Category: Politics & Government 2182

Introduction

The United States of America has been always known as a country ardently fighting for human rights. However, in the light of the latest events, the experts on right-wing politics and culture continue claiming that the country is confidently moving towards becoming a fascist state. Fascism can be defined as a form of political behavior marked by obsessive preoccupation with community decline, humiliation or victimhood and by compensatory cults of unity, energy, and purity (Robinson para. 6), though this is still not a full definition of this notion. Fascism is believed to have originated in Italy with Benito Mussolini being the first to practice it. Fascism rose in Italy after the First World War when the countrys democracy was weak and corrupt. The Doctrine of Fascism which was approved by Mussolini at the period of his ruling treated every person as a species that should be constantly at war. Mussolini viewed himself as a Roman Emperor, which, by the way, was common for all the fascist leaders, such as Hitler, for instance. Hitlers Nazism is often referred to as fascism, regardless of the scholars trying to keep these two concepts apart. For ordinary people, there is no distinction between these concepts because both of them entail terror, sufferings, and deaths of innocent people who became victims of dictatorial power and racist pseudo-ideology. Such leaders as Mussolini and Hitler will always be remembered as tyrants who placed their own goals over the needs of ordinary people; they will never stop provoking aversion, antipathy, and fear for what they have done with the societies of their times. Though what is currently taking place in the United States is not even close to Mussolinis or Hitlers ruling, there are still evident signs of the fact that America is gradually turning into a fascist country. Laurence Britt, a political scientist, has identified fourteen common threads between different fascist regimes, such as those of Hitler, Franco, Mussolini, Pinochet, and others. An objective consideration of these points allows affirming that America is gradually turning into a fascist country. These points include:

1. Powerful and continuing expressions of nationalism;
2. Disdain for the importance of human rights;
3. Identification of enemies/scapegoats as a unifying cause;
4. The supremacy of military;
5. Rampant sexism;
6. A controlled mass media;
7. Obsession with national security;
8. Religion and ruling elite tied together;
9. Power of corporations protected;
10. Power of labor suppressed or eliminated;
11. Disdain and suppression of intellectuals and the arts;
12. Obsession with crime and punishment;
13. Rampant cronyism and corruption;
14. Fraudulent election (Britt pars. 6-19).

The most vivid signs of the fact that the United States of America is on the way to becoming a fascist state are its conservatism which has been based on fascist themes and led to the formation of the Ku-Klux-Klan and the like groups having racist convictions; the other signs are the supremacy of military and the governments control over mass media.

Americas building of conservatism

To begin with, Americas conservatism as such has been built on fascist themes and its presence in modern society accounts for racial and sexual discrimination which was widespread in the country over the past several centuries. America started exhibiting the first signs of fascism already in the second half of the nineteenth century when the first Ku-Klux Klan was formed as a reaction to the post-Civil War Reconstruction. This makes America equal with Italy in terms of vulnerability to fascism, because the Klan emerged at the time when the country was the weakest. Apart from the Klan, there emerged several other rural movements which used to come together to restore a broken social order, always drawing on themes of unity, order, and purity (Robinson, para. 8). Each of them was aimed at restoring national pride and resurrecting cultural myths and values; such plans, as a rule, included eliminating everything which, according to the movements supporters beliefs, made their culture weak. They saw non-white people as a main obstacle for the countrys cultural revival this is why eradicating them from society became their main goal. Jews, African Americans, Hispanics, Native Americans, Asian people, etc were the victims of this discrimination; they never gave up easily this is why their fight for their rights and freedoms lasted for several centuries and is still not over. Racial animosity can be observed in modern American society because modern conservatism has been built on the convictions that impure races hinder the development of the country. The modern examples of racist groups are anti-immigrant groups sanctioned by the Republican Party which make the lives of Hispanic agricultural workers unbearable (Robinson para. 11). The violence against Hispanic people in general increases daily in the country, but nothing has been done so far to stop it, for the government remains inactive regarding this issue. Hispanics, however, are not the only minorities who are being terrorized. African Americans are also still being discriminated against, regardless of all the anti-discrimination policies which the government has adopted and enforced. Since every fascist movement in history can be characterized by racial discrimination, America can also be regarded as turning into a fascist country, and the inability of its government to deal with this problem points to its reluctance to do so.

Military supremacy

Another sign of Americas becoming a fascist state is the supremacy of the military which can be currently observed and which has always been essential for the United States. It is hard to disagree with the fact that at present the military is given a disproportionate amount of government funding (14 Points of Fascism: The Warning Signs para. 4), while the domestic agenda is being hardly paid any attention to. This was especially true in the times of the Bush administration when children insurance and the like domestic programs were cut, whereas around $75 million were spent for Pentagons new brigades and $12 million were being spent for Iraq war every month (14 Points of Fascism: The Warning Signs para. 4). The United States military is being used as an expression of nationalism because the government turns to it whenever possible to assert national goals, intimidate other nations, and increase the power and prestige of the ruling elite (Britt para.9). This can be regarded as one more proof of Americas turning into a fascist state. Pride in the military is Americas brightest expression of nationalism. Its flags, catchy slogans, and calls for unity have long become extremely popular in the rest of the world with some of the cultures adopting the American way of life and even military discipline. The country can indeed be proud of its army because it is well-organized, loyal, and responsible, but quite often America seems to be too confident in its military forces. This confidence is displayed without any ceremony and American military people are often justified for breaking laws or using force against other citizens.

Control over mass media

Finally, Americas controlled mass media is also an evident sign of the countys turning into a fascist one. The media can be controlled either directly by the government or indirectly by government regulation, or sympathetic media spokespeople and executives (14 Points of Fascism: The Warning Signs para. 6); in any of these cases, mass media is closely related to the government and hardly ever strays from the party line. The methods used by other fascist states to control the media included the control of licensing and access to resources, economic pressure, appeals to patriotism, and implied threats (Britt para. 11). Though America does not practice these methods yet, there still were cases when the government concealed information from the public when the editors were forbidden to republish works of the foreign writers, and when the Whitehouse used to release fake news reports (14 Points of Fascism: The Warning Signs para. 6). Censorship has always been common for fascist states, especially in wartime. If the government prohibits the disclosure of information, this, as a rule, means that it has something to conceal from the public. Though the latter might not be interested in some of the governmental affairs, it still wishes to know what is going on in the country, and, concealing this information from it, the government risks being accused of the regimes excesses. Control over the mass media makes it dependent on the government and undermines the citizens trust in the latter. Though this control is not as rigid as other fascist governments used to have, it still allows referring America to a country with fascist characteristics.

Conclusion

Thus, though America cannot be named a fascist country, it can still be stated that it is moving to become such. Out of fourteen points outlined by Laurence Britt, three testify to the fact that America exhibits features of a fascist state. They are expressing racist themes and nationalism, exhibiting the supremacy of the military, and controlling mass media. America has long been the country where non-white people have been oppressed and it is only in the twentieth century that the government started fighting racial discrimination. However, even today African Americans, Hispanics, and other minority groups are limited in their rights and often pursued. The government is often aware of these pursuits; moreover, in the case of the Republican Party, the government initiates these pursuits. The country seems to be more preoccupied with its military, rather than the welfare of citizens, regardless of their skin color. It seems to believe that its mightiness consists namely in its army; it is extremely proud of it this is why the military gets the funding that could be spent for domestic needs. This means that the supremacy of the military is indeed present in American society. Lastly, the government never stops controlling the media, which often results in societys unawareness of certain data and even misinformation. These issues have to be dealt with as soon as possible for America not to go down in history as a fascist state.

Works Cited

1. 14 Points of Fascism: The Warning Signs. Old American Century. 2008: 14 pars.
2. Britt, Laurence W. Fascism Anyone? Free Inquiry Magazine. Volume 23, Number 2: 20 pars. 2009.
3. Robinson, Sara. Fascist America: Are We There Yet? OurFuture.org. 2009: 28 pars.

Introduction

Honor, Courage and Commitment, words, which are simple in perception, while having such a weight for anyone, who decided dedicating his/her life serving in the United States Navy. Although these words can be related to the military service in general, the principles of core values are associated with the Navy, where the since the early days, and specifically during the American Revolution, the principles of core values carried on to today. The United States Navy is one of two independent military services that form the Naval Services within the Department of the Navy, and one of the US Armed Forces. The mission of the Navy is to maintain, train and equip combat-ready Naval forces capable of winning wars, deterring aggression and maintaining freedom of the seas.(Navy Organization, 2008). This paper examines the Navy in terms of its history, structure, and communication, providing a summary of the Navys organization.

History

The birth of the US Navy can be traced back to October, 1775, when the Continental Congress voted to fit out two sailing vessels, armed with ten carriage guns, as well as swivel guns, and manned by crews of eighty, and to send them out on a cruise of three months to intercept transports carrying munitions and stores to the British army in America.(The Birth of the Navy of the United States, 2000). That was the first seed after which the Navy grew to become the largest Navy in the world. First established as an opposition to the British superiority at the sea, the decision to hold fleets for the defense of local waters was debated in the Congress. However, after subsequent opportunities for naval movement occurred, the Congress established a Naval Committee, which was charged with equipping the fleet, and which formed the Continental Navy. The achievement of the Continental Navy includes seizing enemy supplies, carrying correspondence to Europe, and protecting convoys and trade routes. The tradition started with the Continental Navy, including the core values mentioned at the beginning of the paper, were carried on by the current US Navy (The Birth of the Navy of the United States, 2000).

