The growth of the real estate sector in the United Arab Emirates requires the development of property laws because these legislative acts are important for attracting investors from foreign countries. These people and organizations attach much importance to the guarantees that the state offers. First of all, one should mention that foreign investors can own housing in the UAE; however, they can do it only in the so-called freehold or investment areas (Ibpus.com 2013, p. 20).
In turn, UAE nationals can own land in any part of the country. The foreign organizations can lease land for 99 years; yet, they cannot become full-time owners of the land (Ibpus.com 2013, p. 20). In Dubai, foreigners can buy lands only with the help of intermediaries such as Emaar Real Estate Company or Jumeira Projects. Moreover, non-UAE nationals can acquire housing only in investment areas such as Al Raha Beach (Oxford Business Group 2007, p. 237).
These are the main aspects that can be identified. It is possible to say that property laws have to serve two functions. They have to attract investors and protect the interests of the UAE citizens. One can argue that property laws contributed to the growth of Dubai since many investors are willing to purchase property in the UAE.
Additionally, the housing policies of Dubai are supposed to meet the needs of employees working there. Even though the culture, traditions and people’s beliefs are somewhat different, Dubai’s business world has made cultural borders almost non-existent. As it is always important to know the ethics and details of the nation where business is being carried out, Dubai has made the conduct very easy and laid back.
Abu Dhabi
If one speaks about Abu Dhabi, one should also mention that there are legal distinctions between the nationals of the UAE or Gulf Cooperation Council (Oxford Business Group, 2007, p. 237). There are several components of the housing policy that are implemented in these cities.
It is primarily aimed at increasing the attractiveness of Abu Dhabi to tourism and foreign investors. This is why governmental organizations carry out such projects as the construction of artificial islands that can be visited by tourists (Roza 2009, p. 54). They are supposed to meet the needs of businesses that can be based in the UAE and abroad. The current policies are supposed to improve the environmental sustainability of urban areas in the UAE.
This is why the government carries out such construction projects as Masdar City that should become environmentally sustainable. The housing policies in Abu Dahdi have to meet the needs of people who face economic difficulties (Emirati Housing Programs 2013). This argument is particularly relevant if one speaks about Abu Dhabi where governmental officials pay close attention to the problems faced by people who are in the urgent need of housing (Emirati Housing Programs 2013).
Overall, current policies contribute to the improvement of living conditions, but the environmental sustainability of these cities should be improved. On the whole, the property laws and housing policy are supposed to improve the living conditions of people and increase the economic viability of these urban areas. In particular, the government attempts to diversify the economic activities of people living in Dubai or Abu Dhabi. These are the main goals that should be attained.
References
Emirati Housing Programs 2013. Web.
Ibpus.com 2013, United Arab Emirates Land Ownership and Agriculture Laws Handbook, Int’l Business Publications, New York.
Oxford Business Group 2007, The Report: Abu Dhabi 2007, Oxford: Oxford Business Group.
Roza, G 2009, The Creation of Islands, The Rosen Publishing Group, New York.
One of the most confounding concepts on the discipline of political theory is the issue of property. Classical philosophers like Plato and Aristotle dedicate a large part of their work to speculations about the state of nature and property ownership. However, a comprehensive theoretical exploration of the concept of private property ownership is credited to relatively modern philosophers like Thomas Hobbes, John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau.
The writings of Locke and Rousseau on property ownership are quite fascinating to compare. Both philosophers portray the early stages of man in what they refer to as the state of nature. This paper takes a critical look at Rousseau’s conceptualization of private property and the state in relation to Locke’s work on the subject.
Origin of Property in the State of Nature
According to Locke, man is driven out of his primitive state by his desire to satisfy his needs. He believes that man is able to acquire only the basic essentials while in the primitive state. John Locke perceives the issue of property acquisition from the standpoint of land. He asserts that land increases in value and productivity due to cultivation. Therefore, labor is the foundation on which one can claim property ownership.
If a person works tilling land, then the land belongs to him while the one who constructs a house owns the house. Locke proposes certain principles, which must be adhered to for ownership of land and property to be permissible. He asserts that man must not harvest from nature in excess of what he can use. When accumulating property, man must ensure that there is enough left to satisfy the needs of others.
In an apparent response to Locke’s ideas on the origin of private property, Rousseau maintains that man is completely solitary in the unadulterated state of events. He believes that, in this state, man is only motivated by individual desires and procreates only during accidental encounters with the other sex (Rousseau 63). He is deeply opposed to Locke’s idea of man as a sociable being. In his state of nature, man lacks the ability to identify even their own offspring.
