Category: Pollution

Air pollution in Moscow is an overwhelming trouble that the residents of the region face. It has affected visitors from other parts of the world too. The increase of the peoples desire to have luxurious living has become problematic, for it has adversely affected Moscows environment. This is through the many cars they are buying.

The main issue is the quality of air. This essay will focus on car pollution; the role that cars have played in polluting the air.

The explosion of the number of cars in Moscow has largely contributed to the air pollution in this city. The fuel used by the vehicles is the root cause of the air pollution. The fuel burned in the process of combustion produces power for propelling the vehicles.

This process emits either carbon dioxide or even the more dangerous carbon monoxide into the atmosphere. The city has now a capacity of about three million cars on traffic ever day. These cars produce an extremely large amount of the waste gases, which has largely contributed to the poor air quality.

Apart from the quality of air, the streets have also become very problematic due to traffic jam. This has kept people on the road for longer time, delaying them to reach their destinations. The jam also increases the time the engines are on; therefore increasing the amount of the waste gas emitted to the atmosphere.

This has caused the average temperature of this city to go higher than the surrounding countryside. The carbon dioxide causes a warming effect through the greenhouse effect. In fact, the gas pushed in to the air is so much that a blanket of smog covers the city almost all the year.

This has made the people living in this place very uncomfortable. Still on the problem of temperature, carbon dioxide emitted by all vehicles cause the destruction of ozone layer, which helps in preventing a lot of heat from the sun from reaching the earth.

The layer also blocks dangerous rays from the sun from coming down to earth, hence protecting human beings. The increase in the number of motto vehicles is a formidable threat, and has already started bringing effects on this ozone layer, escalating the health problems of people.

Cars or vehicles also have other different emissions which are very dangerous. Lead, nitrogen monoxide, and dust or particulate pollutants. Others are things such us tire wear, break fluid leakage and the wearing of brake linings. These types of pollutants are very dangerous and the number of vehicles increases them. Particulate pollutants may not only arise from within the vehicles, but also the dust particles that the vehicles stir as they move.

There are several health issues that the increase of cars has caused. Influenza, premature death, increased number of people that are hospitalized, cancer, problems on growth and development in young children. Asthma attacks and bronchitis have been the main ones and the number of people suffering from these two is increasing on the increase of the number of cars.

Influenza epidemic has been reported to be on the rise in this city. Hospitals have had to increase their bed capacity and even get to the point of recalling their staff that were on holidays to help in taking care of the sick people. The major cause of this is the air pollution, which cars contribute the most.

This has increased pressure on the already strained health services. The number of the patients coming to hospitals for flu and respiratory related complications has increased showing that the condition of air of this place is not at any better state.

This affirms that the poor air quality in the city has actually made the flu problem worse. Even though the overall level of gas emission may be reducing as compared to some time 10 years ago, the rising number of vehicles is the greatest threat to the target level of pollutant gasses that the nation of Russia was to reach this year. This is what is putting pressure on the medical services being offered in this nation.

This pollution has affected children a lot more than the adults. This trend is quite dangerous for it increases the infant mortality rate. This shows the magnitude of the effects of the air pollution. The effects of this air pollution are also increased by the escalating urban population, for these diseases are usually communicable diseases.

The pollution as we have said is also causing a lot of complication to the children, especially during birth. They are born with defects, tumors and cancerous illnesses during birth. The older people also suffer from such blood diseases as diabetes. The number of these problems has also increased.

This is due to such chemical additives like lead, benzene, chromium, and asbestos, which are used with the fuel or generally in the engines of the motto vehicles. They come out with the gaseous exhaust as small particles which get into the bodies of people through breathing in the polluted air.

The bad air is not only a problem to the people, but also animals and plants. Sulfur in the atmosphere has the potential of killing plants. The increased carbon dioxide reduces the level of oxygen in the atmosphere and the plants lack oxygen that is very necessary for the production of food in them.

The imbalanced temperature also affects the optimum temperature that the specific crops or plants need to survive. This would still have a direct effect on the lifestyle of people. People need plants even in the city, for they are good for producing oxygen to supplement the percentage of the oxygen in the air. Their death will increase the stuffy nature of the already polluted city.

The government and the citizens need to focus on this problem. Policies should be formulated to help reduce the numbers of vehicles in town. One of the measures that should be used is to restrict the use of personal vehicles going into and through the city. People should not focus on prestige but on saving the environment, saving the people suffering problems of air pollution and creating a fresh environment.

They should therefore use trains and buses to move from one part of the city to the other. This will help a lot in reducing the traffic jams and therefore even save time of travelling. The government through the authorities in charge of the towns should make sure they introduce laws and regulations that will reduce the number of vehicles.

This essay has discussed the nature of air pollution caused by motto vehicles, seeing that the main way they pollute the environment is by the exhaust gases which at times carry traces of poisonous chemicals.

The essay has also discussed some of the impacts of this pollution to the health of people and touched on the effects on plants and animals. Finally, it gives a recommendation of some ways the government and the public can use to reduce the car pollution.

Various studies have found that air pollution causes serious health complications for adults and children, not mentioning that air pollution also affects animal and plant life.

The primary air pollutants found in most urban settings include carbon monoxide and sulfur oxides generated mostly by vehicles and other machinery, hydrocarbons, and both solid and liquid particulate material (Socha, 2007). Air pollution is found in both indoor and outdoor settings.

In the indoor setting, the Environmental Protection Agency has reported that some air pollutants found in most American homes, generated by such things as telephone cables, cleaning fluids, linoleum tile, and other building materials, are three times more likely to cause some types of cancer than outdoor air pollutants (EPA, 2002).

Indoor and outdoor air pollutants cause a wide range of respiratory problems, which includes asthma, coughs, obstructive pulmonary disease, lung cancer, heart failure, heart rhythm problems, and cystic fibrosis (Lipfert, 1994).

