue gas desulfurization is a process that takes place in every large production site that runs on coal combustion. The article by Srivastava (2001) discusses different techniques of fuel gas desulfurization, as well as their costs using models. The author mentions that lime spray drying, magnesium-enhanced lime, and limestone forced oxidation processes are the most utilized processes. Wet scrubbers seem to have the highest performance while absorbing as much as 95 percent of SO2. Dry technologies are good for small-sized production plants that use low- to medium-sulfur coals, and wet options should be chosen for the rest.
Coal is a sulfur-containing fuel that releases SO2 in the atmosphere during combustion. This chemical compound is very hazardous to human health and environment especially since it forms an H2SO4 acid when combined with water. SO2 emission levels are controlled by federal anti-pollution acts which pressure industries to use technologies that reduce the amount of this pollutant. Coal-fired plants perform flue gas desulfurization (FGD) steps for achieving this purpose.
FDG is a process that captures SO2 that is created during coal combustion in either dry or wet state, not allowing it to escape into the air. Depending on the type of technology, the outcome material is later treated as waste or used to extract SO2 to create solid or liquid substances like sulfuric acid. Lime and limestone play an important role in the FDG process, and several technologies that utilize these compounds are studied in this article.
FGD processes are classified as once-through or regenerable, with the latter being marginal in the United States and other countries that can carry its cost. The limestone-forced oxidation technology (LSFO) is one of the most widespread wet once-through FGDs. Its main principle is in blowing air to the additional hold tank or directly into the reaction reservoir, which causes forced oxidation of CaSO3 to CaSO4. This step allows to prevent gypsum scaling and the formed material is removed. As a result, the gypsum concentration in the limestone slurry decreases, which allows absorption to be more effective.
The magnesium oxide process is an example of a wet regenerable FGD. SO2 reacts with MgO and forms magnesium sulfite. Additional air that is blown into the absorption tower transforms it to magnesium sulfate. A kiln is used to regenerate MgO from the absorbed product, while SO2 is captured for transforming it later to sulfuric acid.
The cost model for the magnesium-enhanced slurry (MEL) was derived based on the specifics of its sorbent and absorber characteristics. MEL appeared to have the same sorbent preparation manner with LSD, and the absorber similar to LSFO. As a result, MEL was treated as a combination of LSD and LSFO. The simplified models for those two processes were combined to calculate costs. Additionally, cost-effective design options were used to adjust the model to make it more applicable to MEL.
The article can be useful to a pollution prevention manager since it discussed various aspects of technology and costs behind different FGD processes. A P2 manager may choose between different options of SO2 emission capturing depending on the resources of an organization. The article explains what resource outcomes are generated by each FGD process. Moreover, there is a cost analysis that suggests which option should be chosen based on the size of the production and the level of sulfur in coal used for it.
The concept of Best Available Technology (BAT) is defined as the most advanced practices for eliminating or reducing industrial emissions (OECD, 2018, p. 14). According to the EPA’s guidance, the BAT techniques for coal-fired plants are wet scrubbers and spray dry scrubbers (Environmental Protection Agency, 2008, p. 15). Also, if less than 250 MW is applied, dry sorbent injection is also an option. Subsequently, all the FGD techniques discussed in the article may be considered BATs.
References
Environmental Protection Agency. (2008). BAT guidance note on best available techniques for the energy sector (large combustion plant sector). Web.
Srivastava, R. K., & Jozewicz, W. (2001). Flue gas desulfurization: The state of the art. Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association, 51(12),1676-1688.
Essay
The chemical industry has been developing with a gigantic speed for the past several decades as a response to the rapidly growing population of the world and the technological progress. Professionals developed materials that would assist in performing production tasks in the most effective way. However, it has become evident that many chemical substances are extremely hazardous to human health and the environment, and the costs of managing outcomes of their use are greater than the economic benefits, especially in the long run. Specialists are currently seeking ways of substituting such compounds with safer options.
Liquid carbon dioxide is an example of a chemical that can keep the same rate of technological effectiveness while being an environmentally friendly option due to its non-toxic character and the potential to cut costs and reduce energy inputs. The paper describes technological processes in dry cleaning and hydraulic fracturing industries, as well as discusses environmental issues associated with them and the possible solutions for each of the cases. The application of liquid CO2 is offered in the third part of the work, followed by a summary of P2 options available to these industries.
Wet Cleaning
Perchloroethylene, or PCE, is a chemical compound used as a cleaning agent for clothes. It has been utilized since 1950’s and is currently the dominant option among dry cleaning organizations, the number of which is reaching as high as 85 percent across the United States (Sinshelmer, Grout, Namkoong, Gottlieb, & Latif, 2007). Despite its popularity among industry professionals, PCE is currently the focus of a question asking whether it can be used further regarding its impact on human health and the environment.
A common dry cleaning process is based on using a PCE solvent instead of water. In fact, it resembles typical laundry regarding its mechanics. While in standard washing machines clothes are treated with water and liquid or powder detergent sold in commercial stores, dry cleaning facilities utilize appliances that rotate garments in a PCE solvent. Dry cleaning sites have different technological appliance models, which range in the level of worker exposure to perchloroethylene. Although the industry is regulated by P2 acts, there are aspects that require the re-discussion of the PCE use.
There are major health and environmental issues associated with the use of PCE that were first identified in the 1970’s as the technology became widespread. This chemical compound is currently considered a probable cause of human cancer. Other adverse health effects include liver and kidney issues, respiratory diseases, and damage to the nervous system. Moreover, perchloroethylene contaminates air, water, and soil, and must be disposed as hazardous waste. In the 1990’s the Environmental Protection Agency developed the rules that would regulate the use of PCE and reduce hazardous emissions during the process.
However, this step has not succeeded in forcing dry cleaning facilities to comply with the regulations. Nowadays, many garment care sites are believed to be contaminated with PCE, which pressures the industry to search for an effective substitute to this chemical compound.
The article focuses on the professional wet cleaning technology as a substitute option and mentions additionally three other solvents that may be utilized. They include reformulated petroleum and silicone-based solvents, as well as liquid carbon dioxide. However, the former two materials cannot be considered sustainable, and their usage for dry cleaning carries additional environmental issues. For example, petroleum can be a source of volatile organic contaminants that pollute the atmosphere, and decamethylpentacyclosiloxane, which is a silicone-based solvent, may potentially cause carcinogenic diseases. These facts leave industry professionals with wet cleaning and liquid carbon dioxide as acceptable options for substituting PCE.