In the state of nature, Locke and Rousseau seem to agree on several issues especially the theoretical nature of their conceptualization. Rousseau concurs that the state of nature is a largely nonviolent period. However, his revelation of the state of nature is much more appealing. While Locke appears to insinuate that man has progressed out of this state of nature, Rousseau praises it as a period of harmony and virtue.
In addition, Rousseau does not simply take the contemporary man and place him in the state of nature. Instead, he makes a convincing argument of a relatively different and primitive man who slowly evolves into a modern version.
Locke’s version does not explain the evolution of man until the state of nature. Rousseau’s argument seems more convincing since the facts that corroborate the evolution theory have been unearthed. Therefore, Rousseau’s theory appears entirely reasonable in allocating diverse attributes to ancient man and contemporary man.
However, some of the attributes Rousseau’s gives to ancient man and his life in the state of nature are questionable. One these attributes is that man’s basic desires are mostly satisfied in the state of nature.
Rousseau’s idea of a man relaxing while eating fruits off a tree and sleeping under the same tree is more idealistic than realistic. Another concern is that since Rousseau believes that man is solitary as a primitive being, dismissing the threat from wild animals is not very rational. The life of ancient man is perhaps not as peaceful as Rousseau proposes.
Legitimization of Private Property
Private property ownership is a substitution to communal and collective property ownership. In a private arrangement, property ownership guidelines are established around the concept that several disputed resources are delegated to the decision making power of certain individuals or groups. The individual to whom a certain entity is allotted or the person who discovers or constructs it has dominion over the entity. That person holds the decision on what can be or cannot be done with the entity.
Rousseau appears to agree with Locke concerning the disparities that ensue from the inequitable allocation of property. Nevertheless, for Rousseau, personal property and its effect on the human race is a key source of inequality and repression among humans, and not the solution.
Rousseau maintains that the route that leads to privatization of property is the same route that turns humans away from civilization to their model pre-civilized communal society. However, Rousseau believes that private property is introduced long after man abandons the natural state. Unlike Locke, he believes that private property does not exist in the classical state of nature.
I agree with Rousseau on the concept that the privatization of property comes with advancement in civilization. However, I prefer the state of affairs in the private property civilization. Due to the unpredictable nature of climate and the subsequent scarcity of resources, it is only wise that man accumulates property in preparation for a rainy day. The inequalities therein are the consequences of poor management of the privatization process by the authorities trusted with the distribution of property.
Legitimacy of Government
In his second treatise of government, Locke asserts that the state of nature is of absolute freedom and equivalence and believes that man should strive to imitate the state of nature. In Locke’s perception, the authority of the state is dependent on its capability to make laws and protect each member’s rights (Locke 22).
The state must also protect individual rights to private property. Locke holds that the authority of the government rests on the consent of the governed. This is the most important element in Locke’s conceptualization of government as it recognizes the role of the government in protecting the rights of the governed. This is the underlying principle behind the formulation of human rights legislation throughout the world.
Rousseau, on the other hand, does not perceive the social contract as the stage where state of nature ends and an ordered society commences. His philosophy does not speculate a specific point where man suddenly transitions from a primitive life to civilization. Instead, Rousseau postulates a progressive transition through evolution (Rousseau 22).
The crucial part of Rousseau’s theory lies in his perception of government. He argues from an assumption that there is a ‘general will’ that profits everybody. His ‘general will’ seems to be a contrast to ‘the will of all’ where citizens pursue their individual interests. In my opinion, the collective good is a collection of individual interests.
A society cannot claim true freedom if the competing interests of its members are not met. In his conception of the ‘general will,’ Rousseau fails to distinguish utility from the will. Instead, he says that the general will is interested in the good of all.
In the state of nature, Rousseau argues that man functions effectively in his pre-civilized state where there is no inequality (Rousseau 19). However, in the social contract, he argues that man can only function effectively under the supervision of the sovereign state. This may seem like a contradiction since his proper functioning of the state of nature envisions man as independent. However, a further reading of his ideology presents a clear understanding of this concept.
He believes that, with the inequality that arises from privatization of property, man requires supervision to prevent chaos. Rousseau asserts that the sovereign is useless without a proper relationship with the governed. Without the general will (and outside the state of nature), a leader only serves his private interests and not the interests of the people he claims to serve.
Rousseau portrays the general will as a technique of legitimizing the power of government. General will also serves as a way of limiting the use of this power by those in authority. It is an integral part of the social contract that unites the citizens under one political sovereign and guarantees protection of the citizens. It is also a way to minimize corruption in government. However, Locke believes that the government has little to do with ensuring the functionality of the state. Locke does not perceive the government as requiring public participation like Rousseau does.