Currently, there are more than 700 thousand people serving as Navy personnel, among which 331,278 in active duty (Status of the Navy, 2009). The number of deployable battle force ships is about 285 112 ships being away from homeport. The current development in the Navy force, from two sailing vessels into the largest Navy in the world, can be seen as a result of continued efforts focused on developing the US armed force, as well as a history of more than two hundred years that witnessed wars, conflicts and operations.

Structure

The structure of the Navy is shared with the Marine Corps in certain aspect, where both are part of a dual command structure:

an administrative structure that originates with the Secretary of Defense, Secretary of the Navy, the Chief of Naval Operations, and the Commandant of the Marine Corps; and an operational structure that originates with the President, the Secretary of Defense, the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and the Unified Commanders-in-Chief (CinCs) (Navy Vision).

The administrative structure of the Navy, in order to maximize economy and efficiency has a traditional pyramidal structure in which the hierarchy is established with the principles of organizational design. The flow of the structure starts with the President and the Secretary of defense, going to the secretary of the Navy and the Chief of Naval Operations, and to the Commanders-in-Chief of the Atlantic and Pacific Fleets, both of which operate in the operational commands as well, and the Commander of Naval Reserve Force (Navy Vision).

The operational structure of the Navy include operating forces, which are subordinated to four Unified commands, i.e. USA Command, European Command, Pacific Command and Central Command, where the Naval component of each comprises of the Atlantic Fleet, Naval Forces and Europe, the Pacific Fleet, Naval Forces and Central Command respectively. The current dual structure has resulted from the objective of reliving the Fleet and task force commander from the burden of managerial and administrative tasks that might detract the forces from their main task, which is commanding the forces. Accordingly, the intersection of the administrative and the operational chain of command is at the level of each fleet commander-in-chief, where [t]he administrative organization is permanent in nature and supports, with forces and staff personnel, the task-oriented operational organization.(Navy Vision). In that regard, there is a differentiation of separate functions, for the chains of command are responsive to both, The Chief of Naval Operations (CNO) and unified commander.

Communication

First technological means of communication in the Navy can be considered the radio, where before and during the World War I, an extensive chain of fifty medium and high powered radio shore stations were constructed. Radio stations were built in many locations, where naval stations were constructed in San Juan, Puerto Rico, Guantanamo Bay and others. Currently the need for the stations has declined. Communication achievements can also be related to the accomplishments of the Naval Research Laboratory, where the breakthroughs in communications made by their scientists were significant in the area of transmission security, missile launches, detection systems and others (Sterling, 2008).

Additionally, an important division of the Naval communication activities includes Naval Security Group, a group which took the charge of the US Navy communications intelligence activities for more than 50 years. Currently Naval Security Group was aligned with the Naval Network Warfare Command, after the group as a separate organization was disbanded in 2005.

Culture and Relationships

The core values can be seen as a one of the cultural aspects, characteristic to the US Navy, and which gained recognition as one of its basic principles (The CORE VALUES, 2008). In that regard, the culture might be seen through unwritten rules and customs which are accepted and followed throughout the Navy. Nevertheless, there are several aspects that are under formal regulations in the Navy, among which personal relationships. The ability of having a relationship or friendship might be a common issue within social structures, but in the Navy such aspect is strictly regulated within policies. The existence of a chain of command can be seen as one of the aspect influential in that matter. Additionally, any relationships between officers and enlisted members were traditionally contrary to naval custom because they undermine the respect for authority, which is essential to Navys ability to accomplish its military mission. (Powers, 2009). In that regard, the Navy has always relied on customs and traditions, in which the personal relationships were regulated within the bounds of the acceptable and the prohibited personal relationships, including officer-enlisted relationships, as well as improper relationships and social interaction between officer members as well as between enlisted members (Powers, 2009). With women joining the Navy, where since 1978 women were assigned to duty aboard ships (Women in the U.S. Navy: Historic Documents, 2000), the issue of relationship might have taken another dimension that required policy regulation. Thus, other policies cover such cases as sexual harassment, where sexual harassment violates standards of behavior required of all Department of Navy personnel. In that regard, the policy defines sexual harassment, its zones, required training and channel of reporting. Similarly, the same can be said about drug use in the Navy, where zero tolerance policy ensures that all the members of US Navy are drug free (NAVY RECRUITING COMMAND DELAYED ENTRY PROGRAM, 2009).

Conclusion

It can be concluded that the US Navy as a branch of the military has gone through a long way, from being doubted of its necessity, to a major factor in the world authority and the largest Navy in the world. In that regard, it should be mentioned that taking the perspective presented in this paper, it can be noticed that beginning with the core values outlines the importance of people and their moral values as distinctive factor of success in the military, rather than on technology development alone.

References

The Birth of the Navy of the United States. (2000). Naval Historical Center home page.

The CORE VALUES. (2008). U.S. Navy.

Navy Organization. (2008). U.S. Navy.

NAVY RECRUITING COMMAND DELAYED ENTRY PROGRAM. (2009). NAVY RECRUITING COMMAND.

Navy Vision. ORGANIZATION AND STRUCTURE OF THE NAVAL SERVICES. U.S. Navy.

Powers, R. (2009). Navy Fraternization Policies. About.com. Web.

Status of the Navy. (2009). U.S. Navy.

Sterling, C. H. (2008). Military communications : from ancient times to the 21st century. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO.

Women in the U.S. Navy: Historic Documents. (2000). Naval Historical Center home page.

Introduction

Alan Abramowitz is an American political scientist. He was born in 1947. He is well known for his research and literary works. Most of his studies revolve around American politics and elections. In addition, they also focus on political science and parties. Abramowitz studied BA at the University of Rochester. He graduated in 1961 with High Honors in Political Science. Later on, he enrolled for graduate school at Stanford University.

He graduated with a Masters in 1972. In 1976, he completed his PhD degree from the same institution. The current paper is a review of one of Abramowitzs books. The text is The Disappearing Center: Engaged Citizens, Polarization, and American Democracy. The book was published in 2010 by Yale University Press. In the text, Abramowitz focuses on the trends associated with American politics, political parties, and elections.

The major theme addressed by Abramowitz entails how modern voters take their ideologies seriously (4). He considers Americans as people with a lot of interest in political matters and public affairs. He also believes they are politically dynamic. Abramowitzs The Disappearing Center is a very enriching book. The reason is because it focuses on the American democracy, engaged citizens, and polarization. Generally, it explains the shift of voters to the extremes during the past five decades.

Abramowitzs Legacy in the Academic Field

Abramowitz has written a number of books in the past. Between 1976 and 1982, he worked at the College of William and Mary. From 1982 to 1987, he taught at Stony University. He then became a Political Science professor at Emory University. In 1993, he was granted the Alben W. Barkley Distinguished Chair in Political Science in the same institution. Abramowitz has authored and co-authored a total of five books. His widely acknowledged text is Senate Elections.

The book was published in 1992. It was co-authored by Jeff Segal of Stony Brook University. The book received two honors from the Union of Political Science. It is regarded as one of the most influential texts in the study of senatorial elections. Abramowitz has also written widely on a number of other topics. They include American politics, activism, ideology, and polarization. Other areas include presidential, senate, and house elections, as well as incumbency, partisanship, and redistricting. Generally, Abramowitz publishes an analytical replica of elections.

His works are based on his model of time for change. Since the 1980s, the model has generated precise results when used in predicting election results. Like the Disappearing Center, the other works by Abramowitz help people better understand the American political terrain. Abramowitz argues that the political division in America is not between left and right (32). On the contrary, it is between the engaged and the unengaged publics.

Abramowitzs The Disappearing Center: A Review

An Overview

The book is composed of eight chapters. Each chapter addresses its own unique issues. The first section is titled Polarization in the Age of Obama. Here, Abramowitz states that the 2004 presidential race saw increased partisanship in America (4). He believes that President Bush was a polarizing figure at the time. Only a small number of voters were ambivalent (Abramowitz 16). Bush won the 2004 presidential race by a very narrow margin. He got 50.7 percent of the popular votes and 286 electoral votes (Abramowitz 1).

On the other hand, his Democratic competitor garnered 48.3 percent of the popular votes and 252 electoral votes. Abramowitz notes that even after the victory, America continued to be divided. President Bush made little effort to reconcile with John Kerry. In 2008, President Barrack Obama took over from Bush. He promised to revolutionize Washingtons partisan practices. He tried to get in touch with the Republicans in vain (Abramowitz 3). The reason is that the Republican and Democratic parties ideologies were very different. According to Abramowitz, polarization will exist for a long time to come.

The second chapter is about The Engaged Public. Abramowitz highlights the development of differences in political engagement in America. He uses facts from the ANES regarding interest in politics and knowledge of party positions. Abramowitz shows how the public engaged in politics in 2008. He presents evidence of deep divisions during President Bushs term. Generally, Abramowitz stresses that the major explanation for the divisions was the existence of high levels of partisan-ideology polarization (13). He is of the view that the state is less likely to be modified even under a new president.