It is a well-known fact that individuals suffering from chronic conditions such as cardiovascular disease and diabetes stand an elevated risk of developing complications and, even worse, dying when they are exposed to high concentrations of air pollutants. Lastly, both indoor and outdoor air pollution can enhance allergy symptoms, especially in children and the elderly.

Children are more vulnerable to the effects of air pollution due to their weak immune systems and also since their vital organs are still in the developmental phase (Lipfert, 1994). On a more serious note, Ritz & Wilhelm (2010) observes that &evidence is accumulating that environmental exposures can cause infants to be born premature (before 37 weeks of gestation) or low weight (less than 2500 grams, or 5.5 pounds), or to be born with certain birth defects (para. 3).

These babies, according to the authors, stand a higher risk of dying during infancy, and those who survive stands an elevated risk of the developing brain, cardiovascular, respiratory, and digestive conditions in early life. According to EPA (2002), &asthma rates have increased 160 percent in the past 15 years in children under 5 years of age (p. 1-1).

Studies have demonstrated that high exposure to air pollutants in early life increases the risks of children to develop diabetic and heart conditions later in life. As already mentioned, early childhood is a significant phase for the sustained development and maturation of critical biological systems such as the brain, the respiratory system, and the immune system.

As such, children are particularly vulnerable to air pollutants because the toxins inhibit or impair the proper development of the mentioned systems, or worsen existing medical conditions, such as asthma (Ritz & Wilhelm, 2010; Air Resources Board, 2009). As such, it can be safely argued that air pollutants put children at an elevated risk of developing adverse health conditions.

The first task in the multidisciplinary team should be to identify the leading sources of air pollution within the community and the nature of the specific toxics or hazardous chemicals associated with the pollutants (Lipfert, 1994). This calls for a comprehensive assessment of the observed and perceived air pollution impact on the health, growth, and development of the children.

Hospital records may best serve the purpose of identifying the various medical conditions predominant in the community, and which may be directly related to air pollution. The second phase should entail the development and implementation of monitoring equipment to keep track of the trends.

The third phase, inexorably viewed as the most crucial phase, should entail rolling out education and outreach programs aimed at sensitizing the community and road users of the need to reduce air pollution and the correlation between air pollution and some of the health problems observed in the community. Community members must be educated on how to adequately ventilate their houses to reduce indoor air pollution, while road users must be educated on the types of fuel to use to reduce outdoor air pollution.

More importantly, community members can be taught how to reduce particulate pollution, which is directly linked to an increase in asthma and various forms of allergy in children, by dripping playing grounds and pavements with water and disinfectant (EPA, 2002).

Children need to be educated on the need to play in a healthy environment and also the need to observe some basic hygiene principles such as the washing of hands after play to reduce contact with the toxic pollutants (CDC, n.d.). These preventive steps will curtail exposure of children to air pollutants.

Reference List

Air Resources Board. (2009). Health effects research. Web.

Centers for Disease Control & Prevention. An ounce of prevention keeps the germ away. Web.

Lipfert, F.W. (1994). Air pollution and community health: A critical review and data sourcebook. New York.

Van Nostrand Reinhold Ritz, B., & Wilhelm, M. (2010). Air pollution impacts on infants and children. Web.

Socha, T. (2007). Air pollution and effects. Web.

The United States Environmental Protection Agency. (2002). Planning and implementing a real-time air pollution monitoring and outreach program for your community. Web.

Tradeable emissions and pollution rights are increasingly finding use as an environmental policy tool to facilitate in the control of environmental pollutants.

Consequently, a number of firms are now in a position to acquire the rights to emit specific pollutants. This trend started with firms in the United States and the original aim was to enable them reduce their operational costs, in addition to enhancing economic growth, and more so for those companies that were located in highly polluted areas.

However, this trend appears to have changed lately, with more countries utilizing them for water and air pollution as well (OBrien 2000). Proposals have even been presented that that pollution rights should be adopted in order to enable various countries meet the established greenhouse gas emissions targets by the Kyoto Protocol.

Already, such firms as Shell and BP have created internal systems to enable carbon trading (OBrien 2000). On the other hand, Canada has already approved the establishment of an internet-based and privately run reduction exchange for greenhouse emission (KEFI-Exchange 2000).

Nonetheless, it is important to note that the aim of pollution rights trading is to reduce costs to organizations, as opposed to increasing environmental gains. In addition, past experiences reveal that environmental gains emanating from emissions trading are often not guaranteed.

At the moment, emissions trading remain one of the most fundamental and controversial issues that faces the field of environmental science. Perhaps what we need to ask ourselves is whether emissions trading are the answer to the various environmental problems that we are faced with.

The underlying principle of the emissions rights trading is that pollutants such as carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide that are treated as air pollutants could in fact be also treated as tradeable commodities. What this appears to suggest is that when firms emit less pollutions than the maximum allowable limits, they are at liberty to sell the excess pollution in the open market.

On the other hand, firms characterized by high levels of pollution are then in a position to purchase these allowances. As a result, they can either opt to invest in advanced technological systems with the intention of helping clean up such pollutants, or they may decide to continue emitting similar levels of pollutants. The choice is often determined by the most cost-effective alternative.

Regardless of the choice made, neither firm is at liberty to emit pollutant levels that are above the limits mandated by law. In this regard, the onus is on the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to establish the desired pollutant targets and then leave the firms with the decision of arriving at the best mechanisms to help them comply with the set laws (Easton, 2008, p. 95).

We need to appreciate the fact that the emissions trading concept differs from the command-and-control programs whereby firms are often required to meet certain specific environmental standards.

In addition, firms are advised on the specific technologies that they need to create so that they can meet the established standards. Those in favor of emission trading are convinced that command-and-control programs only acts to compel firms to attain the minimum standard requirements, thereby stifling innovation.

When the requirements are establishment in such a way as to give a firm more leeway, such as the availability of incentives that enables it to contribute to a cleaner environment, consequently, such a firm shall be seen to work hard and develop advanced technology (Easton, 2008, p. 94-95).

