Category: Politics & Government 2182

When the justice system works adequately, the number of prisoners might arise due to the power of the law. This occurred in Los Angeles, where the number of prisoners exceeded the acceptable quantity. The case has been discussed in Los Angeles Times and received the publics attention. This essay will provide a brief synopsis of the case and discuss its impact on society.

The case discussed further contains many ethical issues raised by society. The American Civil Liberties Union revealed that Los Angeles Country jails conditions are barbaric and requested that District Judge Dean D. Pregerson take action (Finnegan, 2022). The case orbits around poor living conditions, especially for inmates with mental illnesses, who have been chained to chairs and benches for days, dehydrated, and refused their regular medications. Currently, the ACLUs court filing results have not brought significant results (Finnegan, 2022). The organizations request was temporarily restrained, and the case ended with the country administrations statement.

This case can remarkably affect society because it can change societys collective attitude towards prisoners. If the issue receives massive attention, people will start showing empathy towards the intimates with mental illnesses. Consequently, people can make the administration take significant actions to improve the conditions for prisoners in LA Country jail. Nonetheless, the case might cause ethical controversy, like questions about whether prisoners deserve good conditions in prison or administration should prioritize jail issues over other social problems. Discussing this case in society might lead to changes in laws and the justice system in accordance with the ethical views of the majority. The media has a power to portray police, courts, and others, and it also can create a negative image of the justice system. The negative image might cause activists to create national movements and result into change of the administrative personnel, and reforms in constitution.

To conclude, the country administration should force the LA board of supervisors and sheriff to improve the conditions in the jail for inmates with mental illnesses or diabetes. The administration should also consider passing reforms in police education to change officers attitudes towards the prisoners. The case discussed above also needs further study and discussion of its ethical issues.

Reference

Finnegan, M. (2022). barbaric L.A. County Jail conditions alleged as ACLU seeks federal intervention. MSN. Web.

Introduction

The complexity behind the concept of race and the discrimination associated with it has been long integrated into the paradigm of social justice and law enforcement policies in the US. For decades, the issue of racial profiling has been an implicit bias that destroys the lives of millions of African Americans across the country. The term racial profiling emerged at the end of the 20th century and is defined as the police practice of stopping black and brown drivers in disproportionate numbers for traffic infractions, in attempts to investigate other crimes for which the police had no evidence (Harris, 2020, p. 10). Although the issue was addressed by authorities at the time, the principles of racial profiling continue to apply to ethnic minorities. The aim of this paper is to look into the existing policies and instances of racial discrimination in order to eliminate this issue in the future. Essentially, to eliminate racial discrimination, introducing new rigid policies is not enough, as the ethical principle of justice implies the need for social education and assistance for everyone. Thus, by combining social education for law enforcement and the implementation of new anti-racial policies, racial discrimination rates could decrease significantly.

Ethical Principle of Justice

When speaking of racial profiling in law enforcement, the notion of justice is an integral component of the discussion. Being able to exercise justice for the community is one of the most common contributors to ones motivation to become a police officer. According to Caldero et al. (2018), justice for the community and dealing with crime are perceived as the noble cause for the police officers functioning as a social group. For this reason, it is rather challenging to comprehend how a person pursuing a noble cause is capable of harming and misjudging people on the grounds of skin color and ethnicity.

The core of the principle of justice is the ability to provide every individual with equal opportunities. This concept should not be misconstrued for equal treatment, as treating every individual equally leads to gross ignorance of ones unique struggles and issues. Thus, the principle of justice implies that cooperation with racial minorities should account for the socio-cultural context of an individual and their inherent right to be perceived beyond race and ethnic affiliation. Meanwhile, the community should realize that in certain cases, law enforcement officers subconsciously associate race with potentially criminal activity because they were exposed to an extremely biased and negative portrayal of race in the media.

Undeniably, a biased approach to criminal justice is an unacceptable behavioral pattern, as law enforcement needs impartiality to be at the core of their community service and protection. However, it would be unreasonable to blame police officers directly for implementing racist practices. The history of racism, both implicit and explicit, has been a part of American culture since the genesis of the US social practices. Nowadays, people, unfortunately, cannot resist racial bias and racism simply because they have been exposed to the media and society that associate racial minorities with violence, crime, and abusive behavior. As a result, to introduce the ethical concept of justice to law enforcement practices, it is of paramount importance to provide police officers with extensive training in cultural awareness and sensitivity.

Context and Recommendations

The Historical Context of Racial Profiling

Nowadays, the US history of criminal justice contains several serious precedents of hate crimes, racial profiling, and discrimination. The most notorious instance of police brutality towards African Americans is the murder of George Floyd by a Minneapolis police officer named Derek Chauvin. Allegedly accused of paying for a cigarette pack with counterfeit money, Floyd was choked to death by the police officer (Hill et al., 2020). Although people gained justice for the victim, the incident has raised a series of questions concerning other cases of unpunished police brutality.

Indeed, evidence demonstrates that the US police officers, while driven by implicit prejudice towards ethnic minorities, tend to associate them with a higher predisposition to criminal activity with no reasonable arguments in favor of their opinion. According to Beall (2018), in the United States, approximately 42% of face-to-face interactions between individuals and law enforcement officers originate from suspected traffic violations, whereas the traffic violations are implicitly associated with Black and Hispanic drivers (p. 148). Incapable of issuing a search warrant on the basis of race, police officers use the gateway to potential arrests by pulling over Black and Hispanic drives with the intent to find evidence of a crime.

Based on the Fourth Amendment to the US Constitution, citizens of the US are protected from unreasonable searches and accusations. Currently, search, seizure, and arrest are only justified when a police officer has reasonable grounds to believe that an individual could have violated the law (Anderson, 2020). However, the issue with the Fourth Amendment and its reasoning is that law enforcements intent to stop a driver or a pedestrian can be rather subjective without explicitly pointing to ones race. For example, when pulling over a Black driver, a police officer may characterize his style of driving as suspiciously slow or fast without pointing to the race. However, unlike during the communication with White drivers, police officers searching the vehicles of Black and Hispanic people often allow things to escalate quickly, with a stop turning into a seizure in a matter of minutes.

Modern Legislation

Since the death of George Floyd, the George Floyd Justice in Policing Act has passed the House in March 2021. According to this Act, law enforcement officers are now held more accountable for any unjust and abusive behavior, including violence justified by race and racial profiling (End racial and religious profiling act, 2021). However, apart from the evident legal punishment for racial profiling and abuse of power, the Act also encourages police officers to undergo an extensive training program on racial profiling and implicit bias.

Recommendations

The evidence above demonstrates that currently, the system of criminal justice does not perceive racial profiling to be such an alarming problem as it is today. In order to change the focus to a more efficient approach, it is critical to implement the ethical principle of justice for both victims of racial profiling and law enforcement workers. Evidence demonstrates that the police officers exposed to justice training have better attitudes towards others and promote justice in the workplace (Antrobus et al., 2019). Hence, it is highly recommended the law enforcement system implement a system of mandatory sensitivity and awareness training in order to minimize the negative impact of stigma and racism perpetuated in society.

Conclusion

Racial profiling has always been regarded as one of the central issues in US law enforcement and police practices in general. Born and raised in the context of a negative and toxic portrayal of race in society, law enforcement officers project racial bias on ordinary people and promote racial profiling in the criminal justice system. However, instead of solely increasing the punishment measures for racial profiling, it could be more beneficial to adopt a comprehensive approach to justice for everyone. Such equal treatment could be achieved by allocating enough resources to law enforcement officers education and equality promotion for racial minorities.

References

Anderson, A. J. (2020). Racial profiling: Constitutional and statutory considerations for Congress [PDF document]. Congressional Research Service Legal Sidebar. Web.

Antrobus, E., Thompson, I., & Ariel, B. (2019). Procedural justice training for police recruits: Results of a randomized controlled trial. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 15(1), 29-53. Web.

Beall, M. N. (2018). Gutting the Fourth Amendment: Judicial complicity in racial profiling and the real-life implications. Minnesota Journal of Law & Inequality, 36(1), 145-167.

Caldero, M. A., Dailey, J. D., & Withrow, B. L. (2018). Police ethics: The corruption of noble cause. Routledge.

End racial and religious profiling act. (2021). Human Rights Campaign. Web.

Harris, D. A. (2020). Racial profiling: Past, present, and future? Criminal Justice, 34, 10-17.

Hill, E., Tiefenthäler, A., Triebert, C., Jordan, D., Willis, H., & Stein, R. (2022). How George Floyd was killed in police custody. The New York Times. Web.

Introduction & Background

The introduction and background section will cover the background of the study, the history of the Tanzanian Airline Industry, including its military context and the history of the Tanzania Peoples Defense Forces (TPDF). TPDF is charged with the security of the external borders in Tanzania and at times, complements the regular police. It was established after the country attained independence and is composed of the army, navy, and air force. The Tanzanian air force, much like the airline industry, needs modernization to be able to confront 21st-century threats and remain a guarantor of safe airspace in the country.

Study Background

Tanzania is the largest country by landmass in East Africa. However, despite its landmass, internal security vulnerabilities, and external threats from extremist groups such as Al-Shabaab, and Islamic State in Mozambique, it lacks a modern air force capable of air superiority, information superiority, global attacks, and precision engagements. The primary reasons for the poor state of the air force are the lack of adequate financial resources, lack of technical know-how, and lack of trained personnel to operate modern aircraft. Understanding the specific weaknesses in Tanzanian air force modernization will guide government interventions to secure the airspace. It will also help the government assess the capacity gap to aid resource allocation.

The first airline was established in Frankfurt German and mainly served explorers. Since then, the airline industry has flourished especially since the invention of the jet engine in the 1950s. It has been impossible for airlines to make a profit but the jet engine made air travel cheaper.

However, in countries in East Africa, airlines continued making losses and struggled with modernization. In Tanzania where the Tanzanian Peoples Defense Forces comprise an air force, efforts to modernize have been difficult because of the lack of necessary personnel with the requisite technical know-how and limited financial resources.