Though contradictory on many fronts, the perspectives of Locke and Rousseau can be reconciled on several aspects such as their joint opposition to dictatorship. In both postulations of government, the legitimacy of government lies in the will of the people.
Conclusion
The conception of private property as envisioned in most modern legislation can be traced to early philosophic deliberations on the origin of government. A comparison between these two theories of government reveals the related nature of their premises as well as their points of divergence. Their views on private property lead us to the relationship between property ownership and the legitimacy of government. From the above arguments, it is evident that Rousseau’s theory is in response to Locke’s theory.
Works Cited
Locke, John. Second Treatise of Government, USA: Maestro Reprints, 2012. Print.
Rousseau, Jean-Jacques. Discourse On the Origin of Inequality, Minneapolis: Filiquarian Publishing, LLC., 2007. Print.
Identifying the central argument of the two articles
Richard Falk and Michael Walzer present varying views as regards to the reason why state and non-state actors intervene in the international system whenever a crisis emerges. The two analysts differ over a number of fundamental issues, but they seem to agree about the nature of the international system, as they both observe that actors do not intervene to fulfil the interests of the affected individuals, but instead they aim at realizing their national interests.
Falk notes that powerful states intervene militarily to realize their ambitions and objectives in any conflict. He analyzes the effects of intervention whereby he comes up with two sets of reactions that intrusion seems to generate as far as legal, ethical, and political issues are concerned. In the first response, Falk observes that commissions are set up within the state to investigate the consequences of interference where eminent persons are appointed to serve in such committees.
The second response to intervention is criticisms from civil societies and human groups. The analyst tends to disapprove the behaviour of powerful states and other units that rush into conclusion without seeking the approval of the world governing body, which is the United Nations. For him, the advice of the Security Council should always be relied upon before coming with a decision to intervene militarily in a war-tone region.
Falk accuses the role of non-official bodies, such as NATO, which are often used in restoring peace without the approval of the world governing bodies. States should embark on strengthening the legally and ethically accepted institutions, such as the regional blocs since they represent the interests of the majority.
Non-official organizations, including NATO, only represent the interests of the powerful states, such as the United States, France, Britain, and other US allies. Whenever intervention is undertaken, Falk suggests that the UN objectives under the responsibility to protect clause ought to be followed closely.
In this regard, the rules of engagement should be clear meaning that actors should determine when to intervene, the mode of intervention, and must give a genuine reason for intervening. Additionally, military involvement should be employed as a last resort meaning that other options should be explored. If military action is adopted, approval should be sought from the UN to make it legitimate.
Michael Walzer approves intervention if it is felt that human life is in danger. In fact, he claims that actors should make an attempt of intervening as soon as possible to prevent human suffering. In his view, it is difficult to commit crimes against humanity without being noticed in the modern international system because of the development of information communication techniques.
In his attempt to justify intervention, he analyzes four major themes that actors have to consider, which include the nature of occasion, the agents to be used in intervention, the techniques of engaging the aggressor or the belligerent state, and the best time to end or terminate intervention. Regarding occasion, the international community should only interfere with state sovereignty if the condition is extreme.
Issues, such as violation of human rights and authoritarian regimes do not call for intrusion since they have to be dealt with locally. Only issues related to genocide and mass murder call for intervention. When engaging the aggressive party or state in the international system, only the United Nations should be given the mandate of doing so. The use of force is justifiable, but only if other means have failed. Once the situation is restored back to normal, the intervening state should withdraw, as soon as possible.
Identifying the points of agreement and disagreement between the tow scholars
The two analysts agree at some point while in other instances they differ. On the issue of intervention, Falk observes that regional organizations and internationally recognized bodies, mainly the United Nation, should be left with the mandate of resolving conflicts and force should never be applied.
Walzer takes a different stand, as he suggests that only the United Nations should be given the mandate of intervening and force might be used to restore the situation back to normal. Walzer is of the view actors in the international system should not intervene over minor issues. For him, only genocide should attract intervention, as other issues ought to be resolved locally. Falk differs slightly with this idea, as he suggests that actors have the right of intervening whenever deemed necessary.
The two analysts agree that intervention is necessary and should always be undertaken whenever human life is in danger. While Falk underscores the that powerful states intervene to salvage their interests, Walzer has a different view, as he observes that intervention is undertaken to prevent the hostile actor from harming human life. They both give examples of intervention in India, Kosovo, and Rwanda, but their accounts are different.