It has been determined that wet cleaning can be a working option for switching from PCE since it improves health and environmental outcomes while showing the same level of efficiency. This technology is more energy-efficient than dry cleaning, with electricity consumption decreasing by as much as 44 percent in some cases. Researchers also mention that it is non-toxic (Sinshelmer et al., 2007, p. 177) but this characteristic relies on the type of utilized detergents.
Moreover, the process results in zero emissions of hazardous pollutants into the atmosphere. The technology is also cost-effective due to the longer service expectancy of the wet cleaning equipment, fewer expenses on maintenance, reduced resource use, and elimination of financing for hazardous waste treatment. Finally, facility workers claim to experience better health condition as compared to the state they used to be in during the PCE-based process operation. All these benefits allow concluding that wet cleaning should become a transition goal for industry specialists that aim to improve their P2 practices.
Hydraulic Fracturing
Hydraulic fracturing is a technology used for extracting shale gas from beneath the ground. Its main principle is using water-based fluids to drill horizontal wells and thus create rock fractures to allow natural gas to rise to the surface (Chen, Al-Wadei, Kennedy, & Terry, 2014, p. 1). In the 1990’s, the production of shale gas increased dramatically after the technology of directional drilling had been introduced (Heywood, 2012, p. 43).
This source of energy is considered cleaner regarding its burning output emissions compared to oil or coal combustion. However, there are still many environmental issues associated with its production, including water contamination as the result of hydraulic fracturing. Improved wastewater management, compound substitution, and increased regulation of this industry sector are among the pollution prevention solutions offered by specialists.
Water contamination is the primary damage caused by hydraulic fracturing. The mechanics of the shale gas production are based on large amounts of liquid used for the process. The scope of the issue may be defined within three dimensions, including water shortage, contamination, and waste management. Usually, production sites use resources from local wells since it reduces costs on input transportation. Dry regions such as southern states may experience seasonal water shortage due to this practice. Produced water contains many chemical compounds that are added to make the process of hydraulic fracturing more effective.
The resulting hazardous fluid can contaminate surrounding lands and ground waters, threatening human health and the ecosystem. Finally, even if wastewaters are injected to underground Class II Wells, as regulations require, there is no hundred percent chance that they will not escape to the surrounding. Many of such wells are constructed on the territories that are not suitable for the task and thus cannot function properly. Other sites are being abandoned, releasing waste into the surrounding ground.
The exceptions made for regulating the hydraulic fracturing industry are among the issues that add to adverse environmental effects of the process. Many potentially hazardous practices fall under the rules listed in the Safe Drinking Water Act, yet hydraulic fracturing has been excluded from the list. Moreover, additive producers exploit the right to not disclose compounds of their substances as a part of a commercial secret. This factor prevents environmental protection specialists from correctly assessing risks presented by each fluid type used on different production sites. In some cases, companies performing hydraulic fracturing do not know which chemicals are present in liquids they use.
One of the P2 solutions offered to the industry is changing the chemical structure of liquids utilized for hydraulic fracturing. Its principle is based on either utilizing relatively safe components or reducing the amount of water required for the process by adding materials that change the physical qualities of a substance. For example, some facilities exercise the use of “green” chemicals, which are the ingredients used in food production.
However, such a less hazardous liquid may be effective only under a series of conditions, thus it cannot be recommended for wide implementation. Another option is to develop applications that will have little or no reliance on water. For instance, liquid CO2 and nitrogen gas with foam may be such components. Carbon dioxide evaporates shortly after an injection, leaving empty fractures. A foam-based substance is effective regarding its viscosity and fills fractures with the proppant. CO2 and nitrogen-based foam greatly reduce the amount of water required for hydraulic fracturing.
Another pollution prevention option that can be applied to shale gas production is to reuse wastewaters. This step helps to reduce the amount of fresh water usage and to cut waste management costs. However, there are many limitations to this option. Firstly, not all fluids can be reused as it depends on what substances are dissolved. Some particles that are brought up with produced waters are rather difficult to remove.
Secondly, the overall feasibility of wastewater treatment must be calculated prior to choosing this option. Energy inputs, solid waste sent for landfill, transportation costs, and other factors must be taken into consideration. Finally, produced waters are sometimes used for technical purposes such as road washing or deicing. However, the regulation issue of low transparency regarding chemicals in a fluid prevents this choice from being a safe option.
Liquid Carbon Dioxide in Technological Processes
Liquid carbon dioxide possesses qualities that allow viewing this chemical compound as a potential option for production processes that currently utilize water (Taylor, Carbonell, & DeSimone, 2010). CO2 has a number of benefits for the environment, including its non-toxic character and low energy input. Moreover, it is rather inexpensive due to its high concentration in nature and large amounts of this compound generated by production sites as a by-product.
CO2 is frequently present in the form of a gas or a liquid, both of which are perfect for dissolving various chemicals. CO2-based solvents can change their density with increasing temperature or pressure without transforming the initial composition. Finally, carbon dioxide has low viscosity, an accessible critical point, and implications for polymer production.
Liquid CO2 is a perfect as a solvent for polymerization processes. Its primary benefit lies within the environmental protection sphere, as it allows to produce less hazardous outputs during polymer production than water-based solvents. The amount of contaminated resources is greatly reduced, which also cuts costs associated with waste management. Moreover, the low critical point allows CO2 to be easily extracted from the system without using excessive energy resource inputs. However, there are two challenges that prevent the wide utilization of liquid carbon dioxide for industrial processes. They include the poor solvency of CO2 and questions regarding its application as a reaction medium. The synthesis of fluoropolymers in CO2 and surfactants for it became the solutions to the issue.
Fluoropolymers are used for various technological steps due to their valued properties like high chemical and thermal stability. However, the synthesis of this material is challenging due to its low solubility, transferring of radicals to solvents with hydrogen, and hydrophobic qualities. Producing fluoropolymers in CO2 results in high conversion of the material and environmental benefits. The solubility of polymers in carbon dioxide depends on whether they are CO2-phillic or CO2-phobic. The former group includes fluoropolymers and siloxanes, which are attached to a CO2-phobic segment to create a working CO2 surfactant. The examples include graft and block copolymer surfactants, and perfluoropolyether chelating agents.
The application opportunities for liquid carbon dioxide can be found in the textile, mining, electronics, and other industries. For example, it can be used for coating technologies used in buildings and bridges construction, microlithography processes, and magnetic drives production. The level of control over polymer concentration, architecture, and other properties is higher in liquid CO2 than in other fluid solvents, which allows creating products with greater precision.