The third chapter is Partisan-Ideological Polarization. Alan looks at the meanings and measurement of polarization. He presents facts and findings on the increased divisions among individuals engaged in politics. Abramowitz argues that there are two components of polarization (32). The first entails the importance of spelling out what splits the people. The second involves identification of the group that is polarized. He argues that party leaders and officials are the key sources of cues for people interested in policy matters. In addition, Abramowitz stresses that the key elements in any election are the citizens (33).

The fourth chapter of the book is Polarization and Social Groups. It analyses the manner in which changes in partisan ideologies have shaped party loyalties among major social groups. The American party structure has changed a lot within the last 50 years (Abramowitz 60). Black-Americans make up the only voting group that is based on identity as opposed to creed. White Americans consider various factors as major predictors of voting trends. They include gender, marital status, and commitment to religion. The chapter stresses that Black-Americans are the only social group that mostly support the Democratic Party.

The fifth chapter is Polarization and Elections. It analyses the effects of increasing partisan ideological divisions on elections. Abramowitz shows how the number and population of states where a single party becomes dominant have increased. He bases his arguments on a survey that began in the 1970s. The south is dominated by the Republicans, while the Northeast remains a Democrats zone (Abramowitz 84). According to Abramowitz, most people link polarization to the growth of safe districts. He goes forth to cite a study conducted between 2000 and 2002. The survey showed that non-partisan regions have more safe districts compared to partisans. In this chapter, Abramowitz argues that the officials likely to resist change are those who cling to mainstream creeds.

Chapter six is about Polarization in a Changing Electorate. It focuses on the future impacts of the developments discussed in the previous chapters. It looks at how the end of Bushs reign will influence partisan variances and election competitions. The chapter stresses that the conduct of 2008 presidential candidates is likely to influence the future of partisan-ideological divide. During the election campaigns, it appeared like two candidates were vying for presidential posts in two different countries (Abramowitz 115). The main reason behind this point of view is the fact that both candidates had totally different ideologies on how to run American affairs.

Chapter seven of the book is about Polarization and Representation. Abramowitz compares the 95^th and 108^th Congresses. In the 95^th Congress, the Democrats were considered to be the strong liberals. The Republicans were viewed as the major conservatives. During the 108^th Congress, the percentage of strong liberals grew to 51. Conservatives increased to 63 percent. In the 108^th Congress, marginal District Representatives were just as polarized as their counterparts from safe regions (Abramowitz 145). In this chapter, Abramowitz brings back the question of redistricting, which was raised in chapter five.

The final chapter is about Polarization and Democratic Governance. Abramowitz analyzes the effects of growing partisan-ideological split on 21^st century American democracy. In addition, this section looks at the consequences of partisan-creed polarization on democratic politics. Abramowitz addresses the issue of popular participation and elite responsiveness (151).

Strengths and Weaknesses of Abramowitzs Text

Judging by the issues addressed by Abramowitz, it is apparent that The Disappearing Centre is indeed an informative book for people with interest in politics. The main reason is because of the texts major strengths. Abramowitz presents a conclusive work on the effects of a divided body of voters on elections and policy making (49).

He clearly explains the issue of political polarization in a manner that is easily understood. He analyses the most burning issue related to American politics. However, the major weakness of the book is the fact that it focuses more on the political aspect of American elections. Abramowitz seems to ignore the fact that other issues, such as economic and social dynamics, affect voting patterns in America.

Conclusion

Abramowitz tops the list of the most convincing and original authors on American politics. The book The Disappearing Center provides the reader with a clear picture of the effects of political and ideological divisions. The text is a resourceful piece of literature for students and scholars interested in political matters. In the book, Abramowitz focuses on American voters and other people concerned about the government.

Works Cited

Abramowitz, Alan. The Disappearing Center: Engaged Citizens, Polarization, and American Democracy, New Haven: Yale UP, 2010. Print.

Brief history

The governors of the United States could as well be regarded as the chief executive of their respective states. In fact, they initially headed the American colonies, which later on became known as the union states. The roles of the American governor have also evolved with the making of history of the various states over the years. For the most part, governors have had to cede power to the legislatures of a state, the federal government, as well as several other executive officials (Greenly 2003). From 1970 moving forward through, following a significant loosening of their legal control in as far as the governors authority is concerned, these government office bearers have progressively amassed both importance and power.

During the early part of the seventeenth century, at a time when privately chartered companies were still in charge of the colonies, the primary role of governors was that of corporate managers. In this position, the governors had only been vested with a political authority which at best can only be termed vague (Greenly 2003). Nevertheless, following a greater power assertion by the Crown in the America, this also acted to confer added powers to the governors, who now assumed the role of colonial proxies to the king.

During the Jacksonian era between 1830 and 1840, a majority of the states sought to write new constitutions, following a realization that voters were a significant lot, and this, in turn, saw governors being accountable to the people under this jurisdiction, directly (Mohapatra 2008). As such, the governors had their legislative authorities freed from them. Perhaps the period between 1890 and 1920, otherwise referred to as the Progressive Era, is the period during which there was a rapid growth of the government and by extension, the office of the governor. This trend however was to later change with the coming of the great depression in the late 1920s, seeing that the governors at the time were not coherent enough to make a response to the looming crisis.

Nevertheless, the 1960s saw consolidation and reorganizing of the office of the governor, a move that was especially buoyed by the decision by various states to accord their governors an authority over the annual budget of the various states (Greenly 2003). Lately, there has been a trend whereby several United States governors have utilized their position and influence to rise to the higher office of the presidency. Notable examples include former presidents Clinton and Bush.

General duties of office

In the United States, a governor is usually deemed as heading states that are otherwise non-sovereign. The various states in America have the office of a governor, charged with the responsibility of ensuring that the individual states are run in a smooth manner (Venus 2009).

The constitutions of the various states have also helped to delegate various requirements and duties in as far as the role of the governor goes. These may include the number of terms one can occupy in office, as well as the age requirement. Nevertheless, there exist profound similarities from one state to another.

As chief executives to their respective states, American governors are responsible for running the governments executive branch. Not only is a governor the militarys commander-in-chief, but also has a controlling effect on the state budget. Moreover, the constitution of the United States provides that the governor has a authority to allocate persons to the two senate seats within their state. In other states, such as Georgia for instance, the governor has been bestowed with legislative veto power over the general assembly in Georgia. Nevertheless, such a veto may also be nullified by a two-thirds majority vote by both the senate and the house of Representatives members.

In the United States, governors are considerably drawn into foreign matters, following the introduction of the bureau of homeland security. As such, it is a requirement that governors be acquainted with security policies and procedures, like terror alerts. Aside from international politics, governors tend to have a profound influence on policy decisions at a national level (Venus 2009). For example, in 2006, two United States governors, Bob Ehrlich and George Pataki sought to stage legal action that entailed a cancellation of lease agreements of the concerned ports, if Dubai Portal World was allowed to go ahead with a decision to impose US ports security.

There is also a possibility for the responsibilities of a governor to either contract or expand, based on the individual that has occupied this office at any one given time. With their origins from the colonial rule of the British, the system of governors in the United States has over the years, undergone tremendous changes, to align to the needs and requirements of each state (Mohapatra 2008). There is also a likelihood too that this office shall continue experiencing changes along the line of policy issues.

Limit of powers

There are quite a few factors in operation about the office of the governor in the various states in the United States that when combined, seek to limit the powers that these chief executives can exercise over their jurisdiction. To start with, the authority of a governor gets limited by the federal constitution through a declaration that those individuals implicated in the crime, and who have moved from one jurisdiction to another, may only get convicted in that state at which the actual crime took place For this reason, therefore, a governor to a state in which a criminal has sought refuge is not in a position to convict such a criminal.

In addition, the state government executive powers have not been concentrated around the office of the governor only. Ratter, several government officials have certain powers in the various states (Greenley 2003). These are also elected directly by the members of such a state, and as such, a governor may have little or no control over such officials. This then means that since such officials are not directly answerable to the governor, he/she may not only hold them accountable while they are in office. Besides, the act of executing laws of the state is for the most part at the docket of either the municipal or other officials within the locality of a state. Again, the governor may not have much control over such officials.

From another perspective, it is worthy of note that the courts have liberally interpreted the United States presidents expressive powers. On the other hand, those relating to the office of the governor are oftentimes confined in both a literal and narrow sense. In addition, the governors powers never or rarely go above the expressive limit that the constitution of a state has helped impose. This is often applicable to a majority of the states in America (Greenley 2003).

Controversies

In as much as the governors of the United States have constitutional powers while in office, nevertheless there are those among them that tend to misuse their powers for either their selfish ends or to the benefit of their political allies. As such, the office of the governor could be said to not have escaped being mired by one form of controversy or another.

A recent case in point was that which involved the governor of Illinois Rod Blagojevich, who tried to sell the senate seat that was previously held by the new president of the United States, Barrack Obama (McCarthy 2009). Although the governor may have a mandate to appoint two members of the senate within his jurisdiction, Blagojevich sought to misuse this power when he offered the seat of the former senator of Illinois, Barrack Obama to the highest bidder.

Following this development, there was a national outcry to have the governor removed from office, with Blagojevich insisting that he acted within the legal framework, thereby snubbing calls for his resignation (McCarthy 2009). This was also followed by a demand by the president of the United States Barrack Obama that the governor resigns on grounds of being involved in corruption. Still, Rod Blagojevich could not bulge.