History of Tcpdf

TPDF was formed in 1964 after the dissolution of the Kings African Rifle battalions which had formed the initial army of the new republic of Tanzania. In 1965 under the leadership of the first President, Julius Nyerere, an autonomous air force wing was established to support the ground troops. This division of the army initially consisted of 8 planes but they grew in size as time went by. In 1978 when Uganda under dictator Idi Amin attacked Tanzania, the air force played a major role in defeating the numerically superior Ugandan force. However, since then, the country faced problems modernizing the air force and operated out of date Chinese and Russian aircraft. According to a 2014 estimate, Tanzania only has 32 planes divided into 14 fighters, 11 fixed-wing attack aircraft, and 7 transport aircraft.

Statement of the Problem

As the largest nation in the East African region, Tanzania needs a modern and well-equipped air force to complement its navy and the ground forces. Tanzania also has a massive coastline that necessitates the existence of a capable air force. However, technical, human, and financial challenges have led to the deterioration of the air force to the extent that it could be considered operationally non-existent. With just a fleet of 32 aircraft, the air force is a shadow of the force that won the 1978-79 war with Uganda. Unlike other studies that concentrate on training and development, this study will focus on specific problems facing modernization efforts.

Objectives of the Study

The studys general objective is to investigate the challenges facing the modernization of the Tanzanian air force. Specifically, the study will investigate the technological, human, and financial challenges of modernizing the Air Force Wing, examine, the air forces future modernization plans, and recommend measures that can be adopted to enhance the Air force Wings performance

Literature Review

This chapter will cover introduction, theoretical literature review, the challenges facing equipment modernization in Tanzanian air force, empirical studies, literature gap synthesis, and SWOT review of literature review.

Introduction

The literature review will focus on establishing the problems faced in the modernization of the Tanzanian Air Force. To establish these reasons, theoretical empirical research will be conducted. In particular, the theoretical review will focus on modernization efforts in other jurisdictions with a focus on establishing human, technical, and financial constraints problems faced during modernization.

Theoretical Review: Air Transport in Tanzania

According to a report by IATA, air transport generated approximately $10 billion in Tanzania. More than a decade later, that figure is likely to have risen as the number of passengers and passenger yield increased. Further, an improvement in standards of living in Tanzania has led to a spike in demand for international and domestic flights. Foreign traveling into the country for tourism, business, and leisure has also increased during that period. In 2010, an ITC report singled Precision Air Service as the only national carrier in Tanzania with membership in IATA that allowed it to cooperate with other airlines. Tanzania has started work to revive Tanzania Air which is a state-owned airline.

Theoretical Review: Aircraft Equipment Modernization in the World

Civil aviation is a major contributor to a countrys GDP. Big countries such as the United States which has a mature airline industry with multiple players benefit immensely from their contribution to the economy. According to some estimates, 40 percent of the world trade and more than 700 million tourists use air travel annually. In developing countries such as Tanzania with cheaper airline tickets and rising incomes, demand for air travel has increased. However, despite its size, contribution, and strategic importance to a country, most of the worlds air travel infrastructure is owned by private individuals and companies. According to Park, more than $1.3 trillion is needed to upgrade air travel infrastructure by 2030.

Challenges for Modernization of Equipment for Air Transport in Tanzania

An unpublished World Bank report found that Tanzania has incurred significant losses due to a lack of modernization of the air force. The inadequate funding has precipitated a crisis such that in 2013, TPDF needed $32 million to bail out its air force. Additionally, lack of modernization has led to at least four preventable air accidents since 1999. According to an audit report by Michael, the air forces liabilities exceed assets by at least $32 million in 2014.

In retrospect, East Africa is a relatively peaceful region and thus there has been no need to rapidly modernize. Further, most African countries do not view security as an integral component of their growth.

Empirical Studies

Several studies have explored air transport infrastructure modernization. Perhaps the most notable study is by Tretheway who explored the challenges facing the modernization of the United States air force. However, his recommendations, although comprehensive, cannot be applied to the Tanzanian air force modernization problem because the problems faced by the US air force are not similar to problems faced by the Tanzanian air force. Another study by a Nigerian researcher known as Robin found out that an underdeveloped airline industry including the air force dampens investor confidence and robs a country of valuable economic benefits.

A study on the Indian airline industry found out that the untrained personnel and use of out-of-date and faulty equipment were responsible for a drop of up to 1.7 percent in air traffic.

Service tax was shown to be a challenge by Charles in his research. He contended that Indian aviation tickets are subject to a 12.36 percent service tax. Third-party services like ticketing, aircraft maintenance, and ground handling, all of which are subject to service tax, are widely used by aviation sector participants, putting Indian operators at a disadvantage in the face of fierce competition. This service tax on plane tickets and on the services acquired by Indian airline operators adds even more to the costs of running an airline in the country, limiting possible plans on modernization and equipment upgrade. However, because this study is based on data from an industrially developed nation (India), it cannot be compared to the Tanzanian case

According to research by Andrew in Egypt, there are some services or obstacles that no airline can avoid. The Egyptian railway system is putting up a stiff fight against air travel thus limiting efforts by air transport investors to upgrade their equipment. Many measures were taken to improve the countrys train service in response to the entrance of low-cost air carriers. Many new trains have been introduced with enhanced service quality, providing customers an excellent alternative to flying. However, overall air passenger traffic is increasing, but this has had a detrimental impact on traffic. Therefore, many air transport service providers are forced to focus on the use of traditional equipment rather than upgrading them to their modern form due to lack of funding.

According to a research by the name Peter, there is a fierce rivalry in the aviation business that leaves companies powerless. Botswana airline for example, is forced to lower tickets to compete for market share because of high operational expenses and a price-conscious customer base. This situation has a significant impact on the modernization plans as companies cannot easily raise the required funds to upgrade their air transport equipment.

According to research by Chen in the Democratic Republic of Congo, airline operators and the economy suffer greatly from aircraft delays associated with the use of faulty traditional equipment. Delays cost money, time, and missed demand since they dissuade many flying travelers.

Literature Gap Synthesis

According to the literature examined, many challenges have been studied in connection to lack of modernity in air transport equipment in both government-owned and privately-owned airlines. This has also been investigated in the context of both developed and developing nations. However, in the case of TPDF, there has been no research that has discovered the challenges and the road map for equipment modernization. There is therefore a need to perform research on modernizing equipment based on time, technology, and globalization. Such research is important because poor advancement in technology and slow growth in modernization has been associated with the challenges in the modernization of equipment both in TPDF and Tanzania as a country

Literature Review SWOT Analysis: Strengths

The existing literature on the research topic presents various strengths that are integral for the study topic. The literature provides sufficient information on the history of air transport in Tanzania and air transport modernization across the world. Moreover, reviewed literature applies reliable and valid data that is persuasive for the study area. Therefore, the researcher can adopt the data utilized in some of the existing literature to build up on their argument. Moreover, the literature explores various limitations including data collection that could have led to data inaccuracy. Consequently, the researcher could avoid inaccurate data from the reviewed literature.

Literature Review SWOT Analysis: Weaknesses

Although the reviewed literature provided crucial information for the research topic, it eliminated some information that was crucial to the researcher. For instance, the research by Zhang and Yuen discussed various challenges that are beyond avoidance in the aerospace navigation. However, the study fails to give possible mechanisms that can help reduce the impacts of the unavoidable challenges. Moreover, the existing research focuses on the global aircraft industry modernization failing to explore the thematic research area in Tanzania. Consequently, the existing research provides insufficient information on the challenges facing the aircraft industry in Tanzania specifically in Military utilization.

Literature Review SWOT Analysis: Opportunities

The existing weaknesses in the reviewed literature presents an opportunity to the researcher to build on the thematic area. The literature limitation in studying challenges faced by air transport within the military sector makes this study worth pursuing. Moreover, this study aims at proposing measures that TPDFs Air-force Wing can adopt, making it more significant than the existing literature. Therefore, insufficient research and overgeneralization of the research topic in the existing literature is an opportunity for this study to become persuasive in academic and military contexts.

Literature Review SWOT Analysis: Threats

Although the existing literature provides sufficient information on history and modernization of the airspace transport, the literature is subject to bias. Moreover, the airspace technology is dynamic, experiencing new developments every day. Therefore, the literature fails to explore the latest adopted technology. Consequently, using the information from the existing literature may be insufficient in addressing actual problems faced by the Air-force Wing. Lack of updated information on airspace technology may threaten this study by rendering it inapplicable to the existing challenges facing the TPDFs Air-force Wing.

Research Design

Data collection, organization and analysis are all aspects of research design that are examined in this study in order to maximize its usefulness. The research employed a case study approach in this study since it allowed for an accurate picture of individuals, events, and situations. The research was carried out using a case study approach. It is a method for gathering and analyzing data within an organization. Data gathering methods might be tailored to the studys needs under this approach. This design was significant since it allowed for a more in-depth investigation of the issue at hand. This study used mixed methodologies using a combination of quantitative and qualitative data gathering and analysis approaches.

Study Population

A population is defined by Hutchison as a collection of people who share at least one trait of interest to the researcher. The sample is taken from a broader group of people. TPDF officers were included in the studys population, which was estimated at 1567 in January of 2022.

Sample Design

When conducting research, a sample is a group of people from which information may be drawn and conclusions can be drawn. Sample size should be determined by taking into account the availability of the population, sampling procedures, and financial resources necessary to facilitate a particular study. A total of 100 TPDF officers from various departments were included in this studys sample. This included approximately 15 employees from each department of information system, flight operation, quality and safety, human resource and training, special flight and engineering in the TPDF Dar es Salaam.

Sample and Sampling Procedures

Sampling is the process of picking a subset of the population such that the subset can be utilized to draw conclusions about the population as a whole. Additionally, Kothari indicates that sampling allows for the generalization of the data obtained to an enormous population. non-probability and probability sampling methods were employed to choose employees. Random sampling and purposive sampling are the examples of this type of sampling that were utilized.