Critical evaluation of the two positions
It is noted that Falk is a realist while Walzer is a liberalist. Realists believe that any state would have an interest of preserving its political autonomy, as well as territorial integrity.
Regarding the intervention of powerful states, the main objective is to maintain the global power, which is defined in terms of military power, political domination, diplomatic power, and cultural power. Based on this view, realists believe that the international system is anarchic, brutal, and life is short-lived as an actor engage in a zero-sum game whereby a loss on the side of one actor is the gain of the other.
In the global system, there is no Leviathan, which is charged with the responsibility of overseeing the affairs of all actors, instead the vacuum left is filled by the powerful states. In this regard, the international system exists based on the Hobbestian state of nature where life is short-lived and highly calculative. Peace in the international system is maintained by balance of power.
Liberalism is one of the dominant theories in the study of international relations stating that world peace and security could be achieved through cooperation. The theory tends to suggest that regime types, existence of international organizations, and the nature of domestic politics affect the decisions that foreign policy makers formulate at the international political arena.
The commercial interests of various actors force them to implement free trade policies, which have the role to play in the relations among states. Through the theory, other related theories have been formulated, including globalization and interdependence. Walzer notes that agents of globalization, including the media, play a role in exposing the actions of the aggressive actor.
For peace to be maintained globally, actors should think of institutionalizing peace, which would definitely facilitate cooperation. Walzer observes that the United Nations is competent in maintaining peace and security. Therefore, the theory does not encourage actors to come up with short-time peace solutions, but instead they should aim at formulating lasting peace strategies. In this regard, international law, norms, and formation of alliances ought to be stressed if lasting peace and security is to be achieved.
Works Cited
Falk, Richard. “Humanitarian Intervention: Elite and Critical Perspectives”. Global Dialogue, 7.1 (2005): 1-7. Print.
Walzer, Michael. “The Argument about Humanitarian Intervention”. Forum for Intercultural Philosophy, 5.1 (2004): 1-8. Print.
There has been an intensified debate about the alleged chemical weapons attack on civilians in Syria and the proposal by the United States to conduct minimal military strikes in the country to safeguard the Syrians from the hostile regime.
It has been argued that the government of Syria, under its President Assad, authorized the use of chemical weapons in an attack that targeted the opposition factions in the country. This development came amidst the civil war in the country. The war has dragged for a considerable number of months, resulting in a lot of deaths and massive destruction of property. More than ten thousand people have died since the breakout of the war (Cowell para. 6).
What has been outstanding as far as the civil war in Syria is concerned are the politics of supremacy among different players in the global economy. The main players have been the United States, on the one hand, and Russia together with the support of Iran, on the other hand. Therefore, both the print and audio visual media have reported on these developments, with a number of reporters and commentators providing commentaries on the ongoing developments.
This essay presents the developments on the chemical weapons attack on Syria and the steps that are being taken to handle the situation in Syria. The critical focus of the paper is the analysis of issues and the role and position of different stakeholders in the developments. The paper heavily borrows from the commentaries and reports presented by editorial journalists in key media resources.
The Syria chemical weapons attack debate
According to Cowell (para. 1), the United Nations has intensified its investigations over the alleged use of chemical weapons in Syria in the recent times.
The United Nations has been pulled into this debate as one of the key moderators and centers for global pacification. The United Nations’ investigators are looking into the allegations that chemical weapons were deployed seven times, including in the last attack that was conducted on the 21st of August, 2013 and whose impact raised an alarm. The United Nations’ investigation has taken a dual dimension.
It focuses on the possible production sites for chemical weapons and the possible storage sites for such weapons as it seeks to link the presence of the weapons to the supposed attacks (Cowell para. 2-5). This nature of investigations is based on the United Nations Convention on Arms and Weapons. The Convention has not only banned the use of chemical weapons, but it also largely bans the production of such weapons.
Kristof (para. 1) noted that the threats made by the United States to implement minimum military strikes in Syria have been vital in bringing out the truth about the development of chemical weapons in Syria.
He notes that Syria has continued to develop chemical weapons for a long time, contrary to the international convention on the development of weapons that prohibits any country from developing such weapons. In what seems like a one sided view to the issue, Kristof (para. 2) continues to argue that the United States has managed to flex its military power.
Such a decision, according to Kristof, is critical in compelling Syria to bring out the truth about the prevalence of chemical weapons programs in the country. In addition, there are conflicting reports about the intensity of chemical use in the civil war in Syria and the scale of damage. The scale of damage is one of the determinants of the nature of intervention that ought to be adopted (Anderson, para. 3).