Eventually, the legislators of the Illinois state unanimously voted to have the governor removed. He was also implicated in several chargers that revolved around criminal misconduct while still in office (McCarthy 2009). Following this development, Blagojevich went down the annals of the United States history as the eighth governor who has had his powers stripped of him, following an impeachment.

Works cited

Greenley, Steven. Preventing Future Abuses of the Pardon Power by the governor DCBA Brief, 2003. Web.

McCarthy, Mike. Illinois governor ousted in plot to sell Obamas seat. The Times, 2009. Web.

Mohapatra, Anil. Role of the governor: pro-active vs. figure head. 2008. Web.

Venus, D. (2009). What are a Governors Responsibilities?. Web.

West Virginia is a unique state of America. Its history and its creation are closely related to the most significant events of the American nation. Established during the Civil War, it became one of the first states with particular attention toward American values. Furthermore, the state is versatile in the natural beauty and acres of forests, hills, and mountains. This area is full of historical events. The natural resources of West Virginia are the wealth of the state. Politics played a huge role in the development of the state. The idea of the political approach is paramount in the paper. The main players, their goals, and accomplishments are critically described in the paper. Furthermore, the research props up against the period of West Virginias history since the administration of Gaston Caperton.

First of all, it is necessary to admit that the politics of the state is considered with several main directions. The financial, economical, and educational growth is before the states development. This state is known to be the area of huge concentration of educational establishments. This is why it is fairly called the state of teachers (Rice & Brown 298). Since the administration of Caperton this field in the politics stays prior. Caperton since first years in office shared the idea of qualitative and quantitative growths in the educational sphere. The quality of education he saw in the quality of educators lives. This is why owing to his tries in the legislative domain on August 22, 1990 governor Caperton provided the changes to educational matters (Rice & Brown 298). Thus, the shaping of West Virginias educational reform was provided with increases in the salaries of teachers. Also the internal control and supervision were emphasized for the purpose of the bureaucracy decrease. Public schools and institutions were at the core of the renovation policy by Caperton.

The chain of changes for the analyzed period is presupposed with Gaston Caperton who was elected in 1988 and then reelected in 1992. He was succeeded by Cecil H. Underwood in 1996 who lost to Bob Wise in 2000 (Infoplease para. 1). Afterward the governor Manchin became the main person of the executive power. During this period the main spheres which were struggling for the power in the state were the administrations of governors, business leaders, legislative leaders, and Supreme Court of West Virginia. After G. Caperton the governor Cecil Underwood many times tried to persuade the population of the state to decrease gambling if he would be elected. However, in the period from 1996 to 2000 the number of video lottery coin drop machines and slot-centers increased dramatically (Charleston Gazette1 para. 2). This made negative effects on the society in the state. In this respect, the competition in election campaign with Underwood was taken by Bob Wise. This candidate succeeded in the elections in 2000.

Governor Wises main goals considered the increase of tax payouts for gambling and rational approach as of coal mining (the major industrial sphere in the state). In this respect, the situation for the owners of suchlike entertainment in the state was supposed with more regulatory mechanisms (Charleston Gazette2 para. 3). Moreover, Wise made it possible to raise the budget money with such a regulatory initiative. In terms of the coal-mining plan, Wise was apt to appeal to the Supreme Court. In April, 2001 the case concerned with the mountaintop removal coal mining was in favor of the governors administration: Wise said that he welcomed an appeals courts decision to overturn the valley fill limits ordered 18 months ago by Chief U.S. District Judge Charles H. Haden II (Ward Jr. para. 2).

Such flow of political and business confrontations needed the man in the justice system of the state who will be able to favor the interests either of the politics or business. The business leader and the CEO of coal-mining company Massey Energy, Donald L. Blankenship, is said to spend $3 million of his own money for electing Benjamin to the state Supreme Court (Nyden para. 4). Here the corruption was obvious for the society. That is why the administration of Governor Manchin should act immediately. The triangle of main players, namely executive, legislative, and justice powers, was influenced by big business and its financial approaches.

The curious thing is that in each case of keeping or breaking the promises by above-stated governors the Supreme Court of West Virginia was full of work. In other words, since G. Caperton the political issues frequently confronted with business. Their evaluation was considered with the decisions of the Supreme Court and Court of Appeal. The main scandal which grabbed attention of the federal power was concerned the case H. Caperton versus Massey (Nyden para. 5). In this respect the current policy by Governor Joe Manchin presupposes the agenda of three issues. Two of them touch upon the coal-mining development and use of mountaintop-removal sites; the third is a plan for third- and eighth-graders in schools (Knezevich para. 9).

To conclude, the situation in West Virginia is uneasy since the administration of G. Caperton. It concerns the involvement of politics, the justice system, and legislative leaders in business relations. The main goals of the governors presupposed appropriate educational reforms: second, proper tax policy, especially for the owners of entertainment centers. The third point concerns the significance of Massey Energy Company which still plays a great role in the industrial development in the state.

Works cited

Charleston Gazette1. Underwoods honor, dignity, class recalled at memorial service. 2008. Web.

Charleston Gazette2. Wise Plan Would Tax Payouts From Gray Machines. 2000. Web.

Knezevich, Alison. Manchin, legislative leaders continue talks on special-session agenda. Gazette-Mail. 2009. Web.

Nyden, Paul J. Caperton v. Massey returns to W.Va. Supreme Court. Charleston Gazette. 2009.

Rice, Otis K. & Brown, Stephen W. West Virginia history. Ed. 2. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1993.

Ward Jr., Ken. Wise praises appeals court ruling. Gazette-Mail. 2001. Web.

Introduction

It is compulsory for the Government to count all U.S. inhabitants after every 10 years; a function conducted by the census bureau. This is a government run agency mandated with the overall role of gathering, analyzing and disseminating national population and economic information. This information is important for the U.S. government because it forms the main basis for determining the number of representatives the government allocates to each state in the House of Representatives.

In the past, U.S. marshals conducted the counting process, with help of enumerators who worked on temporal basis, but currently the whole process has undergone an overhaul; hence, there exist a permanent census bureau run under the commerce department. The census process involves a series of activities and processes, which ensure census officials, follow required steps and work within set ethics. This helps to ensure the bureau meets its goals and objectives for it is the main source of demographic data for government planning (National academic press, 2003, p. 19)

Importance of the U.S. Census

Constitutionally the government uses census data to reallocate representative positions in the House of Representatives. The re-appointment of representatives goes hand in hand with re-structuring of congressional district borders. The constitution dictates that the government should conduct the enumeration exercise three years after the U.S. congress conducts their first assembly within a time span of ten years. To implement correctly the one man one vote principle, data from the bureau should be very accurate to allow correct decision making of the redistricting process. This gives the census body the mandate of not only getting demographic figures but also exactly locating peoples living positions. In addition, as dictated by the U.S. voting act, census information should give correct information on age, race and ethnicity of all the American people counted (U.S Census Bureau, 1999, Para. 2-13).

On the other hand, due to importance of an educated citizenry as emphasized by the government, data from census help in formulation of educational policies that meet the needs of American citizens. As directed by the education act, the government uses collected information on poverty status of various Americans for distribution of compensatory education finances. This helps in avoiding discriminations in resource allocation to all American natives (U.S. Census Bureau, 2000, Para. 1-6).

The census data also plays an important role in the Naturalization and Immigration department, because census data forms the main basis for legislation processes decisions. The department uses census information for the overall planning, implementation, and assessing of effectiveness of its programs in serving both the minority and majority groups in America. In addition, the data helps to evaluate employment patterns, hence ensuring practices adopted by government agencies are not discriminatory (Terry, (n.d.), p.3-4).

For effective economic planning by the government and setting of achievement standards, census information on income and occupation determines economic policies adopted by the government. The information guides decisions on implementation of cost effective measures, which meet economic demands of American populations. For example, survey information collected by economic survey bureau helps government bodies in assigning finances to health and other family aid programs. Majority of federal agencies use census data in determining their financial budgets in order to meet specific social needs of a particular American community. Regional planners also use the data to locate target areas that face specific economic constraints; hence, formulation of support programs that serve needs of immigrants and other needy American natives. In addition, financial planners utilize census data to formulate and implement correct financial plans. This in turn helps to ensure the government makes good use of the tax collected and misappropriations never occur, hence sense of responsibility by the government (U.S. census Bureau, 2008, Para. 1-6).

Regional planners also use census outcomes to determine main contributing factors to regional disparities in terms of development and resource endowment. This further serves the purpose of determining migration patterns and main contributing factors. U.S. currently faces an influx of immigrants who in one way or another have had impacts on the social-economic status of countries. Thus, census data can help in unraveling such information, which directs policy formulations in order to avert discriminations and ensure such groups receive correct attention.

On the other hand, majority o business organizations also utilize census information in their overall planning and policy implementation. Census information is the main indicator of population distributions in America; hence, for business to balance their activities census information remains the cornerstone. For example, employment patterns adopted by majority of American businesses depend on distribution of population, because in most cases company employments target disadvantaged groups. This is possible through critical analysis done by companys human resource departments on population distributions. In addition, marketing strategies adopted organizations depend on population distribution patterns of American people. Critical analysis of labor markets by organizations helps business units to serve the changing needs of Americans. For example, decisions on construction of new plants, product innovations, and quality achievements depend primarily on market forces (United States small business administration, 2009, Para. 2-6).