Research Instruments

It is possible to cross-validate information and data from a range of sources by employing more than one approach, according to Afolayan. In order to obtain as much data as possible, the researcher employed a triangulation strategy that relies on information from several sources. As a result, a variety of methods, including document analysis, interviews, questionnaires, and direct observation, were employed.

Data Collection Methods

The study drew on both primary and secondary sources for its findings. There was a specified set of questions and a predetermined technique of recording in the main data, which was a structured interview. A questionnaire was also used because some of the officers did not have enough time to participate in an interview. Accordingly, the study relied mostly on reports, profiles, and journals from TPDFs headquarters and many other publications that offered material to assist the research.

Data Analysis and Presentation

Rather than a quantitative technique, this study employed a qualitative inductive approach to examine the effects of fund control strategy on Tanzanias efficacy of fund regulation. In thematic analysis, only the most important aspects and cases are recognized. SPSS (Statistical Programs for Social Science) was also used to provide data on the frequency and totals. Statistical charts and graphs such as bar graphs and tables were used to portray the data.

Reliability and Viability Tests

Reliability is a measure of the consistency of test finding. Cronbachs alpha was used to check the datas internal consistency and make sure it was reliable. We used a 0.7 Cronbachs alpha (¬) test cutoff, which Surucu describes as an appropriate test scale.

A studys validity, according to Saunders (2018), may be determined by looking at whether or not the findings actually pertain to what they purport to. An evaluation of the tests ability to assess what it is aimed at measuring. A pilot study of 10 respondents from TPDF was done to ensure the validity of the data gathering device. In order to improve the questionnaire, the responses of the respondents were included into the design

Respondents Profile Findings Presentation: Age

Analysis of the respondents age shows that 50% of the overall workforce was between the ages of 20 and 29, while 30% were between the ages of 30 and 39. In addition, 10 (10 percent) employees (TPDF personnel) were between the ages of 40 and 49, and 10 (10 percent) were beyond the age of 50.

Table 4.1 shows the demographic characteristics of the respondents for the study. It is clear that the majority of them are energetic and youthful. If they are fully exploited, this age group is the perfect age group to enhance the defense of the country because of their energetic, ambitious and innovative nature.

Respondents Profile Findings Presentation: Education Level

60% of the workforce had a bachelors degree, while 20% had a diploma and a further 20% had a masters degree. This means that a large percentage of those who took part in the survey are well-educated and, as a result, are familiar with the vast majority of the ideas covered in the survey. As a result, questionnaires were the primary data gathering method in the study.

The majority of those surveyed were well-educated, and as a result, their views on the challenges and road map for the TPDF equipment modernization in the aviation sector were mixed. In addition, the level of education of the personnel assured the quality and dependability of the information provided

Respondents Profile Findings Presentation: Working Experience, Role Respondent, & Department

Approximately 40% of the participants in this research had worked for less than three years. A total of 40 people (or 40%) had been employed for at least six years. Finally, there were 10 employees with less than a year of experience who were categorized as freshers for their lack of experience.

A total of 30 (30%) personnel were classified as military personnel, while another 30 (30%) were supervisors, as shown in figure 4.3. Additionally, 20 percent of the workforce was made up of staff officers, 10 percent of whom were department heads, and the other 10 percent were section leaders.

The engineering department had 10 workers (10%), while the special flight department had 10 people (10%), according to the studys findings. In addition, 10 percent of the ground staff, 10 percent of the flight crew, and 10 percent of the information system staff worked on the trip. Additionally, 10 (10%) personnel from the legal department, 10 (10%) from the finance department, and 10 (10%) from the internal audit department were included in the research. In addition, ten percent of the human resources and training staff was participating, as were ten percent of the quality and safety staff as well

Findings, Analysis and Discussion as per Study Objectives: Financial Difficulties

Sixty percent of those surveyed strongly agreed that the government was experiencing financial difficulties in disbursing funds for modernizing the air transport equipment, while 40(40%) agreed. All military personnel surveyed agreed that the department was in a financial crisis resulting in poor strategies in upgrading their equipment. Due to little revenue, the TPDF does not perform frequent repair or modernization, as the studys findings demonstrate. The culture and mentality of the military personnel towards their equipment has resulted in the poor performance as most of them cannot make good use of the old air transport equipment thus resulting in poor service delivery.

Findings, Analysis and Discussion as per Study Objectives: Poor Infrastructure

50% of workers agreed, 30% were undecided, and 20% strongly agreed with the statement that Tanzania lacks adequate infrastructure. According to the data, 70% of the military engineers agreed with the assertion that bad infrastructure is also a challenge affecting the modernization of air transport in TPDF. According to the studys conclusions, Tanzania generally suffers from inadequate infrastructure. The quantity and kind of aircraft that may land are often constrained by a lack of adequate infrastructure. Due to inadequate infrastructure, TPDF was only able to land specific types of aircraft in particular locations. For example, despite the short length of the runway in Bukoba, the lack of tarmac meant that planes were unable to land there during the wet season, resulting in flight delays and cancellations

Findings, Analysis and Discussion as per Study Objectives: Lack of Skilled Personnel

On competency 50% of the military personnel surveyed agreed; 30% of personnel strongly agreed; 10% objected; and 10% were impartial on whether the air force had competent personnel. 80% of employees agreed with the statement that the lack of skilled personnel in the technological advancement of equipment was the main reason for challenges in the modernization of equipment in the air transport sector in Tanzania

Findings, Analysis and Discussion as per Study Objectives: High Taxes

50 percent of the study participants agreed with the assertion that high taxes were hampering modernization, 20% undecided, 10% firmly agreed, and 10% disagreed. Sixty percent of employees agreed with the assertion that increased airline taxes in Tanzania, particularly in the TPDF, force most companies to rethink their decisions to modernize aircraft equipment. As a result of rising airline operating taxes, only a small number of companies have chosen to modernize their equipment. In addition, 20% of the employees disagreed with this statement.

Findings, Analysis and Discussion as per Study Objectives: Maintenance Cost

70% of the study participants strongly agreed with the statement that the high modernization cost and maintenance cost contributed to the challenges in modernization; 20% agreed; and 10% were undecided. Ultimately, the study established that 90% of all TPDF officers believe that the expense of modernization of their equipment is a major issue. This indicates that equipment upkeep is a major issue for the TPDF. If it is done at all, it is done inefficiently, thus leading to possible occurrences of accidents.

Findings, Analysis and Discussion as per Study Objectives: Aircraft Equipment Modification

Aircraft engineers were asked to provide their thoughts on whether modification of aircraft equipment would be a strategic plan that the government can invest in when modernizing air transport equipment. 40 percent of all people who participated in the survey agreed, 30% strongly agreed, and 30% disagreed. Ultimately the aircraft engineers agreed that investment by the government in the modification of aircraft equipment would be a strategic investment, with 70% of the workforce agreeing with the assertion.

Proposed Measures to Resolve the Identified Challenges Faced

The majority of the respondents agreed that procuring new and modern equipment will help solve the problems facing TPDFs Air-Force Wing. Infrastructural development and recruitment of qualified staff were also agreed to by the participants. Meanwhile, three proposed measures were not prioritized by the participants: incentive schemes, salary increases, and good working conditions.

Conclusions

Due to its importance in the growth of the country and the security of the country, there are a number of short-term and long-term challenges related to equipment modernization in the Tanzanian air force that have to be addressed. Government over-taxation and financial constraints have played a major role in creating a wide range of challenges, both directly and indirectly. The rising cost of transportation can be attributed to both the rising price of oil and the rising cost of fuel due to currency instability and excessive taxes which have led to lack of enough funding. Because of these issues, employees have been underpaid, which has led to poor performance and lack of the necessary knowledge and expertise in the field of modernization. Despite the difficulties there are several potentials that have yet to be fully realized, including long- and short-term ones, like terminal development, regional integration, an expanding economy, and expanding industries like tourism and gas and fuel.

Recommendations

The results of the study shows that the government needs to seriously focus on the aviation industry if modernization of the TPDF air force is to be realized. In particular, the government should create an aviation school and protect it from future interference using an act of parliament. Further, there is an urgent need to invest in the human capital in the air force and the airline industry by, for example, offering personnel sponsorship for further studies. The airline industry can also lobby the government to create a conducive environment for investment by repealing laws not friendly to the industry which would encourage growth. Finally, the Tanzanian government should incorporate the aviation sector into the national economic plan like other sectors of the economy.

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Introduction

When news broke that Osama bin Laden had been killed in a raid by the United States Navy Seals (Seal Team Six), it prompted a wide range of responses, from spontaneous expressions of joy to intense questions about the legality of the operation. Former President Barack Obama had given the go-ahead to carry out operation Geronimo, also known as Operation Neptune Spear, in the lead-up to the strike. Regrettably, the inconsistency in the tangible examples and the shallow legal foundation supplied by Obama administration officials have shown to be inadequate to answer such complex concerns. Nevertheless, the discussion of executive branch legitimacy with regards to international regulations demonstrate the validity of operation and Obamas authority to execute it.

Executive Branch Authority

Various legal experts have disagreed on the legitimacy of operation Geronimo and the following 2 May 2011 invasion and assassination of Osama bin Laden. Because there was no state of war between the United States and the Al-Qaeda terrorist organization, Ambos and Alkatout (2012, p. 341) wrote that Obamas authorization of Operation Geronimo was illegal under both domestic and international law. The authors argue that the operation may have been legitimate if Osama had continued to engage in hostile operations against the United States (Ambos and Alkatout, 2012). The academics later declared the operation illegal, saying it had broken international law by violating Pakistans sovereignty over its territory. After some time, this is dependent on the observance of the right to self-defense as stated in Article 51 of the United Nations charter, particularly in light of the need for prompt action (Ambos and Alkatout, 2012).