The ability of carbon dioxide to be easily diffused and respond to pressure changes make it a valuable solvent for metal extraction from polymer-based complexes. Heterogeneous dispersion polymerizations can be performed if supercritical CO2 is combined with free radical initiators and stabilizers like, for example, nonionic-homopolymers. Stabilizing components prevent aggregation of primary particles that are formed as a result of polymer phase separation. This technology appears to be a sustainable option for processes that require microemulsions for chemical transformations.
The properties of liquid carbon dioxide described above make it a great eco-friendly substitution of water-based fluids in such processes as dry cleaning and hydraulic fracturing. Fully automated dry cleaning machines that run on liquid CO2 have the filtration system of 5-10 micron density. The technology allows more than 98 percent of the utilized CO2 to be recycled, along with nonhazardous detergents.
The process flow is similar to the technology based on perchloroethylene liquids, with garments being loaded to a rotation basket for full-cycle cleaning. The CO2-based system is claimed to carry less financial and energy inputs, improve performance, and facilitate regulation compliance. Regarding the use of liquid dioxide in hydraulic fracturing industry, the compound is useful due to its ability to expand with temperature and pressure changes. Moreover, there is a technology of extracting CO2 from gaseous mixtures. For instance, pure methane can be released after its mixture with carbon dioxide is processed through a high-pressure system with fluoropolymer beads. The latter will be plasticized by CO2 in its fluorinated parts.
Summary
Nowadays, the environmental situation around technological processes in dry cleaning and hydraulic fracturing industries calls for changes in pollution prevention practices. Chemical substances that are widely used in these sectors contaminate air, water, and land, as well as cause health issues among workers and other people. The major threat comes from wastewaters in both dry cleaning and hydraulic fracturing processes.
Besides, it appears as if industry specialists do not give much attention to complying with corresponding regulations. Moreover, existing rules are not demanding enough to ensure the sustainable ways of production. One of the most important P2 steps, especially for hydraulic fracturing, would be to review current regulations regarding resource use and waste management.
Since water is a resource that is most contaminated during dry cleaning and hydraulic fracturing processes, one of the most reasonable steps would be to cut its use. Liquid CO2 is a compound that seems to be a reasonable alternative to water. It is non-toxic and cost-effective due to its wide presence in nature. The conditions for its transformation are easy to create, which makes liquid carbon dioxide also an energy-effective material. Finally, it evaporates after use, which reduces production waste amounts. All these qualities give liquid CO2 a great potential in substituting hazardous fluids in dry cleaning and hydraulic fracturing operations.
References
Chen, J., Al-Wadei, M. H., Kennedy, C. M., & Terry, P. D. (2014). Hydraulic fracturing: Paving the way for a sustainable future? Journal of Environmental and Public Health, 1-10.
Heywood, P. (2012). Fracking safer and greener? TCE: The Chemical Engineer, 850, 42-45.
Sinshelmer, P., Grout, C., Namkoong, A., Gottlieb, R., & Latif, A. (2007). The viability of professional wet cleaning as a pollution prevention alternative to perchloroethylene dry cleaning. Air and Waste Management Association, 57, 172-178.
Taylor, D. K., Carbonell, R., & Desimone, J. M. (2010). Opportunities for pollution prevention and energy efficiency enabled by the carbon dioxide technology platform. Annual Review of Energy and the Environment, 25(1), 115-148.
The Greening of a Pulp and Paper Mill
The Androscoggin Mill, a part of the International Paper (IP) company, started its work in 1965 in Jay, Maine (Hill, Saviello, & Groves, 2002). For over three decades it was a typical pulp and paper plant that was central to the town’s economy. Everything changed in 1987, when a strike happened and lasted until the following year. The mill was accounted for numerous violations of environmental safety requirements.
It seemed that the facility was at the risk of being closed for all the issues surrounding it. However, in the 1990’s the newly formed management team implemented a series of P2 methods that allowed the plant to become the IP’s most successful organization regarding sustainable practices. By the end of 2001, the Androscoggin Mill became a large and effective plant with 1200 workers employed and 1600 tons of paper produced per day.
The kraft pulping is a process that is based on extracting fiber from wood and transforming it into material that is later used for paper production. Wood is made of two main components, including carbohydrate and lignin, the latter of which provides strength. Inorganic chemicals are used for cooking wood chips to separate fiber from lignin. Sulfite-based liquors used to be one of the options for the process. However, chemicals were not recovered after chips cooking, and hazardous waste was spilled in rivers. Kraft pulping allowed to recover up to 98 percent of chemicals, which made it the dominant technology.
However, the material resulting from this process is rather dark, and additional bleaching is required in many cases. The pulp is later washed, treated with oxygen delignification, and bleached with chlorine-based agents. After the second wash, the pulp is mixed with additives and run through paper-making machines. Environmental issues caused by kraft pulping are associated with wastewaters, chemicals, and other compounds. The largest portion of contaminants includes BOD, pigments, solids, and absorbable organic halides (AOXs) resulting from elemental chlorine use.
Pollution problems of the Androscoggin Mill before 1990 were typical for this industry and included large quantities of wastewaters, air pollutant emissions, and solid waste landfill. For instance, the facility had an on-site landfill that accepted 1643 cubic yards of solid waste per day in 1988. In fact, the zone almost reached its capacity during that time. Another issue was associated with elemental choline that was used for pulp bleaching. Utilization of this chemical resulted in hazardous substance emissions into the atmosphere, and even transporting it was dangerous due to potential leakage.
The management team that took over the situation in the early 1990’s developed several P2 strategies that allowed to reduce the number of hazardous substances linked to kraft pulping. One of the solutions included the construction of several aerators in the lagoon where wastewater treatment took place. The step allowed to achieve a higher level of dissolved oxygen and degradation of BOD. Another solution was to reduce bleaching by minimizing lignin in the pulp, which resulted in the decreasing amount of chloroform emissions.
Elemental chlorine was substituted with chlorine dioxide for bleaching processes and products with nitrogen and phosphorous ingredients used for microorganism growth were replaced with urea. Finally, the waste treatment was changed, and several steps, mainly recycling and its modifications, allowed to reduce the landfill rate by 91 percent. Solutions such as burning bark and sludge to make ash for AshCrete, which would later be used instead of gravel, allowed to cut costs on facility’s reconstruction.
The listed pollution prevention steps were supported by a set of organizational strategies developed by the management team. The primary goal was to create high standards for mill’s operations and to gain trust and support from the local community and regulation officials. Managers followed the recommendations given by the President’s Commission on Environmental Quality (PCEQ).