Several decades ago, the eastern part of the United States was faced with the problem of acid rain. In 1990, the Clean Air Act was amended and as a result, the Acid Rain Program was established. Experts view it as more of a cap-and-trade program that has ensured a near four million tons reduction in sulfur dioxide emissions over the last decade.

Consequently, the Northeast region of the United States has witnessed nearly twenty five percent reductions in rainfall acidity. The reason behind the success of this particular program is due to its affordability and simplicity.

Following the success of this program, various companies have come together under the umbrella of the emissions trading scheme. In combination, such companies as DuPont, BP and Ford Motor Company are committed to ensuring that their greenhouse gas emissions reduces by nearly five percent below the levels set in 2005 (Easton, 2008, p. 96).

At the same time, we need to realize that there are various problems that impact on the emissions trading scheme. For example, there is the likelihood of the scheme being abused because of its open market trading policy. Several environmentalists are convinced that those firms whose levels of emission are below the maximum allowable levels are entitled to allowances that they can then opt to sell at a later date.

A majority of the environmentalists are of the idea that when the industry is given the mandate to establish emissions allowance standards, as opposed to leaving this responsibility with the regulatory agency, this will result in its abuse (Easton, 2008, p. 98). Already, there are several firms that have been seen to abuse this privilege.

For example, Duke Power, a company based in North Carolina, is reported to have purchased an equivalent of thirty five percent in the form of sulfur dioxide emissions allowances in the short term, and up to sixty percent of the same, in the long term.

Several other companies have even been reported to have purchase upwards of ninety percent both in terms of long term and short term allowances. One of the challenges that we need to be wary of is that those firms that are in a position to purchase the most allowances shall have the power to dictate the manner in which transactions are carried out in the open market for emissions trading.

In addition, there has been an apparent reduction in terms of credits value and this could perhaps explain why such firms may opt to purchase in large numbers (Easton, 2008, p. 102-103).

Emissions trading is also faced with the problem of establishing emissions levels often required by individuals companies in order to allow for the trading to take place. Setting up a very low baseline level would result in less pollution rights on offer for purchase.

This is because companies shall be in a position to lower their level of pollution below the established standard. On the other hand, a high baseline level will result in less pollution rights buyers. This is because a majority of the companies shall be in a position to meet the established standards.

Either way, the end result is low trading levels. The setting of baselines could be accomplished via several ways (Beder, 2001, p. 153). Previously, the setting of baseline levels took place in the United States and the experts ensured that it was similar to the already existing license limits. However, those opposed to emission trading argue that the established since limits do not allow states to realize air quality goals (Beder, 2001, p. 153).

In addition, opponents of emission trading argue that even as we required additional reductions in emissions, we need not trade in surplus rights. On the other hand, advocates of emissions trading opine that the licensing system is to blame, further arguing that such challenges need not hinder the ensuing savings in cost realized by emissions trading.

Another issue that we need to explore in as far as the emission trading scheme is concerned is that although there is the possible reduction in the emission levels of specific pollutants (for example, carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide), this would still not be at the same level as would have been the case with the command-and-control standards.

Although there is the possibility of reducing the average air concentration levels in a particular area, on the other hand, if a firm is only interested in the purchase of credits only, as opposed to improving its technology as well, this means little to the issue of environmental sustainability.

Companies often opt to do this owing to the exorbitant costs of technology. Such countries as Germany and Italy have had their sulfur dioxide levels reduced by as much as 87 percent and 62 percent respectively, for the past 11 years (Lipow, 2007).

This is in comparison with the United States that has witnessed a 31 percent reduction in its sulfur dioxide levels over the same period). Notwithstanding these figures, advocates of emissions trading argue that the project is still in its infancy stage, and this could probably help to explain the slow progress that we have witnessed thus far.

On the basis of the foregoing arguments, perhaps what we need to be asking ourselves at this point is whether pollution rights trading effectively control environmental problems.

On the one hand, we have the advocates of emissions trading scheme who are convinced that indeed, trading of emissions can effectively result in the management of environmental problems. On the other hand, opponents argue that the scheme is a total waste.

One wonders whether this position is likely to change any time soon. However, there are signs that the Congress could be in support of the program, given the increase in the number of Senators who have sought to introduce bills on pollution rights trading.

On the other hand, problems still persist on how best to establish baselines for such emissions. There is a dire need therefore to decide on how the setup of a program would affect the distribution of the cost (Support Grows, 2007, para. 3).

In addition, there are also some important questions that need to be addressed. For example, the manner in which the allowances are to be distributed, the firms that are most likely to receive permits, and the best method to compute baseline levels.

It is also important to consider the finance because it is central to the inception, implementation and sustainability of such a program. A number of the members of the Congress, along with a majority of the presidential candidates have demonstrated their support for the pollution rights trading but they would also wish to integrate it with pollution tax (Support Grows, 2007, para. 10).

Actually, the introduction of a pollution tax could result in a faster reduction in pollution since companies would normally be encouraged to lower their emissions to the bare minimum.

Consequently, this may help reduce pollution beyond regulatory levels (Easton, 2008, p. 105). In addition, the tax would also acts as a source of revenue, thereby facilitating funding of green technology production research (Support Grows, 2007, para. 10).

On the other hand, Congress will not just support any tax proposal (Support Grows, 2007, para. 8). Not many companies would be willing to pay the hefty cost associated with expensive green technology. From a logical point of view therefore the flexibility often associated with emissions trading shall acts as a source of motivation for firms to seek cheaper forms of innovation.

Reference List

Beder, S. (2001). Trading the earth: the politics behind tradeable pollution rights. Environmental Liability, 9(2), 152-160.

Easton, T. (2008). Taking sides: clashing views on environmental issues. Dubuque: McGraw-Hill.

Lipow, G. (2007). Emissions trading: a mixed record, with plenty of failures. Web.

KEFI-Exchange. (2000). KEFI-Exchange  Canadas first green house gas emission reductions exchange is open for business!, E-Wire. Web.