A follow up on the diplomatic efforts by Gordon denoted that a considerable level of progress has been made in the negotiations. The negotiations that had been taking place in Geneva, Russia, and the United States reached a deal to the effect that the arsenal of chemical weapons in Syria needs to be destroyed.
The negotiators set a deadline for the completion of the program of chemical weapons destruction in Syria at 2014 (Gordon para. 1-2). However, there is no optimism that such an agreement will be implemented fully. A substantial number of commentators argue that the timeline set for the completion of the chemical weapons destruction in Syria is quite short (Feith para. 4).
Moreover, there is an immense critique of the environment under which the agreement has been reached. This implies that a lot of logical issues were sidelined during the negotiations due to immense pressure on the negotiators caused by the tense security environment and the possible security concerns and consequences that were bound to be witnessed if the two countries failed to come to a consensus over the issue of chemical attacks and chemical weapons in Syria.
Even with the involvement of the United Nations as a moderator, the developments prior to the agreement denoted pressure on the negotiators and the two governments to reach an agreement to avoid any blame for the fallout in the negotiations. Unsuccessful negotiations would mean the possible use of force to access the country and the destruction of the weapons (Gordon para. 2-4).
Gladstone and Sengupta (para. 1) observed that the United Nations is a major force in not only the preparation of the sides to reach an agreement, but also a major player in the enforcement of sanctions. However, the same body is largely controlled by member countries, especially countries that have veto power.
The United States and Russia have the veto power. In spite of the agreement having been reached, the ultimate player in this case is the Syrian regime. The resolution that was made by the United Nations Security Council does not threaten the Syrian government under the leadership of President Bashar al-Assad. This offers a great opportunity for the government of Syria to cooperate with the United Nations to avert the possible use of force, which may be lethal to the citizens of the country.
There is no optimism over the possibility of ending the Syrian conflict by virtue of launching the program to bring the Syrian civil war to an end. Efforts to intervene and end the nuclear weapons production in the country should go hand in hand with the long term efforts of bringing the civil war to an end and restoration of political order in the country (Gladstone and Sengupta para. 8-9).
However, whether President Bashar al-Assad can be coerced as a means of bringing the war to an end is an issue that is still complex due to side politics from the players in the diplomatic course (Kristof para. 8). Moreover, there seems to be a split within the country over the embrace of coercion. The rebel forces in the country seem to back the use of coercion, while the government and other citizens vehemently oppose such a move (Gordon para. 8).
There have been confusing reports about the nature of the chemicals that were used in the attacks, with some correspondents and chemical weapons experts pointing to the use of mustard gas. Others argue that the attackers used sarin.
Reporting on the possible links to chemical attacks in Syria, Kaiser (para. 3) noted that the United Nations’ investigators need to assess the debris where the bombings took place to ascertain the nature of the chemical weapons that were deployed in Damascus and other alleged regions. However, Kaiser does not show optimism in these inspections. The United States is bound to launch attacks even before the United Nations’ investigators present their report (Kaiser, para 9).
According to Fidler (para. 1), the chemical weapons debate has attracted the attention of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). NATO, which is one of the military forces in the Western Europe region, has claimed that these attacks need to be given attention. The tone in the allegations raised by NATO denotes that the masterminds behind these attacks need to be brought to book. This implies the possibility of the involvement of NATO in direct intervention.
However, it is not known whether there is a force from the United States compelling NATO to give the warning. The statement released by NATO seemed to be affirmative. In the report, it was noted that there are stockpiles of chemical weapons in Syria. Again, this raises the question about the essence of the ongoing investigations bearing in mind that most of the renowned powers provide statements that seem to affirm that the Syrian regime has promoted the production of chemical weapons.
If it is true that such weapons are being produced and have been used to unleash violence on the people of Syria, then the condemnation from the international community is welcome. The production and deployment of these weapons pose a threat not only to the citizens of Syrian, but also across the entire world. The mere fact that these weapons have been deployed in Syria means that there is a high potential of these weapons crossing the borders and being deployed in other countries (Fidler para. 3-9).
Feith (para. 2) ascertains that the policy of the United States in Syria is multifaceted. The United States is not only concerned about the production and the claimed deployment of chemical attacks in the country, but it also focuses on the humanitarian crisis that has been created from the long standoff in the country and the possibility of combating the greater interests of Iran in Syria. It is claimed that Iran has continuously offered support to Hezbollah proxies, who have helped in keeping the hostile regime in power.