Firstly, the new team changed the structure of the mill’s environmental control department by hiring specialists on each emission issue, which made it similar to the one of the Maine DEP. Secondly, they have formed a public advisory committee (PAC) that helped to gather opinion from outside the organization. Employees gained more control over their part of operation units, which allowed to receive feedback and target issues more precisely. Finally, the management team took company lawyers away from their relations with the Maine DEP, releasing tensions and achieving a higher level of support and cooperation from regulators.
Reference
Hill, M., Saviello, T., & Groves, S. (2002). The greening of a pulp and paper mill. Journal of Industrial Ecology, 6(1), 107-120.
Greenhouse Gas Emissions Reduction Opportunities for Concrete
Pavements
Pavement construction and operation is associated with many environmental issues due to the materials it required and the specifics of its utilization. Concrete is one of the main components used for constructing pavements. This material, along with iron and steel, aluminum, and paper and cardboard, contributes the most to carbon dioxide emissions (Ashby, 2013, p. 151). Lately, construction specialists have started to use substances like fly ash as a safer option instead of concrete. This measure, as well as several others, is discussed in the article as the possible solution for reducing GHG emissions associated with pavements.
GHG production results from several fields of pavement construction and operation. Materials manufacturing is the first stage of its life cycle, where a large amount of CO2 is released. Besides, pavements are used for transportation purposes, and carbon dioxide emissions from vehicles are also considered as a part of the whole system of environmental impact. For instance, CO2 emissions from transport are estimated at 27 percent of the total amount in the United States (Santero Loijos, & Ochsendorf, 2013, p.859). New technologies in pavement construction targeted at changing the friction level may reduce this number.
There are several strategies for reducing GHG emissions associated with concrete pavements. Embodied emissions occur during manufacturing of materials and construction works. The reduction of these may be achieved by inputting fewer natural resources or choosing materials that are not as emission-intensive. Increasing the amount of albedo helps to improve the levels of urban heat island effect, radiation, and lightning requirements. Carbonation, which is a naturally occurring process, may be a source of CO2 release from crushed concrete at its end-of-life point. Thus, carbon sequestration can be achieved by effective waste management. Finally, the friction level of pavement affects vehicle fuel consumption, which, in turn, influences the carbon dioxide emission level.
There are five GHG reduction strategies that may potentially be viable. The first solution is to increase the use of fly ash instead of concrete for pavement construction from 10% to 30%. Another step is to add more white aggregates to increase albedo. The end-of-life scenario would be based on stockpiling crushed concrete for one year, allowing 28 percent of CO2 to be sequestered. The tenth year of pavement use should be marked with an addition of extra rehabilitation to create a smoother path, which would reduce vehicle fuel consumption. Finally, the fifth strategy is to abandon the practice of overdesigning and to optimize the material use.
The life cycle cost analysis (LCCA) performed for the embodied strategies has shown that each of the options is negatively cost-effective. Steps taken to reduce GHG emissions required significant financial input. Avoiding overdesign and adding fly ash reduces concrete sickness and results in mitigating costs. Other three strategies, including the increase of EOL carbonation and albedo, and reducing vehicle fuel consumption, show positive cost-effectiveness. While end-of-life carbonation applies to all types of pavement, the other two strategies are effective depending on the roadway volume. Considering this data, rural roads and highways require a different approach to make GHG reduction steps cost-effective.
References
Ashby, M. F. (2013). Materials and the environment: Eco-informed material choice (2nd ed.). Waltham, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann.
Santero, N., Loijos, A., & Ochsendorf, J. (2013). Greenhouse gas emissions reduction opportunities for concrete pavements. Journal of Industrial Ecology, 17(6), 859-868.
Designing a Low-Cost Pollution Prevention Plan to Pay Off at the University of Houston
Universities belong to the group of large organization that generates a great amount of chemical waste (Bialowas, Sullivan, & Schneller, 2006, p. 1320). The University of Houston has adopted a pollution prevention plan to manage its hazardous waste. There were two reasons for taking this step, including finances and regulation compliance. Chemical waste generated by the University must be treated according to the EPA’s policies. The site’s administration wanted to spend the budget on projects rather than on waste management. Moreover, the Texas Commission on Environmental Quality (TCEQ) has issued the rules that make large organizations like the University to develop and present a five-year P2 Plan.
One of the new P2 strategies was based on bulking hazardous wastes in a new manner. Previously, used materials were disposed to many small containers filled with absorbents. The team offered to utilize large single drums for this purpose and to bulk similar waste. Hazardous liquids and solids had to be stored in separate drums. The plan would reduce the amount of overpacking by 93 percent, making it a $569 per year cost. Bulking waste could produce unforeseen chemical reactions, so the fume hood modification was developed. A hood was remodeled to fit the bulking system underneath. The cost of the modification was approximately $2307, but the savings form a new bulking method made the whole plan economically reasonable.
Silver is a heavy metal that has many applications in different industries, including photography (Ashby, 2013, p. 486). Its hazardous nature and economic potential create the need for recovery from waste. The University decided to combine electrolytic and chemical recovery systems. A large portion of silver could be recovered, and the remaining liquid disposed in sewage. It was decided to lease the equipment and use vendor maintenance for it. The waste disposal cost reduction was expected to be 87 percent, going from $5018 to $676 per year.
The University also enhanced the existing system of disposing used oil. The facility had an auto shop that maintained the University’s fleet and collected the oil waste with a system of pumps, pipes, and a storage tank, which was later collected for free by a local reclamation firm. The plan was to bring the oil generated inside the University to that collection tank. The project allowed to save $3411 per year, and to make the oil disposal totally free.
I believe that the P2 plan developed by the University is very cost-effective. It offered simple solutions that did not require substantial technical modification. In my opinion, it was a reasonable step to leave some of the waste management steps for outsourcing. However, I am not sure whether bulking liquid wastes is a very good idea regarding safety. It was mentioned in the paper that the process may result in unexpected chemical reactions. I wonder if any of those reactions could go out of control causing extensive damage to the disposal system and the storage room. Other ideas, like recovering silver and using economic benefits from it, seem both environmentally safe and cost-effective, which allows other educational institutions to adopt this model.
References
Ashby, M. F. (2013). Materials and the environment: Eco-informed material choice (2nd ed.). Waltham, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann.
Bialowas, Y. D., Sullivan, E. C., & Schneller, R. D. (2006). Designing a low-cost pollution prevention plan to pay off at the University of Houston. Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association, 56(9), 1320-1324.