OBrien, F. (2000). UK emissions market could be worth 900 mln stg, Reuter,s News Service. Web.

Support Grows. (2007). Support grows for capping and trading carbon emissions. Issues in science and technology. Retrieved from Academic Search Premier Database.

Water pollution is of the major concerns for policy-makers and environmental agencies. Such an organization as GRACE Communication Foundation intends to increase peoples awareness about the origins of various environmental problems and ways of resolving them. In my opinion, the issues identified by this agency should be considered by policy-makers who have to encourage the improvement of environmental practices, adopted by manufacturers or farmers.

This is one of the main points that should be discussed. Additionally, the evidence presented at this website indicates it is necessary to reconcile different needs. On the one hand, one can speak about the necessity to supply a great number of people with agricultural products. Nevertheless, it is necessary to minimize the negative effects of mass production. These questions will become even more urgent in the future.

The evidence provided by environmental agencies indicates that industrial agriculture is one of the factors that significantly contribute to the deterioration of water quality.

To a great extent, this problem can be attributed to the extensive use of various chemicals such as nitrates, ammonia, pathogens, heavy metals, and so forth. Additionally, one should remember about the use of nutrients that leads to the excessive growth of various underwater plants. More importantly, policy-makers should consider such risks as water shortages that can affect many communities.

On the whole, it is possible to say that many of these effects can be avoided. For example, industrial farmers can do it by reducing their use of heavy metals, antibiotics, or nitrates. Therefore, it is important to develop methods that can better ensure the quality of water in the country.

Overall, the increasing problem of water pollution urges both citizens and policy-makers to pay more attention to the practices adopted by contemporary farmers. They should be obliged to minimize the long-term impact of their activities on environment. More importantly, people should increase their awareness about the products that they consume because this food can be dangerous for the health.

In particular, they should purchase food only from those companies that adopt sustainable technologies and production processes in order to safeguards themselves against various diseases. Therefore, the principles of ethical consumerism are relevant to the protection of environment.

It is important to remember that the investment into technologies can bring a great number of improvements, related to the conservation of water quality. They are also vital for avoiding water shortages. More importantly, this strategy can help industrial companies save costs.

This is one of the arguments that can be advanced, and it should be considered by the managers of modern companies, especially those ones that are engaged in industrial agriculture. These organizations should remember that their financial performance is dependent on the quality of water and the sustainability of natural environment.

Overall, the preservation of water quality should be one of the top priorities for policy-makers and community members. The work of industrial farmers is definitely important for the wellbeing of many people. Nevertheless, one can disregard the need to protect water because it is vital for the long-term sustainability of the economy in every country.

The practices used by many companies lead to water shortages and pollution of rivers and lakes. Therefore, community and legislators should join their efforts to address this problem because in the future, it will become even more urgent.

Urban Pollution  Many Long Years Ago is a masterpiece written by Joel A. Tarr addressing the issue of urban pollution many years ago before the invention of automobile. Tarr also compares pollution caused by automobiles to that caused by horses, putting into consideration the promises that came with automobiles with respect to creating cleaner and safer streets. Finally, Tarr comments on the optimism that people have towards nuclear power plants as substitute to fossil fuels.

By 1970s, Americans were grappling with the reality of automobiles with respect to urban pollution with many claiming that it would be better if horses were still used as form of transport. However, though unknown to many people, horses caused the same pollution problems that automobiles were causing at that time.

As early as the 14^th century, people were decrying foul due to sanitation problems caused by horses. According to Tarr, by 1907, some cities like Milwaukee had a population of 12,500 horses translating to 133 tons of manure daily (13). This manure offered rich breeding grounds for flies, which are disease carriers.

The great number of horses in the streets of American cities caused air pollution. Combination of hay, harness oil, urine and manure produced a strong stench making the streets filthy. Swarms of flies were all over. Ironically, steam engine did not replace horse transportation because horses had to ferry people to and from their residential areas.

Dwellers of American cities around this time were constantly faced with the challenge of cleaning streets of horse manure and urine putrefaction. This forced authorities in New York and Boston to set aside money to facilitate cleaning of streets.

Fear of disease drove many urban residents to come together, backed with the authorities to clean streets to divest the city of that foul aliment on which the pestilence delights to feed (Tarr 15). Typhoid, small pox, and cholera among other diseases emanated from these filthy conditions in the streets. Nevertheless, in the mid nineteenth century, these efforts were scuttled by corruption and reluctance to engage in this unsatisfying task.

Noise pollution was also rampant from clopping iron horse shoes to clanking wagon wheels. This led to banning of horse drawn wagons in some cities to avoid interfering with important matters like deliberations of General Court. The scene of horses in streets was also disturbing to the eye given that many were drudges spending the whole day being overburdened.

This led to death of many along the streets and as they putrefied, they added another problem to urban pollution. Others broke their legs and lied by the streets to nurse their wounds making the scenery pathetic.

Then the automobiles came as people ushered in the twentieth century. Optimism was high hoping that elimination of horses from the streets would create a safer and cleaner environment with automobiles offering this antidote.

Eventually, many cities banned use of horses from their streets giving way to automobiles. This move came with not only efficiency and time saving, but also with its setbacks. It did not take long for people to realize that noise pollution from automobiles was more than that of horses and wagons. Automobile emissions nettle eyes and causes lung infections just like horse manure.

Automobiles are causing greater environmental challenges that will soon dwarf those emanating from horses if unchecked. Nuclear electricity looks promising but the repercussions may be far reaching. To recap this, automobiles cause urban pollution just like horses; moreover, nuclear electricity will come with its demerits, urban pollution is here to stay.

Works Cited

Tarr, Joel. Urban Pollution  Many Years Ago. American Heritage. New York: American Heritage Publishing Co. 1971.

The earth has a number of climatic systems that ensure the distribution of heat across the face of the earth. Global warming is the result of retention of heat by the earths atmosphere originally from the sun because of the presence of green house gases released through many natural and artificial processes.