This research, however, disproves any claims that the operation was unlawful since it notes that the targeted strike on Osamas home was authorized under both U.S. and international law. According to Article 2, Section 2 of the United States Constitution, the President of the United States is the head of the armed forces and acts as its commander in chief (CIC). Obama was within his legal rights to approve and carry out the operation under the authorization to use military force contained in the 18 September law. Under Article 2(4) of the United Nations Charter, the assault did not constitute an extrajudicial killing without due process or a violation of Pakistani sovereignty. Due to the continued danger posed by Al Qaeda fanatic bin Laden, the use of deadly force was deemed constitutional as an act of national self-defense under the Constitution.

Legitimacy of Procedure

The U.S. Navy Seals decision to shoot and kill Osama bin Laden did not break any international humanitarian or military law. Since bin Laden was the leader of a terrorist organization (al-Qaeda), he remained an enemy soldier. The Seals were within their legal and ethical rights to kill him if they saw a credible danger. Since the early 1990s, American intelligence agencies have been trying to track down Osama bin Laden. The administrations of Clinton, Bush, and Obama had warrants out for his arrest and death due to his high status within Al Qaeda, a well-organized and feared network of extremists. Therefore, the operation was perfectly legal and notable regardless of whether the instructions were to capture or kill Osama.

International Humanitarian Law (IHL) restricts its application to conflicts of sufficient size and force to warrant treatment under a legal war framework. Hence the government cannot use it to prosecute all terrorist acts (Fleck, 2021). International human rights law is a legal concept used to enforce other laws and protect the rights of people worldwide, including terrorist extremists. This legislation is most often understood to authorize the targeting of non-state terrorists in the same manner as conventional military personnel. This demonstrates that non-state terrorists may be attacked worldwide (Fleck, 2021).

International Involvement

The United States took action based on the legal approach it implemented to nations deemed incapable or unwilling to help identify and remove opponents who posed a significant threat to the United States of America (Holbrook, 2018). It is because of the debate about why Pakistan needed to be formally informed of the intended operation. President Obama has given the green light to proceed with the operation despite objections from Pakistan because it would violate Pakistani sovereignty. Primarily, the driving force motivating the act were the citizens who were outraged by the existence of the threat that destroyed norms of American lives. Also, with the current status of terrorist organizations in Pakistan, informing the government would be risky because of the high likelihood that someone in the government would leak the missions details to the target.

Conclusion

To sum up, the legitimacy of President Obamas authorization and subsequent execution of operation Geronimo is confirmed by the cross-border operation and armed conflict legislation. Since Osama was still a wanted criminal and a high-ranking terrorist who posed a significant danger to American civilians when he was eliminated. In addition, the United States did not violate Pakistans sovereignty due to the countrys inadequate cooperation with American authorities. Therefore, after weighing the evidence presented, it is evident that President Obamas authorization and execution of Neptune Spear were lawful under both U.S. and international law.

References

Ambos, K., & Alkatout, J. (2012). Has Justice Been Done? The Legality of Bin Ladens Killing Under International Law. Israel Law Review, 45(2), 341-366, Web.

Fleck, D. (Ed.). (2021). The handbook of international humanitarian law. Oxford University Press.

Holbrook, D. (2018). Al-Qaeda: Formation and evolution. In A. Silke (Eds.), Routledge Handbook of Terrorism and Counterterrorism, (pp. 267- 277), Routledge

Introduction

The question of how much the political factor (which is primarily the federal government) can be present in the economy is controversial. This influence can be both positive and negative. Command of the economy with the help of directives results in the growth of the shadow economy, deficit, and loss of economic interest, which ultimately ends with the collapse of the social system. On the other hand, the state should maintain order and regularity of economic relations by means of policy and restrain negative manifestations of the market. Thus, the interaction of economics and politics plays a decisive role in the vector of social development.

Budget Plan Employment

The serious problems and negative consequences of a large public debt are that there may be a reduction in economic growth as private capital is forced out of the manufacturing sector of the economy to service debt. In addition, tax debt causes an increase in tax rates due to the need to pay interest on the debt, which leads to increased income inequality. Since the federal government has no relief or plans to deal with the problem, the welfare of future generations is expected to decrease due to debt repayment (Mankiw, 2020). In conditions of a decrease in effective demand and purchasing power of citizens, the inaction of the state can lead to a significant decline in the countrys economy.

An increase in the interest rate due to debt refinancing in the short term will lead to the displacement of investments and, in the long term  to a reduction in the countrys capital stock and production potential. The excessive interest of the federal government in loan operations contributes to a significant diversion of budget funds from the needs of economic and social development (Mankiw, 2020). In addition, with the excessive development of the public debt market, the government restricts investment opportunities in the national economy. Thus, the public debt turns into a serious macroeconomic problem.

New Tariffs & Quotas on Imports

As a result of the introduction of tariffs and quotas, imports are reduced. At the same time, domestic production of goods increases, and domestic consumption decreases. Domestic production is expanding because domestic producers do not pay the tariff and, therefore, can produce their goods at higher marginal costs than on the world market (Appelbaum, 2019). The tariff and import quotas thus protect low-efficiency domestic industries from foreign competition. At the same time, domestic consumers are generally reducing their purchases due to higher prices for both domestic and imported goods.

The net losses of consumers from the introduction of tariffs and quotas form an area that characterizes the reduction in the size of the consumer surplus. Part of the increased consumer payments now goes to domestic producers in the form of increased sales profits. Domestic firms in import-substituting industries now sell their initial output at increased prices and receive additional profit from the increase in the volume of production and sale of these products at a price with a tariff and quotas (Mankiw, 2020). In this case, there is a redistribution of consumer income in favor of producers, although certain groups of consumers who own shares of firms in import-substituting industries may receive increased income from the introduction of tariffs and quotas.

Loss of Confidence in Government Leadership

Social capital is peoples trust in leadership, their social connections, and the ability to cooperate for the common good, which is an important factor influencing economic development. The loss of trust has a negative impact on economic growth and financial development, and socioeconomic mobility, as well as on the work of individual markets (for example, job markets). The level of trust in society has another important economic effect  the effectiveness of job creation depends on it. This process is more effective in regions with higher trust indicators (Appelbaum, 2019). Thus, job creation indicators in states with a high level of trust in institutions react more strongly to monetary tightening than in regions with a low one, and the difference remains statistically significant for three quarters. The effect of interpersonal trust is qualitatively similar but more short-term.

The crisis of trust is not just a social phenomenon but the most important factor that determines many economic processes. The higher the level of trust in society, the more effective monetary policy (Mankiw, 2020). The erosion of peoples trust in institutions is forcing central banks to achieve inflation targets with tougher measures and worsening job creation indicators.

Taxes Decrement

The Federal government uses tax policy to generate revenue and places the burden where it thinks it will have the least effect. However, the theory of velcro taxation (the belief that the tax burden lies where the government places the tax) often turns out to be wrong (Appelbaum, 2019). Instead, there is a shift in taxes. A shift in the tax burden describes a situation where an economic reaction to a tax causes a change in prices and output in the economy, thereby shifting part of the burden to others. For example, in this case, the government imposes on those who are learning over $250,000 per year, assuming that the rich can afford to pay taxes and will not change their spending habits. However, the demand for some luxury goods (highly elastic goods or services) will decrease in industries such as the production of personal aircraft or yachts will suffer. Their manufacturers can claim an 86% decline in sales and thousands of lost jobs. That will result in a number of extreme layoffs in some important economic sectors.

Investment Level Decrement

A high level of trust in the country ensures an influx of investments and makes people richer, while a lack of trust provokes financial crises. This may be due to the lack of transparency of the business, as well as its weak social responsibility, which is the result of the disinterest of the business itself in increasing customer trust (Appelbaum, 2019). When companies and the population do not trust the economy, they feel less confident, invest and consume less, and are not inclined to act within the law (for example, in taxation). All this contributes to the decline of the economy, and the unstable dynamics of the economy, in turn, contribute to a decrease in confidence in politicians.

The influence of trust and economic development is always mutual. A lack of trust leads to major crises: both financial and economic. The most important role is played by trade in technological goods and services related to human capital, where the relationship between the two parties is based primarily on trust, which appears with reputation and recommendations (Mankiw, 2020). With a low level of trust, the efficiency of the organization of work decreases, which prevents achieving higher productivity.

Low Interest Rates

The key rate is one of the tools that allows the Federal Reserve to control the ruble exchange rate and influence the countrys economy. The consequences of a low-key rate include low interest rates on loans, bank deposits, and an increase in purchasing power. A low rate means that the dollar is affordable; as a result, companies and the population take loans more actively, and businesses and the economy start developing (Mankiw, 2020). The negative effect of such a policy can be an increase in inflation  money is cheap, so there are a lot of them.

With a low rate, the attractiveness of speculation is growing, so banks are actively buying up the foreign currency. This leads to a decline in the dollar, which is becoming a lot on the market. In response, Federal Reserve can also raise the rate, but if it does, as in this case. Without an increase in the Federal Reserves key rate, it is impossible to take control over inflation and reduce it (Mankiw, 2020). Currency trading does not become less profitable, speculators do not buy dollars from the market, and the exchange rate does not stabilize.

Summary

• Within the framework of the most important federal government, the economic interests of various groups intersect, causing acute, sometimes difficult, to resolve contradictions.
• The most important area of the relationship between the economy and the federal government is the fair distribution of public resources.
• Peoples political interests are primarily determined by their economic interests.
• Economic instability and crises generate crises of trust in the government.
• The influence of the federal government is manifested in the implementation of its economic function.

References

Appelbaum, B. (2019). The economists hour: False prophets, free markets, and the fracture of society. Little, Brown & Company.

Mankiw, N. G. (2020). Principles of economics (9th ed.). Cengage.

Introduction

By December 2007, the collapse of the U.S. home mortgage market and the resultant asset quality catastrophe at lending institutions had, as feared, exercised a domino effect on many sectors of the economy: gross domestic product had indeed declined two quarters in a row. The recession was officially on. The magnitude of the economic decline was such that, as 2008 rolled by, the weakness spilled over into virtually all of the nations trading partners in Europe and Asia.

In classical monetarist theory, fiscal action is the last resort to keep spending going when activity in the two other demand-side sectors (consumers and industry) contract. Aside from re-inflating money supply and resuscitating the velocity of money, government spending ideally sends signals of confidence to the other players in the economy.