Lastly, not only is census important to the government and businesses, but also census information is useful to the public. Census information direct majority of civic activities for example voting and active participation to ensure societies adopt democratic practices.

Impacts of Loosing a Seat in the House of Representatives

The house of representatives plays the key role of passing bills, which affect American citizens in many ways. Decisions by the house determine the tax system, funding mechanisms and nature on laws to be applied on critical issues for example abortion and immigration. Although the house emphasizes fairness in its dealings, senators always aim to please their natives so that they can be re-elected. For example, senators in the house determine district boundaries, and resource allocation depends on districts hence likelihood of favoritism on ones state. Leaders who are re-appointed always aim to reward loyal members, which in most cases has resulted to equality in resource allocations In addition to resource allocation variations, political leaders in the house influence very much quality of justice to its members. Loosing of seats by some states affects quality of justice received by its natives, although not widely manifested few cases have occurred. In addition, loosing of such seats affects productivity of some states due to varying resource endowment of different states (Mason, 2002, pp. 570-582).

Personal Experience with Census

The counting process has always faced many obstacles due to counting flaws, which later manifests themselves in resource allocation patterns that the government adopts. Majority of errors occur result due to lack of collection of all questionnaires by enumerators.

Dealing with some American families is hard due to lack of cooperation from some families that do not recognize importance of census. On the other hand, the old PDA tool used for checking addresses has received many rejections from citizens due to doubt on its accuracy to exactly give required information.

Conclusion

In conclusion, governments and individuals should not underestimate the importance of census. In addition, the government should ensure the whole exercise is well organized and coordinated in order to ensure its effectiveness and address all population concepts. The government should make correct cost estimates and it must ensure the bureau meets the census targets.

Reference

Mason, L. J. (2002). Majority party leadership in the U.S. House of Representatives, 1977-96: speakers, committee assignments, institutional context. Social science quarterly 82(3), 570-582.

National academic press. (2009). Modernizing the U.S. census. Web.

Terry, M. (n.d.). Connecting the dots: understanding the importance of census participation to civic engagement. Web.

United States small business administration. (2009). Firm size data. Web.

U.S. Census Bureau. (1999).The Constitution, the Congress and the Census: Representation and Reapportionment. Web.

U.S. Census Bureau. (2000). U.S. census bureau news. Web.

U.S. census Bureau. (2008). A detailed portrait of the U.S. economy. Web.

Introduction

The journalist James Howard Kunstler is a supporter of the new urbanism, which promotes various civic amenities, such as walkable neighborhoods and a new sense of community feeling. More than that, this movement actively resists urban sprawl, which is considered to have a negative impact on the environment in the neighborhoods. That is why Kunstler claims that modern American towns and cities lack respect for the public realm, which he regards as the real-world sign of the common good. This paper touches upon the key concepts and terms, which Kunstler concerns, and provides an analysis of their essence and interconnections.

Analysis

The word neighborhood is one of the most frequent in The Public Realm and the Common Good. The repetition of this term is interesting as it describes the basic unit (Kunstler 424). Each neighborhood can present a separate village or a city. Furthermore, if several neighborhoods are united, a big city appears. However, it is worth mentioning that each neighborhood is divided into two parts  the center and the edge. Hence, the author highlights the importance of the neighborhoods as a basis for creating the high-quality realm and the common good.

More than that, Kuntsler describes some other definite features, the first of them is the size of a neighborhood. According to the author, it is defined as a five-minute walk (or quarter-mile) from the edge to the center, thus a ten-minute walk from the edge to the edge, or half a mile (424). Thus, these areas are relatively small, which provides them with some essential advantages described in the next paragraph. Secondly, automobiles are allowed there, but citizens needs are prioritized. The fact that peoples interests are put in the first place results in the increased availability of public transport.

Due to the small size of neighborhoods, people have the opportunity to enjoy the beauty of facades, gardens, and shop windows while walking down the street. This, in turn, promotes various benefits from the support of local institutions to the physical caretaking of the street (Kunstler 424). According to Kunstler, neighborhoods are the framework for developing the habitable public realm for several reasons, most of which are presented in the previous paragraph (425). The basic idea that the author dwells on is that they provide citizens with the necessary infrastructure and allows feeling more completely human (Kunstler 425). This phenomenon can be explained by the fact that due to the small size and beautiful decoration of the neighborhoods, citizens are immersed in a friendly environment. Moreover, the availability of public transport and other public goods also improves the atmosphere, as people feel this care and experience more positive emotions. That is why he singles out this term and explains it in such a detailed manner.

The most important strand is the negative attitude to the current state of the public realm in America. Kunstler tries to assure readers that most American towns and cities have become dismal (Kunstler 417). What is more, he highlights that the new suburban areas are dismal in their own way. He believes that some critical infrastructure, such as the highway lanes, the shopping malls, and the office parks, that binds neighborhoods together, is degraded, incoherent, ugly and meaningless (Kunstler 417). Therefore, the author stresses the necessity to gentrify not only cities and towns but also suburban areas around them.

Historically, Americans have a negative attitude towards the public realm as, since the end of World War II, the majority of them have moved into the suburban sprawl, which lacks some critical civic amenities. That is why they are dissatisfied with this situation, which is a warning sign because the public sphere is a physical manifestation of the common good (Kunstler 419). When people degrade the public realm, as the Americans have done, they degrade the common good.

The negative consequences of such an attitude can be exemplified by infrastructure development. The author believes that our homes, commercial and civil buildings are built with the full confidence that they will disintegrate in a few decades (Kunstler 420). Different social facilities, such as schools, libraries, and hospitals, are not expected to last until the end of a humans life. Furthermore, people seem not to care about unity with nature as they have technical advances, which help to minimize problems with weather or light. These behavior patterns are likely to diminish people spiritually, impoverish them socially, and degrade the cultural patterns that are, in fact, our civilization.

The most interesting binary in The Public Realm and the Common Good is consumer versus citizen, as these are two critical roles, which people play in their everyday lives. The balance between them can influence the quality of the public realm and the common good. When people play the role of citizens, they are more eager to address different social problems and clashes of interest, as they understand their responsibility for creating and maintaining a healthy environment inside their neighborhood.

However, because of the technological development and the emergence of a consumer society, the role of consumers has become prevalent. The most significant difference between the roles is that, according to the author, consumers, unlike citizens, have no responsibilities, obligations or duties to anything larger than their own needs and desires (Kunstler 419). This statement demonstrates that people nowadays are reluctant to address crucial social problems, which are, actually, problems of the public realm and the common good, and they seek only to satisfy their own demands.

Conclusion

In The Public Realm and the Common Good, the journalist James Howard Kunstler presents his arguments for the lack of the public realm and the common good in the United States of America. Several points have been given to support his thought-provoking ideas. He addresses the issue of the public realm degradation through social, political, and psychological problems. The US population no longer behaves as citizens but consumers, so, there has been a loss of exemplary behavior. As for the political aspect, poor urban infrastructure and environment lead to reducing investments in public works and discontinuities.

Psychologically, the poor have a pessimistic outlook, which can be changed by setting up actual services to help them out. More than that, Kunstler makes it clear that it would be better to reconsider the interconnectedness between chronological connectivity, the common good, and citizenship so that the USA can improve its modern communities. As for consumers, according to the author, they must reaffirm their values and principles and reclaim their role as citizens. Finally, Kunstler believes that the key to happiness in any country or city depends on public realm development. Its absence in the communities may result in dangerous consequences for citizens and the well-being of the whole state or city.

It is said that when things are going well throughout the nation, they are even better in California and worst when faced with a national economic recession (Gerston and Christensen 20). In the current downturn, California had lost more than 100,000 jobs in 2007 and its unemployment rate was 8.2 percent Statewidethe highest in 14 years (Walker 1). Through the first three quarters of 2008, 189,000 California homes were lost to foreclosure resulting in a net loss of over $1 trillion in housing wealth.

The bad news continued into 2009 when for the fifth straight month, California led the nation in net job losses, with 63,700 jobs disappearing in April 2009 (Aversa 2). Californias Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger has a $21.3 billion budget deficit which will force him to lay off thousands of state employees and billions of dollars would have to be cut from the state budget (Aversa 10). However, the current woes of California have not been caused by the present incumbent governor. This essay explains the deeper causes responsible for the economic downturn in California.

Since the days of the Californian Gold Rush, the state has always been the barometer for well being or lack thereof for the entire country. The Californian dream truly epitomizes the American Dream. It was in California that Americans of all creed or color could literally make themselves. California accounts for 25 percent of technology exports of the US. Within California, technology exports account for nearly 52 percent of its overall exports.

The state accounts for a vibrant housing industry that had seen the best as well as worst of times. A number of government policies have had a deleterious effect on Californias economy. After the end of the Cold war, the federal governments decision to downsize aerospace and military industries in Southern California (Myers 72) contributed to the states economic woes as it put thousands of blue collar workers out of work. Not only did this move result in direct job losses but also affected the tertiary sector that supported those industries.

California suffered maximum job losses during the dotcom bust of the 1990s. A similar situation exists today. But the current recessionary trends were visible as far back as 2001 when technology exports from California declined by 17 percent (Gerston and Christensen 20).

Technology is a high paying, high risk sector. Its vibrancy supports other sectors of the economy also. A booming technology sector gave rise to seven figure salaries of the techhies who in turn stimulated the housing industry as well as the white goods sector. Profits by these sectors also gave employment to thousands of blue collar workers. Thus a collapse of the IT industry had a domino effect on the entire financial viability of the economy that then reverberated throughout the nation.