Cunningham and Cunningham (2008) point out that The greenhouse effect is a natural atmospheric process that is necessary for life as we know it, and need not be a major concern so long as the fluctuations in the emission levels remain within safe levels.

Human activity has however titled the scale of emissions to levels currently considered by many scientists as untenable and human beings are the major culprits behind global warming. Cunningham and Cunningham (2008) warn that too high emissions may cause harmful environmental change.

The implications of global warming are dire, extremely diverse and far-reaching. All spheres of human existence seem tragically interlinked by the consequences that global warming threatens to unleash. Indeed, global warming threatens the very existence of human civilization, as we have known it.

Global warming threatens food security the world over. The changes it brings about in climate patterns affect growing seasons adversely, in some places causing too much rainfall, and in others prolonged drought.

It also has led to more difficult disease prevention and control as pests and parasites move to newer regions, which can support their life systems as the climate in their old habitats change. Biologists report that many animals are breeding earlier or extending their range into new territory as the climate changes. (Cunningham & Cunningham, 2008).

The residents of the island of Tuvalu have already announced plans to leave their homeland for higher ground, probably to New Zealand, as a direct result of rising sea levels, which they fear may sub merge their homeland in the coming years. Their story is illustrative of the effects that climate change will have on coastal cities all over the world due to rising sea levels caused by the melting of glaciers.

Climate change will create a new brand of refugees that Cunningham and Cunningham (2008) have referred to as climate change refugees, as people migrate to safer ground. The other effects climate change will have is; severe weather patterns characterized by frequent and stronger hurricanes, El Nino and La Nina phenomenon, severe heat waves and drought. Fresh water will become even scarcer and may be a serious cause of conflict in many societies.

The biodiversity of the earth depends on the air quality in the atmosphere for its successful propagation and as such, no cost is too high for air quality improvement. In fact, climate change has become an issue today that determines the survival of humankind. No single approach will be able to stem the tide of climate change.

However, it is cheaper to begin implementing mitigation measures now, as the same measures will cost more in the years to come. Failure to tackle the changes in air quality on time will result in consequences which will require vast sums of money to tackle and this in turn will stretch and severely impair the economic muscle of most countries especially the poorer countries.

If the basic interest of humanity is to survive and to do so with as many species as possible, then there exists sufficient justification for an all out effort to improve air quality in the atmosphere. One of the suggestions for a place to start is at policy level where Mendelsohn (2008) suggests that climate policy should also include a compensation package for poor countries.

References

Cunningham, M.A., & Cunningham, W.P. (2008). Principles of environmental science: Inquiry and applications (Custom 5th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.

Mendelsohn, R. (2008). The policy implications of climate change impacts. In Zedillo, E. (Ed.). Global warming: Beyond Kyoto. Harrisonburg, Virginia: R.R. Donnelley.

Introduction

PCB-Polychlorinated Biphenyls was a commonly used material in most industrial processes in the early 20th century until it was banned by the federal government in 1977. These materials have been known to cause cancer, reproductive, and developmental disorders when ingested by human beings. Cases of pollution in the Hudson River provide examples of a dispute arising between environmentalist and public utility corporations.

In the early 60s, the Consolidated Edison Company, a power generating plant that supplies power to the New York City was confronted by stiff oppositions from environmental groups. The Company had started constructing new power generating plants along the River Hudson. The environmental groups criticized the move as they argued that the power plants were harming aquatic life as well as causing aesthetic damage to the less developed areas of Hudson (Weisbrod, Handler and Komesor, 1978).

Environmental groups filed law suits in attempt to stop the plans by the company to build a pumped storage facility in the region. The environmental groups actions were intensified when Con Edison begun a project to build a nuclear plant at Indian point (Weisbrod, Handler, and Komesor, 1978). Some of them, solely concerned with aquatic life, asked the firm to minimize its environmental pollution. They succeeded to a significant degree.

The environmental groups concerned with the nuclear energy production required the firm to close down but did not succeed. This failure led to the need for environmental groups to integrate and fight for a common purpose which was environmental preservation. Their efforts were further promoted by passage of the national environmental policy act of 1969 that saw most of the barriers that hindered effective advocacy of environmental interests significantly diminished.

The case of PCB Pollution in Hudson

From 1947-1977, a company known as General Electric dumped PCB into Hudson river and for years it fought against every attempt to clean up the river with every possible mechanism at their disposal. This included misinforming the public that dredging the river as a means to remove the PCBs would only stir up the toxic materials causing further damage (Natural resource defense council 2007).

By 2002, General Electric had dumped approximately 1.3 million pounds of the toxic PCB in Hudson River (NRDC, 2010). Presently, it is believed that traces of PCBs from GEs Hudson fall plants are still leaking into the river. The company is responsible for the pollution it has caused under the Super fund law.

General Electric was ordered to create a plan to remove the toxic materials from the river by EPA- environmental protection agency. This provided a glimpse of hope as the concerns of the local people appeared to have triumphed over corporate interests. The fight to remove toxic PCB materials from the Hudson River had been taken over by modern institutions.

This however lasted for only a short time as the project by EPA was blurred with uncertainties. EPA and GE made a settlement that allowed GE to back out after the first phase of cleaning having removed only about 10% of the PCB materials from the river (NRDC, 2010). This attracted a lot of criticisms from the environmental movements.

Natural resource defense council, quickly responded to the move and through the freedom information act, they obtained the detailed information bases of the move consequently filing a case against EPA.

Despite this controversy, the EPA-GE agreement was signed off in 2006 under the influence of top federal officials (Natural resource defense council, 2007). Although GE has begun preparatory plans for cleaning, it continues to look for loopholes to sue EPA over its authority requiring the company to proceed with the phase 2 of the cleaning.

This would impose a heavy burden to the American tax payer who will have to foot the bill to clean up the mess that was created by GE (Natural resource defense council, 2007). NRDC and its partners however continue to monitor the situation and are prepared to take all the necessary steps required to ensure that GE takes full responsibility for the clean up.