Earlier this year, in January and February, the U.S. Congress passed an economic stimulus bill that had been initiated by the outgoing Bush administration.

Not having to wait for the term of a predecessor to end before taking action, Jamaica Prime Minister Bruce Golding announced on December 15, 2008 a package of tax cuts and loans with more expected in the months ahead (Voice of America, 2008).

Comparison of stimulus package features

Size and Timing of Stimulus Package

The augmented U.S. spending bill, originally proposed for $ 787 billion, climbed to $819 billion after various riders and amendments tacked on by Congress (Blanchfield, 2009). Nonetheless, it was the original $ 787 billion outlay that Mr. Obama signed into law on February 17.

Initially, the Jamaican stimulus package counted an unspecified amount in tax cuts, loans of at least $6.4 million for the tourism sector and a $4.5 million cash injection for other small businesses. By June, outlays for the tourism sector had risen to $7.1 million (Makyn, 2009).

As soon as these government stimulus moves can be shown to have had an effect, Mr. Golding promised subsequent aid directly to those who had been retrenched as a result of the economic difficulties. In a reprise of the American situation, the package includes aid to cash-strapped homeowners presently having difficulty servicing their mortgages (Voice of America, 2008).

For the rest of 2009, the parts of the Jamaican program for which details and spending levels could be discerned would aggregate about US$52.3 over twelve months (approximately 0.59% of GDP); it seemed that the tax cut component was due to rise to $9.8 million and tourism advertising and marketing would get $3 million. (Makyn, 2009).

The early levels of Jamaican stimulus spending amount to $10.9 million, a puny 0.0013% of the expenditure approved by the U.S. Congress. But with GDP estimated at $10.5 billion, the scale of the Jamaican economy is just one-fourteenth that of the U.S.A. (NationMaster.com, 2009) while American gross domestic product was thought to be around $14.3 trillion in 2008 (Bureau of Economic Analysis, 2009).

Targeted Industries and Sectors

The U.S. stimulus package relies on cash injections for infrastructure, school investments, and non-cash tax cuts in the hopes that consumers will spend the unexpected discretionary income and thus get a degree of retail activity going that would otherwise not happen. There are also components of a political economy and policy nature, such as incentives to the energy industry being weighted in favor of renewable energy types, and funds for modernizing health care.

The American Investment and Recovery Act of 2009, as it has come to be called, is an exercise in confidence-building and bolstering consumer spending power since it promises to save or create three to four million jobs, chiefly in the private sector and channel an aggregate $150 billion to low-income and vulnerable households. Other broad components:

• Fund a substantial chunk of the cost of computerizing patient health records (electronic medical records or EMR) and therefore save billions in health care costs;
• Resuscitate the renewable energy industry and provide the capital over 2010 to 2012 to double production of domestic renewable energy;
• Modernize 75 percent of federal building space and more than one million homes;
• Under the Pell Grants, increase the maximum award level per student by $500 so as to make college affordable for seven million more students and increasing the education tax cut for just under four million students;
• $150 billion for new infrastructure, including the largest increase ever in funding for roads, bridges, and mass transit systems since the national highway system came into being in the 1950s;
• Dispense an $800 Making Work Pay tax credit for 129 million working households, and expand the Child Tax Credit so as to reduce taxes for families with children. (Recovery.gov, 2009, p. 1).

Scrutinizing the details by U.S. government agency (see table overleaf), it is clear that the ambitious amount budgeted under the Recovery Act is meant to disperse the stimulus very broadly. One notes further that direct outlays (rather than loan guarantees and tax cuts) are budgeted at just $174.9 billion but these have been frontloaded. As of June 2009, one-third (34.5%) of amounts allocated till 2012 have already been paid out.

Table 1: Recovery Act Investments by Agency (Source: Recovery.gov)

Owing to the nature of the Jamaican economy, the Golding economic stimulus package initially meant to help manufacturing, small business and the already-troubled tourism industry (Voice of America News, 2009). At the same time, tax cuts were meant to be beneficial to small business since such a fiscal move theoretically increases consumer discretionary income.

By July, the administration was able to declare some limited success. At least, Tourism Minister Edmund Bartlett announced, no hotels had had to close (Carribean360.com, 2009).

Trade Barriers

There are protectionist provisions in the American package. Specifically, the law mandated that funded projects should utilize only American iron and steel in projects (Blanchfield, 2009). This has naturally aroused protests from Canada, with which there is significant trade in those industrial goods, as well as energy and consumer products. Being dependent chiefly on income from tourism and some bauxite mining, the Jamaican economy has no such protectionist sentiment.

Recap and conclusion

Given the size and diversity of the American economy, the Recovery Act necessarily addresses many more sectors and over a longer time span (up to 2012) than does the limited aims of the Jamaican stimulus program. However, economics is an inexact science and a recovery cannot be engineered any time.

The leaders of the two nations themselves admit that stimulus programs are unlikely to send the recession retreating any time soon. First, the malaise is wide and deep, exacerbated by an accumulation of consumer debt, fiscal and trade deficits in an America no longer used to living within its means. While confidently proclaiming that the stimulus package and other policy initiatives since February had staved off a disastrous economic collapse, Mr. Obama accordingly warned the nation that economic recovery was a long way down the road (Babbington, 2009).

Five months after the Recovery Act was passed into law, the White House was once again testing the waters of public opinion about legislating a second, large injection of deficit spending. Earlier in July, House Democratic leader Steny Hoyer floated the idea in an unsolicited press conference. The White House and Senate  in the persons of White House spokeswoman Jen Psaki, Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid (Democrat-NV), and the President himself  ostensibly refused to consider another stimulus. But an administration ally has clearly been made the stalking horse to test the idea of spending more, presumably in reaction to the bad news of June employment figures: the worst ever in the current recession.

The return to normalization can also be derailed because the time must come when all those urgently-needed funds must be repaid. In all the happy publicity that attended the desire of government wanting to be seen doing something, no matter how rational or not, about the economic catastrophe, few wanted to publicly question where all those hundreds of billions were going to come from. If, as one has reason to believe, these were sourced from Treasury bills and other government IOUs, then the future has simply been made hostage to the present emergency.

Mr. Obama admitted earlier in the month that Short term, weve got problems and no matter how powerful our stimulus, theres still going to be issues working out of all that excessive debt (Rowley and Faler, 2009).

For his part, Mr. Golding affirmed that stimulus spending alone will not be enough to restore the economy on an even keel. Even when the recession dissipates, he foresaw that widespread re-structuring must take place if the island-nation is to attract more investments and create more jobs.

References

Babbington, C. (2009). Obama: Full world economic recovery a ways off. Associated Press wire feed.

Blanchfield, M. (2009). Congress, not Obama, must fix protectionist clause: experts. CanWest News. Don Mills, Ont.: wire feed.

Bureau of Economic Analysis (2009). National economic accounts.

Carribean360.com (2009). Stimulus package helping Jamaica tourism.

Makyn, R. (2009). The cost of Jamaicas stimulus package. The Gleaner. Caribbean Policy Research Institute.

NationMaster.com (2009). Jamaica > Economy.

Recovery.gov (2009). The act.

Rowley, J. & Faler, B. (2009). Hoyer leaves open possibility of second U.S. economic stimulus. Bloomberg news feed. Web.

Voice of America News. (2008). Jamaicas PM announces economic stimulus package. FIND news feed.

Introduction

The policemen play a significant role in maintaining law and order in society. Therefore, they deal with issues ranging from civil disputes to criminal disputes. In many societies, policemen are expected to know the law and any other area that involves maintaining law and order. Unlike other professionals, police service is associated with difficulties and expectations that are beyond their capability. Although policemen are expected to perfectly execute their services, society overlooks their capability.

The qualities of The Perfect Policeman are idealistic, but not realistic. Expecting a policeman to have the legal knowledge and the capacity to tell right or wrong, requires them to attend a law school. Moreover, the expectation means that police officers spend more time in courts to gain experience in judging (Dsilva, 2022). A police officer cannot know about medicine to behave like doctors or nurses (Rooney, 1984). Acquiring such knowledge involves attending medical school which needs at least six years. Intelligence among police officers is acquired after many years of exposure to various criminal proceedings (Dsilva, 2022). It is a fallacy to compare a police officer to a college professor. Maintaining law and order can be tiring, and any police officer would love to have their efforts appreciated through salary increments and other forms of incentives. Therefore, there is no such thing as a perfect policeman since no human can have the qualities expected by society.

The police force is crucial for maintaining law and order in society. However, many community members overlook the roles the police play in saving lives and protecting society. While police officers are expected to have extraordinary qualities, it is important to remember that they are normal human beings. Some of the skills and knowledge require many years of practice and learning. Therefore, it is impossible to have all the knowledge and characteristics listed in The Perfect Policeman.

Search and Seizure Law

Law enforcement officers may need to examine a persons house or property for effective criminal investigations. Police officers can sometimes misuse the search and seizure laws. There is a need for restrictive laws to protect the citizens. However, the citizens can take advantage of the restrictive laws, risking the lives of other citizens. Although restrictive search and seizure laws protect citizens, they can be misused.

Restrictive search and seizure laws for police officers protect the inherent rights of the citizens. The Fourth Amendment provides for various rights including that against unreasonable searches and seizures (UM Distance Learning Institute, 2017). Moreover, the restrictive law enhances accountability among police officers, promoting access to justice. The law prohibits abuse of power by police officers which encumbers justice. Although restrictive search and seizure laws are beneficial, they can be detrimental to access to justice. The laws can hinder investigations since the police are limited in gathering evidence (UM Distance Learning Institute, 2017). Additionally, the citizens can take advantage of the laws, risking the lives of other citizens. A balance between no restrictive and extremely restrictive policies must be maintained.

The best balance between no restrictive and extremely restrictive is prioritizing basic human rights. For instance, in cases where police intervention would least affect human natural rights such as a right to life, extremely restrive laws can be applied. However, in cases where there is a gross human rights violation, no restrictions on search and seizure laws can be applied. The balance would help promote public safety while supporting policemens activities.