Mismanaged state budgets have too been the perennial woe of California. The dotcom bust of the 1990s gave a huge budget deficit. The recessionary indicators of the early 2000 were masked by a misreading of tax payments by the industries which gave a false feeling of growth when actually, the deficit was building. This led the Davis administration in 2000 to increase public spending little realizing that a perfect storm was gathering around the corner.

By 2002 more than 660,000 children were signed up for health care that cost the state of California $ 500 million (Gerston and Christensen 22). New federal rules required the state to revamp its prison facilities that again cost 25 percent of additional funds. This was also a politically motivated move as prison guards were being kept happy for their votes by the Davis administration. By 2003, the Davis administration had declared a budget deficit of $ 34.6 billion.

Added to the mismanagement of the government budget was the surge in oil prices. Rampant speculation in the global oil markets led by the NYMEX saw oil prices heading northwards adding to the states ballooning energy bill. Nature too played its role, when a prolonged drought in the North West dried up Hydroelectricity as a result, bill for oil fired energy went up considerably (Schrag 160). Unscrupulous industry players like the notorious ENRON, due to a failure of federal oversight manipulated electricity infrastructure to further increase the electricity rates on the spot markets adding to the state deficit. As personal income of Californians declined, so did the revenues from personal income tax. Thus, an already overspent treasury was rendered even barer by a combination of circumstances.

Thus the mismanagement and corruption of the Davis administration as well as external factors resulted in a huge budget deficit that was inherited by the present incumbent Arnold Schwarzenegger who despite his best efforts has not been able to control the deficit. Part of the problem has been the wasteful and extravagant public spending programs initiated by the Davis administration when the state actually had no money to spend.

Trying to sound upbeat as was possible, UCLA Anderson in its economic forecast nevertheless had stated that The forecast is for a very weak California economy in 2008. The double-whammy of construction and financial activities job loss will continue to drag at the economy (UCLA Anderson 12).

When the housing bubble burst all over America, California had already slid into a recessionary mode not seen since the Great Depression of 1929. Without doubt , unparalleled greed of Wall Street honchos who sold exotic loans packaged as derivatives to all and sundry has been more than responsible for the present economic downturn. It has been the failure of even government backed entities like Freddie Mac and Fannie Mae whose indiscriminate cheap loans at almost nil interest without checking the antecedents of its customers has been more than responsible for the entire mess.

But none of the states have been hit as badly as has been California because of its service industry dominated economy. Oil too has played a major role in the current recession. According to Professor Hamilton whenever global oil prices have spurted, recession has followed (2) and the oil price hike over the years 2007-2008 have in a large way contributed to the present recession.

In conclusion it can be reiterated that the current economic recession in California has a number of causes. The closure of defense and aerospace industry after the Cold War caused severe losses not only in the primary sector but also the tertiary sector. The wasteful programs initiated by the Davis administration resulted in billions of dollars deficit from which the state has not been able to recover. The dotcom bust of the 1990s added to the woes.

High oil prices coupled with unscrupulous manipulation by private players further accentuated the economic worries. A drought in the North West leading to a drop in hydroelectricity capacity further added to the states energy bill. Finally, the overwhelming greed of Wall Street executives in selling toxic loans and looking for quick money drove the final nail in the coffin of the states treasury chest. California will now take a long time to recover from its present downturn.

Works Cited

Aversa, Jeannine. Job losses up in 44 states as recession drags on. 2009. Washington Post online. Web.

Gerston, Larry N and Terry Christensen. Recall! NY: M.E. Sharpe, 2004.

Hamilton, James D. The Economic Consequences of Rising Oil Prices. 2009. The Washington Post online. Web.

Myers, Dowell. Immigrants and boomers: forging a new social contract for the future of America. NY: Russell Sage Foundation, 2007.

Schrag, Peter. California: Americas High-Stakes Experiment. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2008.

UCLA Anderson. Economy situation doesnt meet definition of true recession. 2008. Web.

Walker, Barbara. The Realities Of Recession in California. 2008. Web.

Introduction

Clement Attlee, an esteemed war veteran, established first majority Labours government in Great Britain. He pursued a sturdy socialist programme and he was the father of the public organisations, which have added more strength to U.Ks economy. His overture to politics was to offer the people the talent and basic-structure to manage their own future, which, after the volatility and extreme anxiety during the war, was what the public required to recuperate a feeling of normality.

Attlee worked for the establishment of the welfare state, which became so significant for those lives trashed by the war years. Attlees welfare state policy emphasises how he was in all probability the most poignant post-war Prime Minister since he had to deal with the reliance of the people on him and his government by offering a feeling of security. He fruitfully negotiated the political transition between the years of war, where no prominence was placed on policy but more on the issues of survival, and the post-war period where people anticipated the establishment of a reliable country and the government that was more apprehensive with the struggle of the general public.

His legacy in the kind of the National Health Service on the recommendation of Beveridge Report emphasises his significance as one of the most imperative post-war British leaders. This prominence placed on public ownership helped so many to endure the aftermath of the Second World War since they were extended the support of the government rather than their salary for private services. It is obvious that Attlees most outstanding impression remained on politics was the understanding that the lower classes were an integral part of the British electorate. The government intervention line that he adhered still lingers the key to socialist ideas and he was the first British Prime Minister to restore the power back to the people.

Other major initiations perused by Attlee as he changed the shape of Britain and British participation globally, such as setting up Britains position within NATO. This facilitated Britain to establish itself as a dominant international leader in the future and Britain assumed a strong part in the defence of the international facade. As the Britain was economically weak due to the debilitating effect of the war, Attlee negotiated to elevate the Britain to a platform of sizeable power despite of its dependence on American support. Another significant progress during the Attlee saga was the commencement of the collapsing of the British Empire. This could be viewed as a feeble surrender from Attlee but this policy virtually absolved Britain from what could have become an arduous clash with foreign countries who claimed their independence from Britains rule.. This demonstrates that Attlee was a strong protagonist of freedom and liberty, which has left Britain with the picture of a more tolerant and compassionate country. He did not allow the initiative of the all authoritative British Empire obstruct in the way of enforcing this policy, since he was shrewd enough to apprehend that Britains empire could lead to its downfall when the world started to sermonise freedom. The Attlee government transformed the face of Britain. As per Beveridge Report, Attlee enacted laws for the establishment of a new system of social security and a national health service which intended to offer protection for all. No one would deny that the Attlee government was amongst the most influential in modern British history. In the words of Kenneth Morgan, since the passage of the 1832 Reform Act, the Attlee government was amongst the most efficient of any British government.

Historians have unanimously agreed upon the significance of the post-war Labour government in moulding modern Britain. Labour won a landslide election victory in 1945 and the labour government led by Clement Attlee crafted a series of far-reaching changes, including the introduction of the Welfare State as recommended by Beveridge Report.

Within one and half years after coming to power , Attlees Cabinet had performed more than any earlier twentieth-century British government to improve the standard of living of ordinary working people. Welfare reform introduced by Attlee government on the recommendations of Beveridge report like free medical treatment, family allowances, subsidised housing and educational opportunities on a scale not known before.

Beveridge Reports Background

Churchill as the head of the Wartime Coalition had given an extensive deliberation to post-war reconstruction. This reconstruction measures had been poorly handled after 1918 and there was a general resolution not to permit it to happen a second time.

In 1941, a committee was created to analyse reconstruction issues. This committee was headed by Sir William Beveridge who was a Liberal and he was asked to submit a report on to embark on a survey of the subsisting national schemes of social insurance and allied services and to forward recommendations.

William Beveridge, a well-known civil servant, was accorded the task of heading a government report on Social Insurance and Allied services in 1942. He went much beyond his remit and developed a report which very much replicated his own philosophy and offered a pro-active scheme for dealing with the main issues facing a modern society.

Beveridge was considered to be a gentleman of substantial ability and prudence and he executed his mission with vigour and vision and submitted a report namely The Beveridge Report to English Parliament in December 1942. The Report is esteemed as the most momentous social policy report of the century. Beveridge stressed the necessity to extinguish from life the following five major evils namely

• Want
• Ignorance
• Squalor
• Idleness
• Disease

His report famously known as Beveridge report (and not beverage report) mainly suggested the ways and means to get rid off the above evils by a government.

The Five Giants

All three political parties in England in 1945 preferred wide-ranging welfare provision but Labour party had the opportunity to introduce the modern Welfare State. The Beveridge Report of 1942 emphasised the need for the U.K government to assault the five giants of Disease, Want, Squalor, Ignorance and Idleness. Thus, the Welfare State conceived of the provision of all-inclusive social services from the cradle to the cemetery, through a scheme of health, education, social security and housing.

Beveridge emphasised on the necessity to redress five giant problems namely Disease, Want, Squalor, Ignorance and Idleness He submitted his Report which consisted more than 300 pages which discussed more about Want. The other four problems still had to be solved in the Beveridge report.

• To find a solution to issue of disease by the implementation of a new health service.
• Resolving Idleness by the State by focusing on full employment.
• To enlighten the Ignorance by modernising the educational system
• To enhance Squalor by introducing new house-building schemes and slum-clearance programme.