Other organizations that are commonly known for their participation in the Hudson River preservation include the Hudson River Sloop clear water. The organization mission is to inspire, educate, and activate the environmentalists of tomorrow (Hudson River Sloop Clearwater, 2010). The organization started its activities in 1969 and on that year launched a 106 foot heritage vessel to transmit environmental message along the Hudson River.

River keeper environmental organization also participates in issues concerned with Hudson River. Its core mission is ecological integrity of the Hudson River and its tributaries. Scenic Hudson organization aims to protect and restore river Hudson landscape as a national heritage and a great tourist attraction (Hudson River sloop clear water, 2010). They are known for saving the mount Storm King Mountain from destruction by Consolidated Edison Company.

When the analysis of the first phase cleaning up was conducted by EPA; the environmental groups submitted their reports and proposed several technical adjustments to ensure they achieve the goal in the next phase of cleaning up. These included banning decantation of water from the dredge bucket which allows the flow of PCB back to the river and using alternative dredging mechanisms to minimize the quantities of sediments stirred up in the water column.

They also suggested the addition of a surface absorbent mat to contaminated booms, enhanced capacity to unload barges carrying dredged sediment and advocated for additional core sampling in order to more effectively assess the extent of contamination (Hudson River sloop clear water, 2010).

The president of Scenic Hudson suggested that public war of words and competing theories of completion of clean up would not help them successfully achieve their purpose. Instead, the environmental groups needed to come up with a consensus that ensured compliance with USEPA 2002 record decision of completion (River Sloop Clear Water, 2010).

Conclusion

Cleaning up PCB from the river is beneficial since it will not only improve the health standards of the people but will also provide expanded economic opportunities to the people living along the River. The government and the general public should therefore work together with the Environmental groups to ensure that the company takes full responsibility for its actions.

Reference List

Hudson River Sloop water. (2010). Environmental Groups to EPA: Reasonable adjustments will ensure PCB Clean up success. Web.

Natural resources defense council. (2010). Historic Hudson River clean-up to begin after years of delay, But will general Electric finish the job? Web.

Weisbrod, B. A, Handler, J. F. & Komesor, N. K. (1978). Public interest law: An economic and institutional analysis. California: University of California Press.

Summary

This article (Dehghan 2010) explains the effects of pollution on Tehran and why sanctions are imposed by US government. Tehran is overpopulated and since the major mode of transport is by road a lot of carbon dioxide is emitted into the air hence the air in that city is polluted and when this gas is added to the gases emitted by the newly established refineries, the amount of carbon dioxide and other toxins doubles.

This is an example of negative externality since pollution is caused by the daily activities in Tehran. In the recent past, people could stand minimal pollution but the current situation has become unbearable. The sanction against Iran hinders it from trading with other nations. On its part the Iranian government has been pointing an accusing finger on US government.

Introduction

An externality emerges when a third party is affected by any economic undertaking, thus they may experience either cost or benefit. A benefit is normally referred to as a positive externality, whereas a cost is termed as a negative externality. Things like technology are considered to be positive externalities because they benefit not only the inventors but the society at large. Negative externalities include air pollution and the social cost of drug usage (Mankiw 2008).

In this regard, Iran is the worlds largest source of crude oil but then it has not been refining this oil due to lack of adequate facilities. The trade in crude oil has been doing well in the past until recently when US imposed sanctions on Iran which barred other nations from trading with Iran. While the government insists on the effect of air pollution, these sanctions have impacted negatively on Iran due to pollution. This paper seeks to establish the effect of pollution and sanctions, and the solutions to these types of externality.

Analysis

The trade in crude oil has been beneficial to Iran because its economy relies on oil since its terrain cannot support other economic activities such as agriculture hence mining forms the base of economy in Iran.

Just a few months ago the US government has imposed sanctions that have hindered trade between Iran and other nations and since Iran exports crude oil to other countries where its refined and then imported to Iran, the country has been devastated. The production of oil in Iran and motorized transport has resulted to excessive air pollution which in turn has made the city to be in bad condition.

The sanctions have affected other economic sectors including banking because large amounts of money held by banks have been frozen hence there is inadequate supply of currency in Iran (Wright 2007). The US government imposed sanctions with the aim of punishing the Iranian government but then the punishment did not land on the intended target because by looking at the situation on the ground its not the government that is being punished but the common people.

The pollution has persisted which has led to the closure of learning institutions because the gases emitted are quite toxic such that people have to put on gas masks to avoid breathing in the carbon monoxide and its harmful compounds (Dehghan 2010).

In this regard, air pollution is considered a negative externality. The certainty of production and consumption externalities leads to differences in private and social costs of production and usage. This implies that the costs and benefits of externalities should be added to the social cost and social benefits respectively (Mankiw 2008).

This is the case of Tehran since sanctions and air pollution has resulted in social costs as explained in the previous paragraphs. The following graphs explain the concept of negative externality, where: MSC = Marginal Social Cost; MPC = Marginal Private Cost; MPB = Marginal Private Benefit; and MSB = Marginal Social Benefit.

This type of externality is experienced since the MPB (the demand curve of Tehrans oil producing companies) exceeds the MSB (the demands of the society). Thus, the people of Tehran tend to like a quantity Q1 and the companies producing oil prefer quantity Q2.

The shaded area represents the externality brought about by production. This is because the MPC (the cost of producing crude oil) is less than the MSC (the effects of pollution on people and the environment). Thus, the MPC is skewed to the right. The strategy of controlling the externality would require merging the social cost/benefits to the private costs/benefits.

In trying to solve the problem of pollution and sanctions, Iran has been forced to look for alternatives to make sure its crude oil is refined because it does not sell crude oil because it does not have a refinery plant. Thus Iran has opted to refine the crude oil herself. Perhaps this is because the government of Iran is aware of the demand for oil is high all over the world.