Search and seizure laws help policemen during their investigations and the protection of citizens. Abuse of such laws by police enforcement has led to the adoption of restrictive policies. Although restrictive policies help promote human rights as outlined in the U.S. Constitution, they can interfere with police activities. Therefore, prioritizing basic human rights when formulating restrictive laws is crucial for public safety and access to justice.

Asset Forfeiture Laws

Seizing properties that are suspected to be involved in criminal activities augments investigation activities. The seizure encumbers interference with evidence by suspected criminals and any other person who may not be under arrest. Asset forfeiture laws are rules and policies that allow law enforcement agencies to keep properties suspected to be involved in criminal activity. While asset forfeiture laws promote criminal investigations, they are associated with abuse and a lack of transparency.

Asset forfeiture laws can be beneficial to the criminal justice system in various ways. The laws discourage suspected criminals from interfering with investigation activities (UM Distance Learning Institute, 2017a). The deterrence aspect of asset forfeiture laws allows the police to gather evidence which is crucial for prosecution (Rifai & Tisnanta, 2022). Moreover, the laws can promote revenue generation for the criminal justice system. Some of the seized properties are sold, and the money is generated for investigation activities, off-loading the taxation burden from the citizens. However, asset forfeiture laws are associated with the abuse of power by policemen. Some investigating officers can take advantage of the laws to arbitrarily deny citizens their proprietary rights (Rifai & Tisnanta, 2022). Additionally, the laws are associated with a lack of transparency since it is difficult to account for the total value of assets seized by law enforcement agencies. Therefore, regulating the seizure of assets by investigating agencies can reduce abuse while promoting transparency.

Conclusion

Asset forfeiture laws allow police officers and other law enforcement agencies to seize properties involved in criminal activities. The laws promote investigations by deterring offenders from interfering with criminally suspected properties. However, the laws are associated with abuse by police officers and a lack of transparency. Therefore, asset forfeiture laws can lead to infringement on property rights. A mechanism to regulate and account for the seized properties by police officers is of the essence.

References

Dsilva, K. (2022). Same old story of good copbad cop? A narrative approach to social representations of the polices role in addressing genderbased violence in Indian gender advocacy. Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology. Web.

Rifai, E., & Tisnanta, H. S. (2022). Role of law enforcement to prevent cyber laundering and asset recovery from overseas. International Journal of Cyber Criminology, 16(1), 110122. Web.

Rooney, A. (1984, September 7). The perfect policeman. Huntsville Item, Col.2, 4A.

UM Distance Learning Institute (2017). Law and order module 2. [Video].YouTube. Web.

UM Distance Learning Institute (2017a). Module 4 guilty until proven innocent. [Video]. YouTube. Web.

Introduction

First of all, the definition of international political economy should be stated. Frieden and Lake (1999, p. 1) state that political economy has a number of meanings. It may primarily refer to the study of the political basis of economic actions, that is the way how the policy of government influences market operations. Others believe that political economy mainly deals with economic basis of political action (Frieden & Lake 1999, p. 1). However, it is clear that politics and market may be characterized by constant interaction with each other. International political economy is defined by Kegley and Blanton (2009, p. 258) as the study of the way how changes in one countrys economics and politics influence trends in world politics. In the light of the present situation in the world, international political economy has proved to be very important, mainly, for the reason of the globalization of finance and trade in the world. It is necessary to analyze the main authoritative theories of international political economy to understand its essence.

Two competing theories

In the course of development of international relations two competing theories may be defined. They are mercantilist theory and liberal theory of international political economy. Their primary common feature is that both of them analyze the role of state in political economy. However, since the theories are opposing and contradicting, there are many differences between them.

Kegley and Blanton (2009, p. 284) define five primary differences between the theories. The attitude of the theories towards economic relations is the first difference: liberalism treats them as harmonious, while mercantilism considers them as conflictual. The above mentioned difference between the attitudes toward state in both theories is the second difference: state is the main actor for mercantilism, the theory promotes its power, but liberals want to restrict and eliminate the influence of the state on political economy; in their opinion international trade should be free, and households and firms are the main actors. What is more, there is considerable difference in the ultimate goal of economics ascribed by the theories: for liberals it is maximization of welfare on the global arena, but for representatives of mercantilism the national interest is their first consideration. Besides, there is the opposition in the mechanisms of political economy: to liberals economics should determine politics, but to mercantilism politics determines economics (Kegley & Blanton 2009, p. 284). Finally, liberal theory describes global change in a dynamic ever-adjusting equilibrium, whereas mercantilism postulates that world transformations are the products of shifts in the distribution of states power (Kegley & Blanton 2009, p. 284).

It is evident, that neither of the theories is ideal. Liberalism has been criticized for its ignoring political context of the operation of market. This belief of liberals is, evidently, wrong, because markets cannot be detached from politics, they are not spontaneous. Also the theory is criticized for ahistoricism, that means that no attention is paid to the importance of history for market. Finally, liberalism is charged with reductionism, a simplistic reflection of the international market (Jones 2001, p.707). The weak point of mercantilism is its aggressiveness, which may cause a threat of conflict and war between states.

Conclusion

In conclusion, in may be stated that nowadays there exists no ideal theory of international political economy. It is difficult to define, which theory explains international economy better, as both of them have serious weak and strong points. The fact remains that nowadays there appear other theories, which combine and restate the main postulates of liberalism and mercantilism, such as neomercantilism. Perhaps, an ideal theory of international political economy will appear soon, and it will ensure national wealth, social justice, stability and freedom of international relations.

References

Jones, RJB 2001 Routledge Encyclopedia of International Political Economy, Volume 2. Taylor and Francis, New York.

Frieden, JA & Lake DA 1999 International Political Economy: Perspectives on global Power and Wealth. Routledge, New York.

Kegley, CW, & Blanton SL 2009 World Politics 2009-2010: Trend and Transformation. Cengage Learning, Boston.

Introduction

A major issue that the US faces now is teenage or under-age binge drinking. Binge drinking means heavy drinking for several days together. Today in the US, the term means drinking heavily at once, for example; five or more drinks in a row by men and four or more drinks in a row by women. Studies reveal that alcohol is a greater threat to the US youth than drugs. Around 3,200 deaths related to binge drinking and drunk-driving are reported every in the US. More than 16 percent of all alcohol sold in the US is consumed by under-age teenagers. The main reason for this condition is said to be the law which came into effect in the 1980s raising the legal drinking age. To be precise, in the year 1984, the National Minimum Drinking Act raised the minimum drinking age to 21, leaving out certain exceptional cases. This was a time when cases of binge drinking and drunk-driving were increasing the number of youth deaths. The aim of the government was to put a control over these mishaps.

At this point, it must also be discussed why it is important to control under-age drinking. One main reason is the road accidents occurring due to youth drunk-driving. These accidents not only kill the driver, but often injure or kill the other innocent people on the roads. Apart from this, binge drinking follows fights between friends and family frequently leading to murders and homicides. Half-conscious teenagers sometimes even commit suicide for no particular reason. Many a time, it is found that these homicides and suicides wouldnt have happened, only the person involved in it had not drunk. Youth death due to alcohol is six times more than from other drugs. Alcohol also leads to sexual assaults and date rapes in young people. Besides, binge drinking is found to affect their health heavily. Adolescent drinking causes brain damage, sometimes permanent thus affecting the intellectual development of the person. All these in one way or the other, change their lives drastically. The mistakes which are the consequences of heavy drinking cannot be corrected ever. Regretting later on, will make no difference in what ever has happened.

However, the trend in teenage alcohol use in the past 20 years shows that the legislation has not achieved much in term of reducing alcohol usage by those under the age of 21. (Pope, 2009). Approximately 11 million teenagers under the age of 21 still drink alcohol with almost half of them drinking to excess. It is found that boys on average begin drinking at the age of 11 and girls at 13.

The issue of raised drinking age in the US is of utmost relevance, since it is important to discuss if that is the reason for under-age drinking. There are varied opinions about whether or not to lower the legal drinking age. While the aim the government had in raising the drinking age is justified by many, a big percentage of the public vote for lowering the drinking age to 18. Only a detailed study about this matter will help in making a decision.

Lowering Of Drinking Age in the Us

Legal Adulthood Age

The failure of the governments policy in controlling under-age binge drinking gave rise to a lot of debates about lowering the minimum drinking age to 18 or not. A large percentage of the population in the US support lowering the minimum age, because, 18 is the legally accepted age of adulthood. The present drinking age of 21 is accused of not fostering moderation to all ages. Under-age binge drinking happens because drinking laws  both the drinking age and the zero tolerance policy for under-age drivers  do not foster moderation. (Teenage drinking, 2003). Lowering the minimum drinking age encourages the youth for responsible drinking. Less of binge drinking will reduce the road accidents and health problems in the youngsters.

The basic argument supporting the lowering of drinking age is that US citizens who are 18 are given the right to vote, the right to sign any contract and are forced to join the Selective service. Anyone who is 18, can marry. Any 18 year old who commits a crime or makes a wrong judgment is tried in the court, because he is considered capable of making right decisions at that age. If an 18 year olds opinion can be counted in electing the leaders, if they can go to war, it is only fair that they be given the right to purchase, possess, and consume alcohol legally. According to James Torr, The law forbidding the 18 years old to drink is blatantly inconsistent as it considers the 18 years old as not mature enough to decide whether or not to take alcohol (Teens and alcohol p. 29). People who raise their voice against the lowering of drinking age reason that an 18 year old will be less tolerant than a 21 year old. This might be true in theory. But very often, 15-18 year olds are seen more tolerant than their elders. The fact that alcohol is a forbidden fruit to everyone under the age of 21, tempts many teenagers to try drinking basically out of curiosity. It is human nature to wish for anything that is not allowed or that is forbidden; especially in the teenage. If drinking is made legal by lowering the minimum drinking age to 18, at least some of them wouldnt be tempted because they know it is not forbidden.