The United States government has continuously made attempts to link the Syrian regime to the chemical weapons attack. People have been seeing the policy of the United States in Syria as focusing on ousting President Assad from power. This has caused the United States to change its policy by launching the campaign to preserve Assad in power and still implement its foreign policy goals in the region (Feith para. 2-4).
Informed opinion on the Syria chemical weapons attack
The issue of chemical weapons attack in Syria is an eye opener into the large gap that prevails in the international political systems and the ability of these systems to embrace trust and cooperation for the sake of promoting human security. The debate and opinions on the issue revolve around the responsibility of each player and whether these claimed responsibilities can be justified.
Therefore, it can be said that a lot of ethical issues are evident in the developments that are taking place, with most of the players seeking to justify their planned set of responses. It is evident that the supposed attacks have sparked the struggle for power and supremacy in the global political arena. This incites a psychological war between the United States and its contemporary competitors (Charles para. 1-2).
The countries that are on the periphery, but have been closely linked to the contemporary developments and the search for a permanent solution in the conflict include Russia and the United States. These are the two countries that have immensely struggled for power and supremacy in the world history.
Russia, together with a number of its allies like Iran and North Korea, is opposed to plans to conduct military strikes in Syria by arguing that they will aid the Syrian regime to counter any military attacks if the United States decides to go on with the proposed military strikes.
In this case, Syria is viewed as a periphery battle ground as far as the renewed struggle for supremacy between the United States and Russia is concerned. The struggle by these periphery countries to justify their actions concerning the issue does not offer a solution to the citizens of Syria, who continue to face the wrath from the sustained civil war in the country.
Whether the chemical weapons are deployed in the country or not seems to be the main focus. Looking at it from the ethical stance, it is critical to focus on tactics that will stop or minimize the negative attributes of the civil war on the civilians. This is the form of humanity that is required, instead of the contest that is being seen from the commentaries. The use of chemical weapons needs to be condemned using the strongest terms possible as the use of such weapons endangers the status of humanity in the word.
The question that needs to be asked and responded to is how the production of such weapons can be stopped without causing more harm to innocent people in Syria. The question should not focus on whether these weapons were used or not, but on whether there is a better way of preventing the production of such weapons in order to eliminate the chances of such weapons being deployed again and assuring the Syrians of safety and security.
With periphery politics surrounding the issue, the investigations and the role of the United Nations in the issue are bound to be watered down by what can be termed as the re-emergence of realistic tendencies in global politics. For once, it is critical for the United States to put aside its interests in Syria and implement policies that can help to avert the humanitarian situation in Syria.
Conclusion
From the discussion above, it can be argued that the issue of the civil war in Syria and the recent developments has sparked international debates. The rationale for this conclusion is that the supposed chemical weapons attack in Syria has sparked concerns about international security and the responsibility of world powers in sustaining global peace.
In addition, the issue of the battle for supremacy has re-emerged, thereby making the issue more complex due to the clash of interests evident in the way different countries are crafting their foreign policies in relation to the Syrian chemical weapons attack issue. Variations in commentaries and opinions are bound to broaden as actions are taken by different players.
The report provides the analysis and discussion of the issue associated with the information divide between the urban and rural territories in Australia. The discussion of the issue is based on defining the concept of information or digital divide in the global context and with references to the situation in Australia.
The report investigates the information divide as the global issue and as the problem influencing the development of the Australian society and economy because of the factor of geographical location. According to the report findings, the information divide between the urban and rural territories is a result of the drawbacks in the supportive infrastructure to provide the Internet and mobile connections in the rural territories, and it is the effect of the inappropriate policies related to the Internet connection costs in these regions.
The current policies used by the Australian government to improve the situation contribute to the increase of possibilities for the metropolitan areas’ progress because there are appropriate basics for the further improvement of information and communication technologies in the urban regions.
There are recommendations presented in the report to improve the system of the government’s investments in the industry and to change the policies in relation to the promotion of the access to the information and communication technologies.
Introduction
In the context of intensive globalisation processes, the issue of information or digital divide acquires a new meaning because the flows of information and the effective communication channels can influence the development of economy and society at the global and national levels significantly. An information divide can be defined as a kind of inequality between different groups of population in relation to their access to definite technologies known today as information and communication technologies.
This divide can be classified according to several parameters such as age, gender, location, and others. The geographical location plays an important role in discussing the aspects of the information divide because the people’s possibilities to use computers and their access to the Internet or mobile connection depend on the persons’ location (Rowena 2003).