Kessler (2008) explains that it is clear that the government of Iran did not consider the effects of polluting the environment and this means they dont have proper mechanisms of recycling the gases generated at their refinery.

According to an article from the Tehran Times (2010), the Iranian government has realized that the sanctions could lead to economic decline but then its latest option has done more harm than good because vital sectors such as education has been halted. In addition, to that the health of Tehranians is at risk and of late more people have been admitted into hospitals because they can not breathe well.

Besides, the mayor of Tehran, Qalibaf has urged the government to improve public transport with the aim of reducing air pollution. Measures include using alternate means of transport such as mass transportation and bicycling and imposing restrictions on road usage (Tehran Times 2010).

The government cannot afford to ignore the refining of crude oil but it should consider introducing mechanisms of capturing the gases before they are emitted into the atmosphere. Alternatively, the refinery plant can be relocated to an isolated place far from human settlements (Torbat 2005).

Conclusion

Air pollution has been the major cause of Tehran problems. The Iranian government should consider giving in to the demands of US government for the sake of its citizens so as to have the sanctions lifted because the sanctions will eventually lead to decline in economy which will result to other problems such as civil unrest.

According to Fassihi and Cummins (2008) the refineries of oil emit carbon dioxide into the atmosphere which depletes the ozone layer which in return contributes to global warming. Air pollution is therefore a negative externality that should be avoided. Hence, the government should consider these effects and engage with the American government in negotiations.

Reference List

Dehghan, Saeed. 2010. Tehran chokes and blames severe pollution on US sanctions. The Guardian. Web.

Fassihi, Farnaz and Cummins Chip. 2008.Iranians Scheme to Elude Sanctions. Wall Street Journal. Web.

Kessler, Glenn. 2008.US links Iranian Bank to Fifth Avenue Building. The Washington Post. Web.

Mankiw, Gregory. 2008. Principles of Economics. 5th ed. USA: Cengage Learning.

Tehran Times. 2010. Improving Public Transport is right Solution to Air Pollution. Web.

Torbat, Akbar. 2005. Impacts of the US trade and financial sanctions on Iran, The world Economy, vol 28, No.3, pp.407-437.

Wright, Steven. 2007. The United States and Persian Gulf Security: The foundations of the war on terror. Ithaca Press.

Chemical water pollution

Water pollution is the existence of certain substances in water sources that makes it unsuitable for consumption by man and animals. Major sources of water can sustain and get rid o small amounts of wastes. However, pollution occurs depending on the amount of toxin released as well as the amount of water available.

For instance, a small amount of chemical released into an ocean will have little effect, but the same amount of chemical would have a larger effect if released into a lake. Human activities have been the major cause of water pollution worldwide with the major cause of water pollution originating from industries where chemicals used in production of different materials are released into the atmosphere as smoke which later falls back as rain on the surface and eventually into rivers and lakes.

Improper sewage and waste water disposal has also contributed largely to water pollution especially in highly populated cities which lack basic hygiene. Poor construction of sewage systems causes these wastes to find their way into lakes, rivers and eventually into the sea. Consumption of this polluted water results to illnesses such as diarrhea.

The most effective way of solving water pollution problem is treating all waste water and sewage waste before pumping them into the sea. Sewage wastes are natural substances and therefore should be completely broken down into harmless compounds before disposing them into the sea (Glennon, 2010, 1).

Most sewage disposals consist of toilet wastes which may cause serious illnesses such as typhoid especially when it is from people infected with viruses. Treatment of waste water before disposal would ensure the safety of citizens by providing them clean and fresh water for consumption. The biggest percentage of sewage waste consists of water, treating the wastes for recycling would help in maintaining a constant supply of water.

Pesticide water pollution

Pesticides contain chemical elements that are used in preventing infections by pests either in plants or in animals. Although pesticides are advantageous to farmers, they always pose a threat to water resources. This is because only a small amount of the pesticides that is applied is actually used.

The rest of it falls out to the atmosphere and eventually finds their way into water reservoirs as they get washed away by rain water down into lakes and rivers and finally into the sea. Industries manufacturing these pesticides may as well dispose solid wastes containing pesticide residues which end up being washed by rain water and into the nearest water bodies. Pesticides may as well be used in water bodies to destroy algae and hence polluting the water (Stier, 2010, 1).

Pesticides have been found to kill all the fish population in any water body. Other types of pesticides that are applied to water bodies to destroy wild organisms such as algae may destroy aquatic plants which may result to reduced or depleted food supply for the fishes. When these plants are killed, they start rotting, a process which may cause reduced oxygen amount in the water. Water sources that are enriched with pesticides have been found to delay the development of tadpoles into frogs.

In order to avoid the possible effects of pesticides water pollution, it is advisable to use them only when there is the need to do so. Practicing the use pesticides when there is no rain can be quite helpful in preventing washing of these chemicals into water bodies. Users should be careful when administering these chemicals to ensure that they only apply the recommended amount. Proper disposal of all unused pesticides as well as containers is essential to prevent leaching of the chemicals during rainy season.

Farmers are, as well, encouraged to use organic manure which only requires natural materials to be produced (Singh, 2010, 1). Crop rotation is also important in preventing chemical runoffs from the farm. All these efforts would help keep water safe for human and animal consumption as well as maintaining a natural population of the aquatic habitats.

Oil and petroleum pollution

Liquid petroleum can be released into the environment by human activities especially in oil transportation and production. Spills may also occur naturally as oil blowouts (Embach, 2010, 1). Both sources contribute to large volumes of oil into the sea and other water bodies. Large oil spills can cause death to aquatic organisms with the most affected being the birds.

Smaller volumes of oil spills do no necessary kill the organisms but reduce their feeding rates leading to low growth rates as well as reduced reproductive rates. Ability of the affected animals to resist diseases can also be reduced decreasing survival ability of the organism. Prevention of oil spills could be largely contributed by consumers by using petroleum properly to avoid any leaks from equipments.