Many colleges support the lowering of legal drinking age to 18, with a strong belief that alcohol consumption and related deaths in colleges and other educational institutions can be reduced to an extent if it is made legal. Many students begin binge drinking when they are still in school. By the time they reach college, they become heavy drinkers creating trouble for the college authorities. Since drinking in public is not allowed for them, the authorities never succeed in finding and stopping them. There are also cases when junior students in colleges become rebellious. The fact that their seniors can drink when they are not allowed to, make them rebel against the college. They begin drinking in order to show their anger and indignation at being considered as small children. A major cause for the frequent reports of school and university violence is secret binge drinking by under-age students. Many college authorities believe that if drinking is legal, many of the students wouldnt wish to drink. Also, the ones who drink will do it in public and the authorities can control them effectively. This might help in reducing the alcohol related violence and deaths in colleges and schools.

Very often, youngsters wish to taste the forbidden fruit, because they are not sure as to when they would be able to get their hands on it again until the age of 21. As they get rare chances, they wish to make the utmost advantage of it and indulge in heavy drinking. Many European countries have a lower minimum drinking age than the US. China and Georgia does not have any legal drinking age. It is found that many of these countries with lower drinking ages have lesser troubles from under-age drinking. Wade says that, the vast majority of world has set the minimum age at 16 or 17, while other doesnt have a minimum age (Lowering the Drinking Age to 18, P. 9). Similar prohibition laws have been tried in the 1850s and later on, in the 1920s. Both times the government has failed in reducing alcohol related problems. Again the 1980s law, too not only failed but also became the cause for rebellious binge drinking and uncontrolled violence and deaths. The present situation is worse than it was before raising the minimum age to 21. Alcohol related problems and the costs associated with them are ever more.

Since raising the drinking age did not make a difference, why not try lowering it to 18 for once? Many people believe that it will produce positive results by lowering the minimum age, because when alcohol is not forbidden, teenagers will not be as anxious to try it as they are now.

Responsible Drinking

It is generally believed by the people who support the lowering of the legal drinking age to 18 that it will enhance responsible drinking. Responsible drinking means that you never have to feel sorry for what has happened while you were drinking. Basically, this means not becoming drunk. (Hints for sensible, moderate, and responsible alcohol consumption and party hosting, 2001). Majority of the college students below 21 years continue to consume alcohol irresponsibly as a way of rebellion against the law and as a symbol of adulthood. (Engs, 1998). Often times they drink large quantities than they would normally take if it was legal. Youngsters are always motivated in doing things that prove they are adults. Drinking alcohol by breaking the existing law is a way to show elders that they are old enough to handle things on their own.

Problems basically arise because teenagers drink secretly because it is illegal and also so that elders cannot control it. This makes it impossible to know when theres an emergency like an accident. Parents or well-wishers are unable to know if a child is an alcohol user. Occasionally, health problems go unnoticed by elders because they are unaware that their child drinks heavily. This makes binge drinking more dangerous as teenagers are less likely to seek help in case of an emergency resulting from heavy drinking. It is not the age alone that must be the factor in deciding the minimum drinking age. Teenagers are responsible at the age of 18. In fact, if alcohol is made legal to them, a good majority of them will develop a responsible attitude towards it. The fact that they can drink in public places itself, will improve the situation. Pubs, parties, and other public places can be watched by elders to control the youth in case they indulge in binge drinking. Such controlled environments under the supervision of elders will force the youngsters to stop drinking before it becomes to excess. Even the college authorities can effectively reduce the mishaps if the students start drinking in public. For this purpose, many colleges already send petitions to lower the drinking age to 18.

Amethyst Initiative is a collective organization of Chancellors and Presidents of various colleges and universities in the US. They suggest the lowering of drinking age to 18, since the raising of it to 21 has not paid off very well; rather it has produced worse results. (Statement, (n.d)). Studies show that 12-20 year old people are heavy drinkers even more than adults. (Drinking in America, 2002).

It is found that the percentage of all teenagers below the age of 21, who can be categorized as heavy drinkers is more than those above the age of 21. Among the total drinkers too, the percentage of under-age drinkers is more than legal ones.

The country with the highest legal drinking age is the US. The drinking age varies with each country, but remains mostly between 0 and 20. It must be noted that some countries do not even have a minimum drinking age. (Legal drinking age, 2007).

However, studies found that the maximum number of fatal accidents related to alcohol are reported in the US compared to most of the other countries, despite their lower legal drinking ages. According to James Torr, in countries like France, Spain and Italy, where there are very few drink related problems, early socialization to drinking is the norm and youngsters learn how to drink in moderation. (Teens and Alcohol, p.32).

Making drinking legal at 18, gives the elders opportunities to keep an eye on the teenagers and explain to them about responsible drinking when necessary. Campaigns, public talks and classes will help the students understand the importance of controlled drinking and their responsibility to the society. The consequences of heavy drinking, including accidents and health related problems must be taught to them before the age at school level, so that they are encouraged to drink responsibly at younger ages. It is not their ages that matter, but their responsibility towards the society and towards themselves.

Safe Driving

During the last 20 years, there has been a slow and gradual decline in road accidents in the US. People who support the raised drinking age, claim that, the law of 1984 is the reason for the reduction in road accidents. In reality, the accidents reduced due to various other reasons like improvements in technology. Safer automobiles, education concerning drunk driving, airbag usage, designated driver programs, increased seat belt usage and lowered speed limits have helped in reducing the fatal accidents on roads. Though as part of their marketing techniques, many drinking establishments provide free taxi services to the customers. This too has nursed the reduction of accidents. It is true that the road accidents have reduced, but it is basically in the cases of adults. The decrease in drinking and driving problems are the result of many factors and not just the rise in purchase age or the decreased per capita consumption. (Engs,1998). The accidents that still occur are mainly because of the under-age drinkers who drink secretly for fear of being caught. Since they are not seen drinking in public, no one is able to control them from heavy drinking and drunk driving. As a result, they booze out and drive on the roads causing harm to others as well as themselves. If the drinking age is lowered to 18, they too will begin drinking in public. The elders would be able to restrict binge drinking and encourage responsible drinking. Along with it, the technologies which helped in reducing the accidents in the last two decades would cater to the younger ones, thus minimizing road accidents.

Conclusion

Although raising the legal drinking age from 18 to 21 was done by the US government with the best intention in mind, nothing much has been achieved in relation to teenage drinking. Young adults continue to drink heavily and dangerously in uncontrolled environment as a way of rebellion. Lowering the minimum age to 18 would result in more responsible drinking as teenagers will be allowed to drink in safe environment under the watchful eyes of responsible adults. Initiatives such as education on drunk driving, designated driver program and free taxi serves from drinking establishments would achieve more positive results than a raised drinking age.

Annotated Bibliography

Pope, Justine. (2009). College presidents want lower drinking age. USA Today. Web. 

The article by Justine Pope, reports that college students support the lowering of drinking age from 21 to 18. They say that since, raising the drinking age to 21 has not made much difference in binge drinking and road accidents, it is better to lower it to 18. They believe lowering it will reduce the excitement to drink more, because then the students will have no more anxiety to taste any drink. Studies given below show that there has been no great change in under-age binge drinking by raising it to 21 and so it is worth trying by lowering the drinking age to 18.

Teenage drinking: Americas problem. (2003). The New York Times. 2009. Web.

A letter which was published in the editorial of The New York Times, says that the current drinking law does not show moderation to people of all ages. The writer says that if it is lowered to 18, it will be more appealing to all the people, because 18 year olds are capable of taking decisions independently. The teenagers feel that they are considered as children when alcohol is made illegal to them. The fact that 18 is the adulthood age in the US supports this opinion. Studied facts support that there is a better chance in reducing binge drinking if it is lowered.

Torr, James: Teens and alcohol. p. 29. (Provided By Students).

James Torr comments that the prevailing law is inconsistent, because it does not accept an 18 year olds capability to decide whether or not to drink. Since, 18 is the adulthood age in the US, it is only appropriate to leave the choice of drinking to them. He says, if an 18 year old can marry, go to war and sign contracts, he can also decide whether he must drink or not. An 18 year-olds opinion is counted in electing leaders for the country. It is not fair to keep away alcohol from them. A great percentage of the population including, college presidents, are of the same opinion.

J. Wade: Lowering the Drinking Age to 18. P. 9. (Provided By Students).

Wade. J writes that the minimum drinking age be lowered to 18, because most of the other countries have a lower or no minimum drinking age. Even with lower or no drinking ages, cases of binge drinking and road accidents due to drunk-driving are lesser in other countries. This shows that the criterion must not be the age, but other factors. It is found that 18 year old people are often more tolerant than 21 year old people. Studies find that the US has the highest drinking age and still remains one of the countries with maximum cases of under-age binge drinking and accidents.

Hints for sensible, moderate, and responsible alcohol consumption and party hosting: Hints for drinking. (2001). Trustee of Indiana University. 2009. Web. 

This article is taken from Alcohol and Other Drugs: Self Responsibility., defines responsible drinking which later on, does not make one regret about anything that happened, at the time of drinking. A responsible drinker does not get drunk heavily. This means one must not drink or booze till losing consciousness, and creates troubles for others. Various hints for responsible drinking, like, knowing the limits, eating food while drinking, choosing quality rather than quantity are detailed. Following the methods explained in it, will help people to restrict themselves from drinking too much. It has great relevant because, responsible drinking plays a major role in reducing mishaps on roads and in families.

Engs, Ruth. C. (1998). Why the drinking age should be lowered: An opinion based upon research. Indiana University. 2009. Web. 

Ruth C. Engs, says that often teenagers below the age of 21, drink to rebel against the law and to prove that they are adults. He says, they indulge in binge drinking because, it is a forbidden fruit to them. Anything illegal will be of more interest to the teenagers. Being considered as children is something which no teenager can accept. The situation will improve if the idea of lowering of drinking age to 18 is realized. Since the country has tried raising the drinking age twice before and has been unsuccessful, this opinion is convincing enough.