The issue of information divide between rural and urban territories is typical for many countries, including such a developed country as Australia. Thus, in spite of the increased role of information and communication technologies in the social and economic life of the Australians, the information divide between the rural and urban territories is observed with references to supportive infrastructure and priorities in the national development plan.
Discussion of the Information Divide Issue in Relation to Australian Urban and Rural Territories
The concept of the information divide in the global context
Today, the access to information and communication technologies is the necessary condition for the development in all the industries and markets while focusing on the spheres of social life, economy, and business.
The global economic chains develop depending on the principles of speed, flexibility, and innovation, and the progress in the Internet and mobile technologies can respond to these demands. Any processes which are associated with modernisation and industrialisation depend on the progress of information technologies, and these changes in the economic life of the world population are also connected with the alternations in the social life.
Thus, persons’ success as professionals and active participants of the society’s life is also based on their access to information and communication technologies because of the possibilities not only to receive the necessary information but also interact within the information flow (Korpela, Montealegre, & Poulymenakou 2003). Furthermore, the usage of computers and other technologies also facilitate companies’ productivity and contribute to the firms’ performance.
However, the progress in information and communication technologies affects the development of the information divide issue because it is rather difficult to guarantee the equal access of all the population’s categories to the information flow.
It is important to note that differences in the possibilities of the African populations and representatives of the Western countries to receive the access to the Internet are obvious because of the governments’ positions and the levels of the economic development. Thus, the factor of geographical position plays an important role to discuss the question. Moreover, to focus on the issue at the national level, it is necessary to refer to the divide between the urban and rural territories.
The differences in the educational levels and social progress observed at the urban and rural territories are significant to state that the abilities of the populations to use the information technologies are also important along with the provided access to the technologies and developed infrastructure (Graham 2002). Furthermore, “the rural/urban divide appears to be more accentuated the more sophisticated the technology is” (United Nations 2009, p. 49).
Facing such barriers as the weak supportive infrastructure and the lack of knowledge to use computers or mobile phones appropriately, the representatives of rural territories experience difficulties with their access to the information and communication technologies, and the discussed information divide increases. To contribute to the public’s connectivity at the national level, it is necessary to pay attention to all the associated factors.
The information divide between the rural and urban territories in Australia
To understand the situation in Australia which is related to the digital divide, it is necessary to focus on the connection of processes with the development of the Australian economy and society.
Rural regions can be discussed as less connected in comparison with the urban territories because of the low development of the associated infrastructure and the lack of the necessary skills to use all the provided opportunities related to information and communication technologies (Black & Atkinson 2007). Today, the Australians use the Internet connection, digital TV, and mobile phones actively, but the numbers are different in relation to rural and urban territories.
Thus, in 2009, more than 75% of the Australians living in the urban territories had the access to the Internet connection, and 65% of the Australians from the rural territories could also use the Internet (Figure 1; Lee 2011). Thus, the digital divide between the rural and urban territories can be measured in relation to the difference in 10%, and it is expected that the digital divide will decrease with the further progress of the information and communication technologies.
The reasons for the development of such tendencies are in the social and economic demands. The costs of the Internet connection in the rural territories of Australia are higher because of the necessity to support the infrastructure outside the metropolitan areas more actively. This factor can affect the people’s choice related to the usage of computers and Internet connection.
Furthermore, although today farmers and businessmen in the rural territories of Australia are inclined to use information and communication technologies and the authorities invest in these operations, the evidences support the fact that large enterprises oriented to the use of such technologies more actively (Meshur 2012). However, the government’s investments to change the situation in the rural regions regarding the digital divide remain to be the important part of the budget.
From this point, the uneven distribution of the digital resources between the rural and urban territories is characterised for the Australian society. The citizens living at the rural territories have the unequal access to the information and communication technologies because of the unreliable connection and weak infrastructure (Willis & Tranter 2006).
Thus, the geographic isolation of definite remote rural territories influences the progress of these regions negatively due to the absence of potential advantages to provide the expensive Internet connection in these regions.
Figure 1. The Digital Geographic Divide in Australia (1998-2009)
(Lee 2011).
Discussion of the Issue’s Effects
It is possible to discuss the economy of Australia as depending on the advantages of the information and communication technologies because the speedy flow of knowledge and information is necessary today to influence the progress of enterprises at the national level and at the global arena. That is why, the weaknesses related to the Internet connection costs and quality of the services provided along with the supported infrastructure can affect the development of the firms located at the rural territories significantly (Willis & Tranter 2006).