Climate change

Climate impacts on water demand

Global warming has caused a lot of changes in climate patterns worldwide. These climate changes affect the demand for water especially in countries which depend on rain water for domestic use, farming and in industrial productions. Citizens would, therefore, have increased demand for water from other resources other than rainfall.

The reinforcement of water supplies such as dams and other reservoirs requires high costs due to inadequacy of resources. Human activities that may lead to global warming such as burning of fossil fuels should be avoided to prevent loss of rainfall thus ensuring a constant natural supply of water (Pizyborski, 2010, 1). This way, public funds will be used in other development projects and the natural environment will be preserved as well.

Climate impacts on water supply

A change in climate will definitely affect water supply. A lot of human activities have caused global warming which in return alters climate especially rainfall patterns and amount (Riebeek, 2010, 1). Since most people rely on rain water, they end up lacking adequate supply of water.

This would call for other sources of water which may only supply limited amounts which may not be adequate for the users needs especially for the farmers. Low productivity will be experienced in such situations. Practicing human activities that do not provoke climate changes would be helpful in preventing inadequate water supply. This would ensure constant production in farms as well as in factories.

Effects of urban growth on water resources

Change in water quality

Population in urban areas has been increasing as people move to towns in search for job opportunities. Urbanization has increased the rate at which runoffs are released into water bodies. Large volumes of sediments are being disposed in water bodies most of which are not suitable for water users.

The quality of water is therefore reduced especially due to residues from factories and domestic waste water from toilets. These residues may increase the temperature of water this increasing water pollution. If this water is consumed, people may get diseases such as typhoid and diarrhea. Proper disposal of domestic and industrial wastes in urban areas would prevent the destruction of water quality in nearby water bodies.

Decrease in water bodies

The increased demand for water in urban areas has caused the complete depletion of water in many water sources. Misuse of water may as well result to destruction of water bodies. Lack of maintenance in water resources also causes depletion of water where residents only use it without putting efforts to conserve some for the future. The effect of decreased water bodies will be later felt when the supply of water gets inadequate. Better uses of water and conservation efforts are important in maintaining water sources for future use.

Increase in water demand

As the population in urban areas increases, so does the demand for water. The need for electricity for the growing population in many urban areas where water is used to produce energy raises the demand for water in such towns (Marsalek, 2007, 1).

There is also the need to supply water to the many homes for household use. This problem could be solved by controlling the rural to urban migration in order to keep a maintainable population of citizens in the urban areas. A minimal population would be much easier to provide with adequate water supplies.

Reference List

Embach, C. (2010). Oil Spills: Impact on the Ocean. Web.

Glennon, R. (2010). Solutions to water crisis. Web.

Marsalek, J. (2007). Threats to water supply and risk management. Web.

Pizyborski, P. (2010). Global Warming. Web.

Riebeek, H. (2010). Global warming. Web.

Singh, P. (2010). How pesticides cause water pollution. Web.

Stier, J. (2010). The facts about pesticides and runoff. Web.

Water pollution is a problem that has affected the world for a long time. It essentially entails contamination of the water bodies such as lakes, oceans, rivers and ground water just to mention but a few.

Although some people may fail to understand the long-term effects of pollution, its short-term effects are easy to discern (Newton, 2008, p.102). Such effects include diseases or death of both human beings and animals. Despite this fact, human beings still pollute the water bodies, oblivious of the dangers that they are exposing themselves and animals to.

One of the main reasons for this is the fact that some of the effects of pollution may take very long before they exhibit themselves. Aquatic life has been adversely affected by water pollution to the extent of extinction of some species. Chemical pollution of water is one of the leading causes of death of aquatic life. It normally makes water acidic, and also makes it toxic. The animals that do not die are left living in very harsh conditions (Hogan, 2010, p.1).

Animals that consume these toxins may, in turn, be harvested for human consumption leading to diseases in human beings. Additionally, if water is polluted with chemicals, the amount of water available for human consumption reduces, and thus humans experience difficulties accessing safe drinking water.

The water will also evaporate and make humans and animals inhale the chemical substances dissolved in it. This evaporation will also result in acidic rain which has the same effects as water pollution. It is thus evident that chemical pollution of water not only has negative effects on health, but it also substantially reduces the amount of water available for consumption by animals and human beings.

There are a number of ways through which an individual could pollute water bodies. Some of these include; factory wastes, blood from slaughter houses, farm water with pesticides or herbicides, and all types of wastes disposed of to the water bodies. The aforementioned ways of polluting the water, makes it unable to sustain aquatic life as well as unfit for human consumption. It is therefore advisable that human beings avoid any actions or processes that could pollute water in order to live in a clean and safe environment.

Wind Energy

Wind energy is a form of renewable energy just like solar energy. The production of energy by the use of wind power is accomplished by the use of wind turbines. The blades of the turbines are meant to rotate by the wind thus causing electrical energy which serves as a power source (Richardson, 2006, p.2). It has been used as an alternative source of energy to substitute other energy sources such as fossils.

Advantages

There are numerous advantages of using wind energy, which include;

• It has negligible environmental effects. When compared to other sources of energy such as fossils which when burnt to generate electricity pollute the environment wind energy has no emissions hence safe to the environment (Perez, 2010, p.1).
• It is readily available as wind keeps blowing and is free thus making it cheap.
• The turbines occupy less space making it cheap since the size of land required is less compared to that required for hydropower.
• It is an easy way of generating electricity as no advanced technologies are required.

Disadvantages

The main disadvantage of wind energy is that the amount of energy it generates is limited compared to other energy sources. The turbines must be located in strategic places in order for them to generate significant amounts of energy. Last but not least, Wind energy is more appropriate in areas with a lot of wind, for instance in the rural areas.

Reference List

Hogan, M. (2010). Water Pollution. Web.

Newton, D. (2008). Chemistry of the Environment. Checkmark Books. pp. 102.

Perez, D. (2010). Sources of Energy. Web.

Richardson, N. (2006). Energy Sources. Web.