Statement. (n.d). Amethyst Initiative: Rethink the Drinking Age. 2009. Web.

The Amethyst Initiative makes a statement to support an informed public debate about the effects of raising the drinking age to 21 and to play constructive roles in initiating and inviting new methods to make the youth follow responsible drinking. Amethyst Initiative is a group of chancellors and college presidents who believe that effects of raising the drinking age are adverse, that there is still a dangerous binge drinking culture in the campuses. They pledge to initiate debates on the topic and invite new ideas. The earlier articles about the similar attitude of college presidents towards the current drinking age support this statement.

Legal drinking age: The solution. (2007). Alcohol Problems and Solution. 2009. Web. 

As the legal drinking ages in various countries are studied, it is found that the Us has the highest drinking age. Other countries, like Germany, France, Russia, Indonesia, South Korea and Japan have a lower drinking ages. A few countries like China, Nigeria, Poland and Thailand have no minimum drinking age at all. Still, Us is one of the countries with the highest rate of binge drinking and road accidents. It is also found that a majority of these accidents are fatal to the drivers and its other victims. Earlier articles, also claim that the US is the country with the highest drinking age which is ineffective in stopping binge drinking.

Torr, James: Teens and Alcohol, p.32 (Provided By Students).

James Torr explains that countries like Italy, Spain and France, report lesser cases related to drinking, which is because of their early introduction to drinking. He says, teenagers will not be anxious to drink heavily if the age is lowered to 18. Since 18 is the legal adulthood age, it is necessary to leave to them, the choice of whether to drink or not. 18 year old people are given the rights to vote, sign contracts and are forced to go to war if necessary. Giving the right to make decisions independently is important, since, once they are 18, they are adults.

Engs, Ruth.C. (1998). Why the drinking age should be lowered: An opinion based upon research. Indiana University. 2009. Web. 

Ruth C. Engs says that the decrease in road accidents has resulted not from the raising of drinking age to 21, but from various other reasons. Improved seat belts, safer automobiles, improved technologies, designated driver programs, increased air-bag usage and lower speed limits are the main reasons for this reduction, although the opposing people argue that it is the result of raising the minimum age to 21. This reduction is seen mainly in the case of elders. Under-age drinkers still create road accidents which take away not only their lives, but also many other innocent lives. All the improvements mentioned are proved ones, and the statement is strong and convincing enough.

Reference

Engs, Ruth.C. (1998). Why the drinking age should be lowered: An opinion based upon research. Indiana University. 2009. Web.

Hints for sensible, moderate, and responsible alcohol consumption and party hosting: Hints for drinking. (2001). Trustee of Indiana University. 2009. Web.

Johnson Alex. (2007). Debate on lower drinking age bubbling up. MSNBC. 2009. Web.

Legal drinking age: The solution. (2007). Alcohol Problems and Solution. 2009. Web.

Pope, Justine. (2009). College presidents want lower drinking age. USA Today. Web.

Statement. (n.d). Amethyst Initiative: Rethink the Drinking Age. 2009. Web.

Teenage drinking: Americas problem. (2003). The New York Times. 2009. Web.

Teens and alcohol. p. 29.32 (Provided By Students).

Lowering the Drinking Age to 18. P. 9. (Provided By Students).

Introduction

Is there a need for the draft today? Or has the need diminished since Mr. Obama took over the reins from Mr. Bush Jr.?

Recall that early in April 2004, head of Central Command Gen. John Abizaid raised the prospect of a draft on the grounds that the U.S. Army could not yet withdraw from Iraq. This was four months after Saddam Hussein had been captured and two years before he would be executed. On account of religious infighting and the raw state of the replacement security forces being trained to keep peace in the country (but who Gen. Abizaid called a great disappointment), Central Command asked for authorization to send two more brigades to the country and for an extension of duty tours for 20,000 soldiers who were set to come home at the time (Thompson, 2004).

Those troop numbers do not look very sizeable but observers raised fears about a draft even then because the 1.4 million active-duty servicemen across all branches of the military were spread thin in Afghanistan, Bosnia, Serbia, Germany, Japan, Italy, and Puerto Rico. Even then, Reservists and National Guardsmen already comprised nearly half of those fighting in both Iraq and Afghanistan (Dickinson 2005).

Precedents

Fast forward to mid-2009 and one observes how the new president predicts sustained presence in Afghanistan and continued spending on an occupation of Iraq that then-candidate Mr. Obama promised would end by June 2010. In the budget for next fiscal year are White House proposals to increase the total war budget by $75.8 billion, a greater number of Reserve and Guard units set to be deployed to either Iraq or Afghanistan, continued funding support (if somewhat diminished) for Iraqi security forces and boosted funds for the Afghan counterparts, intensified counter-insurgency efforts in Pakistan, buying ambush-resistant vehicles suited to the Afghan terrain, more Hellfire missiles and Predator drones for use against Al Qaeda and the Taliban in the Pakistan-Afghan border, and generally more money to support the war in Afghanistan.

All in all, it seems, the U.S. military is digging in for sustained conflict in the three countries (Leys 2009).

The truth is, the nation has had to resort to conscription many times in its history. Initially, during the colonial era and the Revolutionary War, the states exercised their right to conscription. National conscription was first legislated and employed during the Civil War. The Confederate side also had to employ the draft.

On both sides of the Mason-Dixon line, there were far-flung and violent protests.

Such protests and seeking conscientious objector status has remained a fact of life from then on, every time the draft or selective service was implemented.

Conscription resumed in 1917 when America declared war on Germany. Post-war, the military began to lay the groundwork for the modern draft system as early as 1926. By 1940, with the war in Europe already a reality, President Roosevelt signed the Selective Training and Service Act, squeaking through a recalcitrant Congress, into law. Through the Korean and Vietnam Wars, as well as the Cold War, the draft remained.

Since then, conscription has been affected by political expediency and geopolitical threats. Officially, the draft was stopped in 1973 and even registration was no longer mandatory under the Gerald Ford presidency. But when the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan, President Carter was quick to reinstate the registration.

In the face of an all-volunteer military, Selective Service still requires men from 18 to 25 to register in case a new draft ever has to be instituted.

Politics and Expediency

Today, the U.S. military is hard to put trying to stabilize the Iraqi nation and wage both the War on Terror and War on Drugs in Afghanistan and Pakistan. Some who protest these foreign adventures are critical of Americas inability to succeed at its avowed aims and extricate itself. One important reason the U.S. military got bogged down in Iraq, Carter and Glastris (2005 1) claim, is that the Army underestimated the number of soldiers it would take to secure Iraq, prevent Sunnis and Shiites from slaughtering each other, and pave the way for respectable Iraqi security forces untainted by Saddam Hussein to take over. Had the country deployed enough soldiers to subdue the enemy and occupy a troubled country long enough to gain stability  as America did in Japan, Haiti, Germany, the Philippines, South Korea, Cuba, Bosnia, and Kosovo  the result could have been peaceful turnover to a democratically-elected government and a stabilized political situation. But not enough men volunteer.

America being a pluralistic democracy, there are strident voices raised about the prospect of a draft being reinstated. In addition, opinion polls (representative or not) claim that the population does not support the war in Iraq or Afghanistan. This situation leads political pundits, newspaper columnists, and TV commentators to bicker that the U.S. presence in those Middle Eastern countries should end forthwith and that a draft is not an option where forces of occupation are concerned.

Since many in the liberal press belong to the generation that came of age during the protests of the Vietnam War era  when it was fashionable to dodge the draft, for Jane Fonda to have her picture taken with the enemy in North Vietnam, or for anyone to wear t-shirts with the likeness of Che Guevarra who died a failure in a South American jungle  criticism of a draft is an instinctive reaction. But that does not make them right. There are also loud voices raised about legalizing marijuana and cocaine but responsible leadership of a nation refuses to take their medical evidence at face value.

And so it goes for those who get on their soapboxes to assert that teenage girls should be allowed abortions without parental knowledge or consent, that the U.S. military should welcome those who are openly homosexual, that the entire country should emulate Californias tolerance toward crystal meth addicts, and that universal health care should be legislated now regardless of where the money will come from.

America is not alone in having resorted to the draft. What was then Great Britain resorted to conscription beginning in 1916 because of catastrophic casualty rates suffered right from the start of World War I? However, the Military Service Act of the time permitted exemptions for widowers with children, religious ministers, being engaged in vital civilian work, domestic hardship, by reason of health, and conscientious objection. When the battlefield situation worsened in the spring of 1918, the government even raised the maximum age from 41 years to 51 and decided to apply conscription to Ireland too. Predictably enough, the latter led to general strikes and other civil disturbances.

In 1917, Canada resorted to conscription when French Canadians refused to volunteer and shocking news about casualties in Europes Western Front resulted in a shrinking number of English Canadian volunteers. But Canada needed to replenish its depleted battalions in France. On New Years Day of 1918, the government began to enforce the Military Service Act despite the fearsome ethnic conflicts the internal debate had already triggered.

In embattled Israel, military enlistment is compulsory for both young men and women, despite the fact of deep political and religious divisions about being a militaristic society. Exempted from the draft are Israeli Arabs and Haredi Jews. However, conscientious objector status is not permitted. Even active-service personnel who object to lawful orders in the occupied territories are jailed.

Summary and Conclusion

The bitter memories of 9/11, the vulnerability of America even today to terrorist action, and the compulsion to fight terrorist Muslims right where they seek refuge have been easily forgotten. The reality is that waging war in the Middle East has already strained the all-volunteer Army to its limits, as the large Reservist and National Guard presence can attest. Should the conflagration spread to Iran or China and North Korea, Selective Service call-ups would become a necessity, no longer a topic for democratic debate.

References

1. Carter, Phillip & Paul Glastris. 2005. The Case for the Draft. Washington Monthly.
2. Dickinson, Tim. 2005. The Return of the Draft. Axis of Logic.
3. Leys, Jeff. 2009. Analyzing Obamas War Budget Numbers. Truthout blog.
4. Thompson, Trevor. 2004. The Foul Draft of War. The Simon (blog).