Main Proposals of Beveridge

In spirit, Beveridge recommended that all people in employment would defer a single weekly flat-rate contribution into the state insurance fund. Such flat-rate premium would cover all possible risks that might transpire on people throughout their lives. As a token of return on their contribution of health insurance premium, a new Ministry of Social Security would offer people with survival allowance in the form of medical, sickness, maternity, old age, widows, unemployment, industrial injury, orphans and funeral benefits.

Beveridge submitted a detailed scheme of all-inclusive social insurance. It was based on the piecemeal provisions of pensions, sickness and unemployment benefit, which had come into force since 1908. The Plan envisaged the total desertion of the Poor Law attitude which had caused all payments to the sick, old and unemployed to be considered as charitable offerings, while these had to be kept as low as possible so as to dissuade extravagance and idleness.

Beveridge maintained that the scheme was one of insurance-thereby offering benefits of right in return for contributions. He also recommended that there should be non-contributory childrens allowances for each child after the first which was to be paid for out of taxation and not out of insurance contributions In addition, there was to be, a National Health Service to offer every citizen whatever medical treatment that was required. Moreover, Beveridge report recommended that there should be an end to mass unemployment that had haunted Britain in the 1930s.

The main points of the Beveridge report were summed up as follows:

• It is comprehensive in nature as it would meet all the social issues of the people from the provenience to cemetery.
• It is universal as it would be open to all by right irrespective of their means.
• It is an insurance-based scheme where people would make weekly payments to sponsor their future benefits.
• It is mandatory for those individuals in employment.
• It is integrated in nature as it would combine together all the individual plans to be covered by one single payment.
• It is based on flat rate system as everyone would pay the same premiums despite of their income.
• It would offer the minimum benefits necessary for food, clothing, subsistence and shelter.
• It is non means tested as the benefits would no longer be blocked or reduced depending on an individuals financial means.

Beveridge was attempting to establish a stimulus plan to deal with the apparent causes of poverty rather than retorting to the results as they were viewed. He recognised the five critical problems and endeavoured to deal with them before they occurred.

Retort to the Report

The Beveridge Report echoed the mood of Britain in the latter years of the war. Beveridge report outlined what many perceived for which they were struggling for. The report sold like hot cakes and it became a best-seller. However, the then Prime Minister Winston Churchill dumped the Beveridge Report in the dust bin. This had helped the Labour victory in the 1945 election, despite of the fact that Churchill had a heroic leadership image due to the war effort. On commenting about Churchill defeat in 1945 election, his wife told that it was a blessing in disguise. On hearing his wifes comment, Churchill commented in lighter vein that blessing was extraordinary in disguise.

The response to the Report among the public at large was overwhelmed. People infused much hope the report viewing the report would be the basis for their life after the war. Majority of Labour ministers were whole heartedly supported Beveridge recommendations but Churchill adopted a rather uninterested attitude. Churchill commented that the report did have merit but the public should be more cautious as the priority task was that the enemy had yet to be crushed first. Marwick, a renowned historian viewed Churchills indifference to Beveridge Report as a trumping factor in Churchills election defeat in 1945. Doctors also opposed the Beveridge Report as they were not keen to be any part of a national scheme for a health service, as they had a fear that not only their autonomy would be endangered but also their salary would be reduced.

Beveridge desired to see the whole system turned to be much more efficient and simple. He strongly believed that insurance should safeguard the people against all the grave hardships of life and advocated that such insurance scheme should extend protection to the whole population of the country. The insurance premium payments he visualised were to be viewed as the rightful due of all, not money to be paid in differing amounts according to a means test. However, he did not believe that payments should be liberal.

As a Liberal, he was an advocate in the principle of people contributing to the savings administered by the state, and if they desired, they make more liberal contribution for themselves and in such cases, he believed that they should avail the services of private insurance schemes. Further, Beveridge did not restrict himself simply to looking at insurance. He advocated that the establishment of social insurance should be viewed as one part only of an all-inclusive policy of social progress. Social insurance may offer income security; it is an assault on want. However, Want is only the first element of five giants. The others are Ignorance, Disease, Idleness and Squalor. To combat these giants, Beveridge argued that it would be essential to have an appropriate National Health Service, a strategy of full employment and allowances paid to families with children. He commented that his ideas the plan envisaged here is in some means a revolution but in more significant ways it is a natural growth from the past. It is a Revolution of British origin.

Beveridge report was published in December 1942 and this was considered to be a fitting time because the British Eighth Army had just succeeded in the battle of Alemein and the Russian Army had just succeeded the Battle of Stalingrad and the general sentiment in the country was now that the allies would be triumphant and it was the right time to look forward to the incentives of peace time. Official government corroborated this idea and hinted that post war could be better than pre war. A statement issued by the Ministry of Health referred to mounting reflection for the future and that there could be no revisit to the pre war situation. Beveridge Report was overwhelmingly appreciated by the British public.. It became a best seller, selling 635,000 copies in total, more than any other government report, though it was written in difficult and dry language. British subjects envisaged its recommendations to be implemented immediately, or at least as soon as at the end of the war.

An Evaluation of the Attlee Government

According to Kevin Jeffreys, the Labour Government fulfilled the promises they had given in their election manifesto, between 1945 and 1951 and the most significant being the establishment of the Welfare nation. The Labour government implemented the proposals of the Beveridge Report to initiate the various limited inter-war welfare measures and make them universal between 1945 and 1948. The Welfare nation which it established offered benefits from the provenience to the tomb for all its citizens.

Labour government attempted to fulfil its electoral manifesto promises despite serious issues from the beginning of its government. Due to Second World War, Britain was almost bankrupt and in no position to go ahead with implementation social welfare programme. It has been contended by critics that initial efforts of labour government should have been to build up and re-equip industry before spending money on welfare measures. Alternatively, the Labour government emphasised on the establishment of a fair society, where assistance was available to all citizens irrespective of their ages.

Some historians have pointed out that while majority of nations in Western Europe had augmented their social spending only after 1945 while some other nations focused social spending on their work force, with the sole aim of augmenting industrial efficiency. In Great Britain, social spending was more liberal towards the sick, the old and the poor, which had no direct impact on the economy. Thus, Labour could be witnessed to have shelved the Liberal idea of social reform to boost the nations international competitiveness and also national efficiency

When Labour government was ousted out of office in 1951, it had many welfare programs as suggested by Beveridge Report. For the first time in U.K , the young people received free secondary education which had became a right and for the old, elderly persons , pensions was paid which was approximately equivalent to the level of a living income and on the whole , over a million houses were constructed in the six years immediately after the war.

For the first time, by establishing the National Health Service, free treatment to all at hospital and general practitioner services were introduced. However, it would be not prudent to censure Labour government for what it failed to do. Some critics lamented that the government did a lot for people leading towards the nanny nation, whereas others assert that the Beveridge report was not adhered closely enough thereby loosing a great opportunity for a fairer, better Britain.

Labour government wished to establish a society were those who had suffered so much in the war would never have to afraid of poverty again and get rid of it once and for all. Labour government foremost priority after coming back to power was to make sure the enactment of 1946 National Insurance Act, which was piloted through the Commons by Welshman James Griffiths. Labour extended the erstwhile Liberal 1911 National Insurance Act to extend cover for all adults. The new initiative was based on the principle of universality, in lieu of pre-war confinement, and also introduced for the first time an all inclusive range of benefits to offer insurance against unemployment sickness, and old age. Griffiths forwarded the reform as the start of the commencement of a National Minimum Standard.

In 1946, James Griffiths National Insurance Act was enacted. The Act established a compulsory contributory scheme for each employee in return for the weekly contribution from employees as suggested in Beveridge report. Welfare measures like old age pensions for women 60 and men 65, sickness and unemployment benefit, widows and orphans pensions and maternity and death grants. Widows gains and maternity gains were also introduced.

Labour government also resolved household poverty by enacting the Family Allowance Act. The family allowance Act was introduced in 1945 which paid five shillings a week to all families for each child born after the first, up to the age of sixteen. Mothers can withdraw the Money directly from the post office and this was to prevent fathers dissipating the money away.

However, these critics failed to understand one important point. The Beveridge report offered a ray of hope to a war exhausted people who expected a novel Britain that would be more reasonable and worth fighting for, and the Labour reforms did much to offer this. After the First World War, there was no return to the normality where the forfeiture of the ordinary man was disregarded and circumstances remained as terrible as before the war. Due to efforts of Labour party, the living standards of the poor were elevated and the people looked forward to a time of increasing prosperity and opportunity. The Conservative Prime Minister Harold Macmillan briefed the British people in the 1950s that they had never had it so beneficial. Nobody should forget that the affluence and feel-good factor of the 50s had its fundamentals in the reforms and improvements put into force by Labour. The Labour government had accomplished a makeover of British society in a way that enhanced the lives of millions of British citizens both young and old by 1951. The serious illness, financial uncertainties and unemployment were barred by the welfare state. For the first time a start was initiated in providing decent housing and education for everyone.

The cover under the National Assistance Act 1948 was extended by the Labour government for those who were not covered by the National Insurance Act. This offered provision for those who were unable to pay contributions. For instance, the homeless, disabled people, unmarried mothers were benefited under the National Assistance Act 1948. It also aimed to assist those such as the old aged who required additional benefits to make a subsistence living. However, the National Assistance Act was footed on means tested and many aged people were too humiliated to apply for it. Therefore, it could be said that the disgrace attached to means testing resulted in some disadvantages not targeting those who needed it and not annihilating poverty to the full extent. Also, the compensation paid to aged was often insufficient.