Effectiveness of State Pollution Prevention Programs and Policies
The Pollution Prevention Act of 1990 has declared a goal of reducing or preventing pollution at source whenever it is possible (Harrington, 2013, p. 255). Followed by the adoption of the Act, the Environmental Protection Agency started to collect and publish information about hazardous chemical emissions, as well as the ways they could be reduced. However, many corporations do not strive to develop optimal environmental technologies for their production processes.
There are three main reasons for such choices, including externalities, incomplete information, and high costs of adopting environmental technologies. In the past, legislation had a command-and-control character, ordering industries how they should manage waste (Ashby, 2013, p. 101). The article focuses on determining whether a new approach works towards stimulating organizations to reduce emissions at source (Harrington, 2013). The three objectives of the study are investigating if state-level P2 regulations stimulate pollution prevention activities adoption and emission reduction, determining how three policy instruments help to achieve it and examining whether facility characteristics influence the policy effectiveness.
One of the hypotheses of the research is the publicly disclosed information regarding environmental impact may increase the adoption of P2 actions and reduce toxic releases. The U. S. Toxic Releases Inventory has a two-sided effect on enhancing pollution prevention among organizations. Firstly, reporting helps companies to improve their public image and gain trust from regulating agencies, stakeholders, and consumers as they decrease emission levels. Secondly, shared information becomes a basis for future developments in environmental regulation. For example, data disclosed to TRI may be used by community members to act towards voting for more effective policies and controlling agencies may form a priority list for inspection purposes.
The empirical framework for the study is based on the main objective, which is to determine the link between pollution prevention legislation and two researched effects, being the adoption of P2 activities and toxic emission reduction. The technology adoption is calculated as the number of P2 activities that was implemented over a studied time. A level of pollution is determined as the level of toxic emissions released over time. Variables of interest include a P2 legislation dummy, and three policy dummies, including numerical goal, reporting requirements, and pollution prevention planning.
For-profit companies are eager to develop and follow P2 programs if marginal benefits equal the cost of their adoption. One of the instruments of promoting environmental technology adoption is information-sharing. Organizations that lack knowledge on how to run a P2 program on their facility are challenged with the need of discovering new ways of technology modification and adjusting new knowledge to the situation. The process has negative cost-effectiveness and may take much time. When there is no technical assistance, companies may wish to keep using existing P2 programs to avoid high expenses.
The findings suggest that P2 policies stimulate organizations to participate in adopting pollution prevention programs. However, there is no significant long-term effect regarding the improvement of environmental performance. Those organizations that failed to comply with toxic emissions regulations showed the biggest progress, while attempts by the others resulted in moderate changes. In my opinion, companies lack the understanding of how P2 actions may benefit them financially. Besides, since reducing toxic releases does not happen as a result of reporting, other tactics must be reviewed to force companies to adopt sustainable production options.
References
Ashby, M. F. (2013). Materials and the environment: Eco-informed material choice (2nd ed.). Waltham, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann.
Harrington, D. R. (2013). Effectiveness of state pollution prevention programs and policies. Contemporary Economic Policy, 31(2), 255-278.
Corporate Philosophy and P2 Efforts
There is a belief that in the nearest decades the Earth’s population will grow further by several billions. Such a great number of people is a cause of enormous generations of waste and resource use worldwide. The current state of the environment has made people and governments review their day-to-day practices. Large organizations from all industry sectors are currently seeking ways of making their operations more sustainable. In other words, the corporate perspective has shifted from ignoring the issue to becoming proactive in finding the balance between production and environmental safety (Ashby, 2013 p. 101).
However, adopting sustainable practices must go along with a corporate philosophy. Companies that have their vision mingled with P2 efforts are successful showing both commercial and environmental results, as it creates the possibility to be cost-effective, sustainable, and to gain support from communities and regulating agencies, which improves public image and works towards brand success. The paper focuses on describing why corporate philosophy must go along with pollution prevention strategies and providing an example of Canon as a company that follows this pattern.
Corporate Philosophy and Environmental Initiatives
In the past, a “green” public image was not very common and not many businesses used it to promote their products. Nowadays, various policies pressure companies to comply with rules that determine emission amounts, waste management options, etc. Top managers strive to implement environmental agenda in a corporate philosophy not only to follow the existing legislation and avid fines, but also to become more competitive and cost-effective (Ervin, Wu, Khanna, Jones, & Wirkkala, 2013, p. 391).
The external pressure from the market to ensure sustainable operations does not leave many options for production owners than to follow the general trend. The extent of the adopted changes varies based on many factors, including business size, economic situation, production model, etc. Research findings suggest that environmental activities are influenced by the willingness to gain competitive advantage (Ervin et al., 2013, p. 402). The same research provides that industries respond differently to this pressure, as wood and transportation sectors show more EMP levels (Ervin et al., 2013, p. 402). This fact may be caused by the general perception of these businesses’ emissions as potentially more hazardous than the others.
However, it is not enough to just adopt the P2 practices and expect that it will increase the competitiveness if the management team does not believe in the idea. There are several factors that are important for drafting an effective sustainability strategy, one of which is the accurate P2 audit.
According to Ashby, it is a method of determining problem areas of a production site (2013, p. 176). Every worker is encouraged to seek and report issues at his or her section of unit operation, so that specialists conducting an audit are aware of every little detail that requires attention. When company’s management does not perceive sustainability as an important part of operations, such initiative may become unwanted. Such situation may leave workers with a feeling that they are not being valued.
Another issue of a situation where corporate philosophy does not include the mentioning of sustainability as one of the goals is attracting the wrong type of employees. At the point of job seeking, candidate become acquainted with company’s values and decide on whether he or she shares them. When a company introduces new initiatives targeted at environmental safety, the step may find little support among employees that did not find this important initially. Research suggests that business ethics are important in attracting and retaining the right type of workers (Kumari, 2014, p. 742). Promoted company activities like carpooling or energy savings may direct employees’ mindset towards seeking ways of making their sector of responsibility more sustainable.
Canon’s Vision and Sustainability Efforts
Canon is one of the most famous technology companies, mostly known for its cameras. The corporate webpage contains information about the vision, listing its main principles (“Corporate philosophy and spirit”, n. d.). The corporate philosophy of Canon is described by the concept of kyosei, which envisions all people of the world living and working together in harmony. All corporate activities are based on this idea, with building good relationships with environment as one of it.
One of the Canon’s tactics is to manage chemicals that are used for different manufacturing processes. The substances are separated in three categories, including prohibited, emission reduction, and regulated ones (“Eliminating hazardous substances and preventing pollution”, n. d.). One of the strategies is to reduce the use of chemicals and to utilize recycled substances. For instance, in an attempt to reduce toxic emissions, Canon Dalian Business Machines decided to re-use or recycle solvents (“Eliminating hazardous substances and preventing pollution”, n. d.). The step helped to reduce volatile organic compound usage by 30 percent. Other substances include coating oil and grease, the reduction of which reached 4.4 and 2.2 percent correspondingly.
Canon also manages pollution that is associated with water contamination. Some of the controlled chemicals include nitrogen and phosphate compounds that may lead to water eutrophication. Another problem is biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and suspended solids (SS). The company uses local regulation standards and aims not to exceed the allowed amount of contamination. Air pollution is another issue as Canon’s production sites are the source of nitrogen and sulfur oxides.
Currently, the company is utilizing equipment that runs on fuel which does not act as a source of NOx and SOx emissions. Finally, the company has established its own policy on soil and groundwater pollution. Its rules regulate actions that need to be taken in a case if contamination of such character happens. Another measure is to examine soil on site prior to the land purchase for constructing a new production facility. Chemical substance monitoring at each plant is performed regularly to ensure that there is a compliance with local safety regulations.
All the described initiatives show how the management of Canon understands the company’s liability and dedication to supporting better environment. Philosophy described in the brand’s vision statement directs the way that Canon administration must take in the future regarding its environmental dimension. All the efforts that are taken by the company to blend the principles of sustainable operations into their corporate philosophy helps to ensure that all employees that join Canon will act towards creating solutions such as safer compound options for technology production.
Conclusion
The example of Canon shows how a company must act to not only meet the local requirements associated with environment protection, but also seek ways of developing their own programs for sustainable operations. Such efforts cannot exist separately from a company’s philosophy since it determines the principles for all activities and the future development. CSR statements help employees orient what attitude a business seeks from everyone who is a part of its functioning.
Of course, there is a significant chance of trying to increase the competitive advantage behind the actions of Canon’s management team. Stakeholders and consumers nowadays are less likely to support businesses that are known to release large amounts of hazardous waste and otherwise disregard threat resulting from their activities. However, if a company only seeks ways to improve its positions on the market, it usually does not go further than complying to environmental state regulations. Making a sustainable business is not limited to following the Pollution Prevention Act or its analogues in other countries.
Developing and adopting P2 activities takes much effort to determine issues, find solutions, and modifying existing processes. The fact that Canon has created its own program for managing soil and underground water contaminations is a signal that the brand truly follows its vision statement of striving towards harmony. This is an approach that corporations should adopt to reduce their negative impact on the environment as effectively as possible.
References
Ashby, M. F. (2013). Materials and the environment: Eco-informed material choice (2nd ed.). Waltham, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann.
Corporate philosophy and spirit. (n. d.). Web.
Eliminating hazardous substances and preventing pollution. (n. d.). Web.
Ervin, D., Wu, J., Khanna, M., Jones, C., & Wirkkala, T. (2013). Motivations and barriers to corporate environmental management. Business Strategy and the Environment, 22(6): 390-409.
Kumari, N. (2014). Employees’ psychology towards corporate social responsibility activities: A live study. International Journal of Asian Social Science, 4(6), 733-742.
Production and other corporate activities contribute significantly to carbon and other greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, increasing significantly to global warming. CSR is the voluntary integration of business interactions and stakeholder engagements with environmental and social concerns (Ghazaly, Jamali & Adra, 2016). It is part of ethical behavior in which corporations seek to compensate society for the detrimental effects of production and operational activities (Kucharska & Kowalczyk, 2019). According to Afsar, Cheema and Javed (2018), responsible organizations support community social programs and launch programs for conserving the environment. The purpose of this paper is to conduct a literature review evaluating the impact of CSR initiatives in reducing pollution and carbon emissions in GCC and the Middle East.
Literature Review
CSR emerged from the developed countries because of the policies they have adopted to lower the global temperature rise, such as the Paris Agreement of 2015 (Galán-Valdivieso, Saraite-Sariene, Alonso-Cañadas & Caba-Pérez, 2019). Companies in GCC and the Middle East have made CSR a mainstream principle because they realize they need to contribute to communities’ development projects (Ghazaly et al., 2016). As a relatively new concept in the region, CSR is yet to realize its full potential to transform society. Future research should evaluate how organizations can adopt CSR practices to minimize emissions and promote sustainable development. They will not only solve a problem but also expand the CSR and emissions literature.
According to Akinsemolu (2020), sustainable economic development in GCC and the Middle East will depend on education, job creation, poverty alleviation, and careful environmental management. Various stakeholders, such as the government, academic institutions, and civil society organizations, should participate in the effort (Almatrooshi, Hussain, Ajmal & Tehsin, 2018). Corporations will play an active role through CSR initiatives aligning with the national development goals in diverse areas, such as women’s education, affordable housing, and water conservation (Ghazaly et al., 2016). Although CSR programs can reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and pollution in the region, it is a complex process requiring practical cooperation between various stakeholders. Future studies should evaluate how different public and private sectors can collaborate to streamline activities intended to conserve the environment and promote sustainable development in GCC and the Middle East. The topic is essential because it will address the concerns of multiple parties interested in sustainable organizational behavior.
The GCC and the Middle East have experienced significant economic and population growth having a substantial environmental impact on a fragile ecosystem (Zmami & Ben-Salha, 2020). The Arab states hold more than 60 percent of the world’s oil reserves but only 0.5 percent of the renewable freshwater resources (Ghazaly et al., 2016). Therefore, most countries in the region experience water shortages and the problem could escalate in the future as global warming increases. Low air quality and waste management in the urban areas remain a critical environmental concern (Alharthey, 2016). Since the estimated environmental degradation index is 5 percent of the GDP per annum (Ghazaly et al., 2016), the question for future research is whether the benefits for CSR initiatives will match or exceed the costs. Creating a measurement model comparing the positive impacts of CSR programs and detrimental effects of production on society and the environment will ensure understanding of the problem.
Although CSR in the GCC and Middle East is yet to get to the developed countries’ level, it has gained momentum over the past decade. Professional networks, such as CSR Middle East, have created awareness about organizations’ need to reduce carbon and other GHG emissions and promote sustainable development (Ghazaly et al., 2016). Members include civil society groups, government agencies, and corporations willing to share their CSR initiatives and learn from others. The various stakeholders constituting CSR networks indicate that several stakeholder interests are captured in the programs corporations implement to compensate society for the detrimental effects of production. Education and employability are the major CSR themes in Saudi Arabia (Alharthey, 2016). The question is how the networks can develop common themes on environmental issues encouraging organizations to engage in CSR initiatives aimed at reducing carbon and GHG emissions. Sustainability, lower emissions, and conversation are some of the preferred themes.