In general, through the National Assistance Act 1948 and National Insurance Act, 1946 inadequate amount was paid as compensation but was successful as it went further than any earlier legislation in attacking the issues.

The Beverage report insisted upon the British government to ensure that there were adequate jobs for all those that sought employment. The government solved the unemployment by nationalising vital industries, which offered the government to increase its revenues to spend for welfare measures. Profits would be employed by the Labour government and in this style, Labour government thought that they could control and administer the economy more efficiently and could maintain full employment.

Labour government also inflicted prohibitions on imports. Hence, manufacturing activities increased and it boosted the British economy. Subsidies were paid to unprofitable industries to keep the people in employment.

Thus, change in the category of economics from profit based to Keynesian economy by offering full employment that helped at the time but raised the problems for later. Nationalising the industries was not only expensive and but at times resulted in bad management. The full employment policy resulted in inflation and balance of payment issues. However the effort to fight poverty due to unemployment could be regarded as a short-run success.

Labour fruitfully attained this with unemployment being about just 2.5% by 1946. This was impressive if one consider the post war economic depression and paucity of materials and goods. However, after the end of the Second World War, veterans have to be offered job and this pushed many women out of jobs. Further, working atmosphere and wages were remained unimproved.

The first post-war Labour Chancellor of the Exchequer Dalton asserted that full employment was the supreme revolution initiated by the Labour Government. Another achievement was tackling idleness was the fact that they made it possible under the grave economic problems that haunted post-war Britain. Therefore, it is obvious that Labour government 1945-51 faced effectively with issue of idleness under complicated economic scenarios.

Conclusion

In 1945, Labour won a surprising election victory by trouncing the great Conservative wartime leader Winston Churchill. The British voters felt that the Labour party was the apt party to bring radical social reforms and to construct an enhanced post-war Britain free from impoverishment. As the details of social reform needed in Britain were elaborated in the Beveridge report of 1942 which emphasised that five gigantic perils were the root cause of much misery and poverty. These five giants were Disease (bad health), Want (poverty), Idleness (unemployment), Squalor (housing) and Ignorance (lack of education). When the Labour government was in power from 1945 to 1951, the Labour party expedited on a determined course of social reform to tackles these five gigantic perils. Whether Labour government was really successful in their social reforms 1945-51 in tackling the five gigantic perils was evidenced by continuance of the same by successive British governments as on date.

Many British Prime Ministers have left a long-lasting impact on Britain and the importance of these events can only be ascertained on an individual level relating to ones own penchant. If the importance of a British Prime Minister is footed upon the impact that has endured the test of time, then Clement Attlee must be viewed as the most influential and famous. His sense of balance between the international stage and domestic front offered the Britain stableness much necessitated after the war. It is mainly the duty of rejuvenating Britain after the conflict and his ability in doing so, that offers a superior significance to his term in office as compared with other leaders. His welfare policies based on the Beveridge Report that integrated the people with public development had set a model for those Prime Ministers who succeeded him. Britain had to be reconstructed after Second World War and Attlees assuming as Prime Minister made him to being in power just as British required directing out of the bedlam of the war years. By directing Britain away from these problems he should be regarded as the most noteworthy leader due to directing future British Prime Ministers in the apt direction and imposing anticipation from the people on these future leaders.

Labour government was triumphant in raising the standards of living of the poor through the various acts such as the Insurance against injury Act, National Insurance Act, and Family allowance. These Acts barred the financial precariousness of unemployment and grave illness. Disease was also attacked successfully as the NHS offered free medical care which is still available up to this day. Idleness was also fruitfully handled with as the preponderance of the population was in employment. However, there were some mistakes as regards in dealing with squalor as not as many houses were constructed as had been guaranteed pushing the people being homeless. Also, ignorance was never attacked with efficiently as what was established was a two tier education scheme where those who passed their 11 plus flourished and where as those who failed were entrapped in a world of low hopes and substandard education.

However, in general it has to be acclaimed that the Labour Reforms 1945-51 were productive as they were executed in an occasion of economic uncertainty and offered many a better standard of living than they had ever enjoyed before.

Thus, the Labour government did what they assured and established jobs for almost all. This was an accomplishment with the post war economy. With this achievement it can be expressed that Labour government made successful social reforms on the basis of recommendations by Beveridge.

Hence, the statement Without the beverage report there could have been no Attlee government is true.

Works Cited

1. Adelman, Paul. The British General Election 1945: Paul Adelman Explains a Major Turning Point in Modern British History. History Review (2001): 30+.
2. Beveridge. Power and Influence. New York: Beechhurst Press, 1955.
3. Bruce, Maurice. The Coming of the Welfare State. London: B.T. Batsford, 1961.
4. Harris, Jose. William Beveridge: A Biography. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997.
5. Parrott, Alec L. The Great Welfare State Myth. Contemporary Review 1995: 202+.
6. Trevor Burridge. Clement Attlee: A Political Biography. Cape, 1985.
7. Kenneth Harris. Attlee.Weidenfeld and Nicolson,1995.

Argument About the Reading

The issues of the distinction and unity of public and private selves of a human have long been in the focus of philosophical discourse. Habermas (2004) lecture is an extensive discussion of the interrelations between private and public spheres as the two dimensions, through which the social life of human beings becomes possible. The theory presented in the reading regards the two opposing dimensions (public and private) as the interrelated constituents of human social life. The author provides powerful arguments based on his biography showing that the complexity of modern societies is reflected in the public nature of any individual. In this paper, the lectures main points will be discussed, analyzed, and reflected on, as well as attributed with an additional point of view of a scholar.

Central Points

The reading is a complex but logical set of arguments touching on general considerations concerning the role of personality in the forming of public opinion, biographical episodes, and the political life of Germany. The author intertwines all these elements into an argument for his theory concerning the public space and political public sphere as the integral constituents of social life. Habermas claims that different fields of social life are based on different views of public and personal domains. Indeed, for celebrities representing the media sphere, their public image is equal to their private life; thus, the line between the two dimensions is blurred (Habermas, 2004). On the contrary, for the representatives of public discourse, objectivity is more important than their personal spheres. Therefore, the participants of philosophical, literary, or political debates operate with arguments, reasoning, and opinions based on objective perspectives. Their public and personal lives are separate and complement each other(Habermas, 2004, p. 1). However, the complexity of human society, where people are strongly dependent on each other and are linked with communication, the role of the public in personal life and vice versus gains a broader perspective.

In the philosophers opinion, the personal perspectives of all the members of a democratic society form a public space through intersubjectivity and dependent interaction, thus each equally contributing to the political public sphere. The role of intellectuals in society is to make public use of the professional knowledge that they possess in order to maintain reason and objectivity as the essence of the public domain (Habermas, 2004, p. 10). The authors ideas are represented through the perspective of his life experiences in a way that demonstrates how the personal sphere is formed by public influences. Therefore, such influences should be well-balanced, reasoned, and objectively presented to maintain democracy.

Reflection on the Reading

Habermas (2004) lecture provides a broad scope of issues to consider within the realm of the main idea. In general, the philosophers theory demonstrates logic and reason, within which the claims sound clear and reliable. Touching on the issues of communication, globalization, marginalization, and politics, Habermas connects all these elements into a complex system of modern public space that reflects the contribution of each member. For example, the author refers to Aristotles claims about humans being political animals or animal that exists in a polity, a public space to emphasize the innate social dependence of people on others (Habermas, 2004, p. 3). In my opinion, such a basis for an argument is strong and provides valid ground for building the theory of intersubjectivity within the realm of public space.

Also, the philosopher successfully attributes his personal life experience to demonstrate how his theory works. Indeed, through the challenges imposed by surgery or by the political realities of 1940-s Germany, Habermas depicts how these episodes have shaped his philosophical ideas and changed both, his private and public spheres. I think that such an approach to the explanation of the theory is remarkable and very useful in the given context. However, the part of the argument that grounds the politics of Germany during and after World War II seems to be limited to the authoritarian regime. Such a reference underlines particular issues concerning politics rather than provides general implications of the theory to global society. On the other hand, the opposition of authoritarian and democratic societies helps the author to show the different roles of public space in the two systems of government. The change from authoritarian to democratic political sphere might only happen through the reconstruction of public opinion constituted of the personal views of the members of society.

Public Sphere from Boeders Perspective

The research of the issues under discussion shows that the problem of the political public sphere has gained much attention in academic circles. Boeder (2005) devoted an article to the discussion of the future of the public sphere in the conditions of the emerging network society. Grounding his arguments on Habermas claims, Boeder (2005) underlines the complexity of the society, in which digital communication and media impose changes to social structures. Within this perspective, the roles of public and private become even more complicated in the time of the digital era. In my opinion, such a claim is valid and only strengthens Habermas general implications concerning the role of personal opinions in the public domain. However, social media and other manifestations of digital society impose a significant threat to the role of intellectuals in the forming of the public sphere.

Reference

Boeder, P. (2005). Habermas heritage: The future of the public sphere in the network society. First Monday, 10(9). Web.

Habermas, J. (2004). Public space and political public sphere  The biographical roots of two motifs in my thought. Web.