Different corporations in GCC and the Middle East have diverse CSR approaches depending on size and their businesses’ nature. State-owned enterprises (SOEs) in construction, networking, hydrocarbons, and banking are responsible for approximately 50 percent of economic output (Ghazaly et al., 2016). Working closely with the government makes them some of the best-managed corporations in the region. Most of their CSR initiatives are in promoting education and transparency in governance (Alharthey, 2016). The limited research evidence on environmental CSR research initiatives is a critical gap in the literature. Future studies should investigate why SOEs in the region fail to prioritize environmental issues in their CSR programs and evaluate potential ways of addressing the problem. Governments and other stakeholders interested in protecting the welfare of future generations can support such studies.
Multinational corporations (MNCs) in GCC and the Middle East have adopted a proactive approach to CSR. For example, WesternZagros Limited, a Canadian oil and natural gas company, included CSR in its exploration activities in Kurdistan, Iraq (Ghazaly et al., 2016). The objective was to capture the concerns of local communities before commencing operations. According to Ismaeel (2019), most MNCs are transparent about their community and environmental programs. They have started to give their subsidiaries autonomy in the region to determine the most useful CSR initiatives. International companies can guide GHG emission reductions because they take a more positive stance towards the environment than local companies (Kucharska & Kowalczyk, 2019). For example, HP Middle East incorporates resource conservation and pollution prevention to manage its operational environmental impact (Ghazaly et al., 2016). Unfortunately, a significant proportion of the public doubt foreign companies’ sincerity in their community and environmental programs (Almatrooshi, Hussain, Ajmal, & Tehsin, 2018). Future studies may question how MNCs can use PR (public relations) to earn public trust and promote their conservation programs across the region.
CSR discussions in the media, academia, and civil society focus mainly on SOEs and MNCs. The debates overlook Small and medium enterprises (SMEs) because of their lower profiles and small sizes (Almatrooshi et al., 2018). Accounting for approximately 75 percent of the GCC and the Middle East’s private sector, SMEs substantially impact the economy and the environment because they consume significant energy and resources (Ghazaly et al., 2016). SMEs are closer to the local communities and therefore understand the most pressing needs. They engage in informal CSR initiatives, which are rarely publicized or responsive to global concerns, such as environmental conservation (Akinsemolu, 2020). Future studies should measure the impact of informal CSR initiatives on society and sensitize small businesses to implement community programs conserving the environment.
According to Kucharska & Kowalczyk (2019), leadership is critical to corporate programs’ success, including CSR initiatives. Some GCC and Middle East organizations have developed CSR strategies defining the internal and external commitments required to ensure success. For example, The Savola Group in Saudi Arabia allocates approximately 1 percent of annual revenues to CSR activities (Ghazaly et al., 2016). The leaders also encourage their subordinates to focus on CSR goals when designing compensation schemes and tracking results, indicating a commitment to sustainability. However, Akinsemolu (2020) argues that a significant proportion of organizations in the region do not have similar programs. Acceptable corporate governance practices, such as transparency in business decision-making, can enhance CSR initiatives’ success (Galán-Valdivieso et al., 2019). Unfortunately, some organizations, especially SMEs, lack elaborate corporate governance structures (Ghazaly et al., 2016). Future studies aim to sensitize small organizations to be transparent in their business practices, including those with adverse effects on the environment.
Governments will play a vital role in ensuring the success of CSR initiatives in promoting sustainable development. Regulatory agencies should clearly define national development goals, including those concerning carbon and other GHG emissions (Galán-Valdivieso et al., 2019). Governments should encourage corporations to align their CSR programs with national development goals to create an enabling environment for successful implementation (Almatrooshi, Hussain, Ajmal & Tehsin, 2018). The national environment and conservation departments should become active CSR promoters, especially for minimizing toxic emissions. Furthermore, federal, regional, and local government agencies should collaborate in promoting CSR initiatives to create sufficient national momentum towards the minimization of toxic emissions. Future studies should evaluate whether incentives, such as lower tax rates, can encourage companies to engage in CSR initiatives promoting lower GHG emissions.
Organizations in the developed world have adopted corporate carbon policies (CCP), defining the practices and strategies for minimizing GHG emissions (Almatrooshi, Hussain, Ajmal & Tehsin, 2018). Companies should engage various stakeholder groups to capture their interests in the policies to minimize implementation barriers (Galán-Valdivieso et al., 2019). According to Yu and Lee (2017), educating communities about the implications of human activities on the environment can be part of the CSR initiatives. Corporations can also lead communities to reduce carbon emissions by minimizing the use of gasoline-driven machines and automobiles and adopting renewable energy (Alharthey, 2016). Surrounding communities can emulate the practices and reduce toxic emissions to the environment. Although many organizations realize CSR’s value to the communities and the environment, profit-maximization remains their primary objective (Ismaeel, 2019). The study by Yu and Lee (2017) revealed a significant direct relationship between GHG emissions and CSR index, which strengthens the firm’s size. The findings imply that reducing GHG emissions in large corporations may not be an effective way to improve the CSR index.
The Middle East has experienced the launch of several renewable energy projects in the electricity sector over the past decade (Ghazaly et al., 2016). A myriad of factors, such as growing population and urbanization, low oil prices, and declining solar panels cost, have contributed to the trend because the region has a vast potential for green energy (Ismaeel, 2019). However, the researcher notes that the transformation towards clean energy is gaining momentum in the GCC region. Still, it requires careful planning and coordination of activities and policies at different levels. Organizations outside the energy sector can contribute to the transformation through CSR initiatives reducing GHG emissions. Partnering with environmental activists to run sensitization campaigns, educating communities, and donating energy-saving equipment to households can minimize GHG emissions (Alharthey, 2016). Unfortunately, some organizations may be willing to support programs minimizing emissions and environmental degradation but lack enough resources.
Conclusion
The literature review has identified various studies evaluating how CSR initiatives can reduce carbon emissions (Afsar et al., 2018; Yu & Lee, 2017; Akinsemolu, 2020; Kucharska & Kowalczyk, 2019). Various themes have emerged from the analysis, identifying research gaps that future studies need to address. Borrowed from the western nations, CSR is a relatively new concept in the GCC and Middle East (Ghazaly et al., 2016). However, limited studies evaluate best practices to promote CSR initiatives for reducing carbon emissions, which is an opportunity for future research. Another theme is education and employability as the primary CSR focus for companies in the region (Alharthey, 2016; Ghazaly, Jamali, & Adra, 2016). Therefore, future studies need to evaluate ways of sensitizing firms in the region to undertake CSR initiatives focusing on the environment. Furthermore, they should also evaluate how organizations in public and private sectors can collaborate and align their CSR initiatives with national goals of environmental conservation. New researchers should compare CSR benefits to the environment with the costs of corporate activities in the surroundings. The proposed research questions indicate the studies required to fill the existing research gaps. The critical literature review has highlighted CSR trends in GCC and the Middle East. It appears that numerous organizations are willing to give back to society, but there are multiple constraints. Government facilitation and collaborating with organizations from other sectors will support CSR initiatives reducing emissions and ensure sustainable growth and development.
References
Afsar, B., Cheema, S., & Javed, F. (2018). Activating employee’s pro‐environmental behaviors: The role of CSR, organizational identification, and environmentally specific servant leadership. Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Management, 25(5), 904-911.
Akinsemolu, A. A. (2020). Contribution of the extractive industry to sustainability in the Middle East and North African (MENA) Region. Journal of Sustainable Development Law and Policy(11), 210-238.
Alharthey, B. K. (2016). Role of corporate social responsibility practices in Saudi universities. International Journal of Business and Social Research, 6(1), 32-39.
Almatrooshi, S., Hussain, M., Ajmal, M., & Tehsin, M. (2018). Role of public policies in promoting CSR: Empirical evidence from business and civil society of UAE. Corporate Governance, 18(6), 1107-1123.
Galán-Valdivieso, F., Saraite-Sariene, L., Alonso-Cañadas, J., & Caba-Pérez, M. C. (2019). Do corporate carbon policies enhance legitimacy? A social media perspective. Sustainability, 11(4), 1-23.
Ghazaly, S., Jamali, D., & Adra, F. (2016). The rise of Corporate Social Responsibility: A toll for sustainable development in the Middle East. New York, NY: Booz & Company.
Ismaeel, M. (2019). Transformation toward clean energy in the Middle East: A multilevel perspective. In H. Qudrat-Ullah, & A. A. Kayal (Eds.), Climate change and energy dynamics in the Middle East (pp. 309-321). New York, NY: Springer.
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Noise can be defined as a sound that is not agreeable with musical quality. Noise can also be described as an unwanted sound. Most of the noise is generated from almost all opencast and underground mining operations and from various fixed mobile and impulse sources.
Noise pollution can be attributed to the increase of mechanization that results into the increase in the use of voluminous and complicated machinery and equipment. Other major sources of noise are produced from transportation.
Other good examples of noise include motor vehicles, airplanes, and trains, among others. Noise is rapidly becoming an increasing source of discomfort in mines, factories and other industries that produce excessive noise (Agarwal 2009).
Prolonged exposure of workers in noisy environments (>90 dBA) is harmful. This is because it can result into noise induced hearing loss and other effects that are not auditory but are related, in one way or another, to the hearing system.
For instance speech system can be interfered with when one is exposed to excessive noise. The other effects of noise are that it can affect a person’s sleep and reduce working efficiency. The high intensity of noise is what causes detrimental effects to a person.
In addition, the frequency of sound, duration of exposure, intermittence or continuation of sound, the age of a person and their health can affect the acuteness of the effects of noise pollution. It is essential to undertake noise surveys through environmental impact assessment. This will help in identifying the sources of noise. It will also help to quantify the exposure risk of workers (Tripathy Not Dated).
Sound is a form of energy that gives an auditory sensational hearing. Sound is transmitted by oscillation of atoms and molecules in matter. The intensity of sound depends upon the amplitude of the waves. Thus, higher than normal amplitudes are the ones responsible for noise pollution.
It is tricky to determine the level of noise that can be considered as causing noise pollution. However, sound that adversely affects wildlife and human activity can be considered as noise pollution. Sound that is capable of damaging physical structures can also be considered as noise pollution. However, the damage must also be on a repeated basis (What is what.com 2011).
Noise pollution is difficult to control. This is because noise is transient and localized. It usually is temporary and not inherently dangerous. It does not accumulate in our bodies or the environment. Also, the impacts of noise to human beings and animals are subjective. This is because the impact of less damaging sound is harder to determine. It is also difficult to disentangle offending noises from background noises (Wolf & Stanley 2011).
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) came up with regulations that aim at reducing noise levels so that people are not affected (Wang et al. 2005). The organization has implemented a rating system in which levels of noise in a work place are regulated.
Employers are therefore required to protect their employees against noise pollution through these regulations (Demand Media 2011). The organization has come up with a system that regulates the amount of time and the noise levels. Therefore, an employee must not be exposed to a sound equal to or exceeding 85 dB for more than 8 hours (United States Department of Labor 2011).
Reference List
Agarwal, S. (2009). Noise Pollution. New Delhi, APH Publishing Corporation.
Demand media. (2011). OSHA Requirements for Noise. Web.
Tripathy, D. (n. d.). Noise Pollution. New Delhi: APH Publishing.
China is a vast country that has achieved significant progress in development and continues to reach technological heights. Naturally, the process of globalization is accompanied by significant environmental problems that have a devastating impact on the health of people, animals, and all living areas. One of the most acute environmental problems in China is air pollution, which the authorities are trying to solve, but still, many people, factories, and active processes of globalization do not allow environmental programs to work in full force.
The problem of air pollution because of globalization in China is ruining many lives. The number of people dying due to air pollution has exceeded one million in China (Zhao et al.). This statistic is frightening even though the country has made significant material and technical development progress compared to other countries. The capital of China, Beijing, is shrouded in thick smog, which results from manufacturing factories’ work, emissions from different types of land and air transport (Masterson & Wu). The Chinese authorities need to take restrictive measures to release harmful substances into the air, as overtime, Chinese residents will develop various respiratory diseases that will be complicated.
In addition, air pollution will spread to neighboring countries, hurting residents. Besides the fact that people suffer from polluted air, China’s economic growth will also be disrupted over time. Dong et al. believe that developing and adopting measures to combat intense air pollution will bring significant economic benefits (1). In different regions of China, there is an extra degree of pollution because some small towns and villages do not have many transports and factories.
In conclusion, air pollution is one of China’s most acute environmental problems. It harms the health and life of people and all living things in the country. Sources of air pollution are emissions from factories and transport, of which there are quite a lot in the country. The Chinese authorities need to introduce restrictive measures and develop other strategic solutions that will help preserve nature and the population’s health.