The intensified division of the society into privileged and non-privileged groups in relation to the access to the information technologies is also discussed as the negative effect of the developed digital divide. The problem is in the fact that it is rather difficult to overcome the gap immediately, and it can increase in correlation to the improvement of the situation in the urban territories.
The effects of the poor Internet or mobile connection can influence the business communication between the companies negatively. It is important to refer to this factor while discussing the role of the effective information and communication technologies for the progress of economy and business.
As a result, the digital divide directly affects the progress of the society and discussion of the metropolitan areas in Australia as commercial or business centres (Gibson 2003). In spite of the fact that rural territories are perceived as attractive for the development of the Internet and mobile connection, the real situation in the regions can be discussed as the barrier to the potential improvement.
Recommendations to Overcome the Information Divide
To cope with the digital gap in Australia in relation to the difference between the rural and urban territories, it is necessary to encourage the further investments in the industry to improve the infrastructure in the remote regions of the country. It is also possible to propose changes for the activities of the companies which are promoters of the Internet in the rural territories in order to decrease the costs and stimulate the partnership between public and private parties (Cocklin & Dibden 2005).
The government should focus on the equal promotion of innovative technologies in all the spheres and industries in Australia without references to the rural or urban territories because the concentration on improving the information and communication technologies only in the urban territories leads to deepening the gap (Meshur 2012). More attention should be paid to the improvement of the situation with the home access to the Internet along with the general access of enterprises to the innovative information technologies.
Reference List
Black, M & Atkinson, J 2007, Addressing the digital divide in rural Australia. Web.
Cocklin, C & Dibden, J 2005, Sustainability and change in rural Australia, UNSW Press, Australia.
Gibson, C 2003, ‘Digital Divides in NSW: a research note on socio-spatial inequality using 2001 Census data on computer and Internet technology’, Australian Geographer, vol. 34. no. 2, pp. 239-257.
Graham, S 2002, ‘Bridging urban digital divides? Urban polarisation and information and communications technologies (ICTs)’, Urban Studies, vol. 39. no. 1, pp. 33– 56.
Korpela, M, Montealegre, R, & Poulymenakou, A 2003, Organizational information systems in the context of globalization, Springer, USA.
Lee, D 2011, ‘The digital divide: the Australian Government’s role in addressing ‘ability’’, Telecommunications Journal of Australia, vol. 61. no. 2, pp. 251-272.
Meshur, F 2012, ‘Telecenters as an information technology tool for development in urban and rural areas’, International Journal of Arts & Sciences, vol. 5. no. 1, pp. 385–398.
Rowena, C 2003, ‘The digital divide: A global and national call to action’, The Electronic Library, vol. 21. no. 3, pp. 247-260.
United Nations 2009, Information economy report 2009: trends and outlook in turbulent times, United Nations Publications, USA.
Willis, S & Tranter, B 2006, ‘Beyond the ‘digital divide’: internet diffusion and inequality in Australia’, Journal of Sociology, vol. 42. no. 1, pp. 43-59.
What are the trends that have traditionally influenced how the United States acts?
One of the trends that has traditionally influenced how the United States acts is its strategic inclination towards the allied nations and especially those within the pacific region (George & Rishikof, 2011).
The past American presidents have traditionally made pronouncements on the need to strengthen military prowess and also make strong ties with the pacific allied members. This trend goes hand in hand with the strong attachment to the European nations whenever there is need to solicit for military support before waging wars at enemies.
Since the end of the Second World War, the United States has been keen on forming allies with the European powers when there is need to strengthen international security. The strategic and military perspective that the United States’ authorities are taking seem to be changing with time especially in regards to the military friendship with the Pacific region.
Secondly, the powerful technological base of the American government has been a driving force depicting the action of the United States. While technology has been a changing factor with time, it is imperative to mention that the United States has taken keen interest in exploring its local and international interests due to the level of technology that has been put in place.
The American government would not have been in a viable position to establish its presence across the world without a formidable and well sustained skills and competences in science and technology. Both the state and non-state actors have conventionally put a lot of interest and concern on how science and technology can be employed in order to advance the interests of the nation.
In addition, a viable political structure and leadership has been instrumental in establishing rule and code of conduct among politicians within the American government (Katzenstein, 1996). Even in case where there are eminent political dysfunctions, the pat governments have always come out openly to defend the system and possibly make the necessary corrections.
For example, the US foreign policy is largely shaped by the political system and leadership that have been modeled for considerably lengthy period of time. The manner in which the U.S government acts may not be separated from the politics of the day bearing in mind that the global arena is pitched on national politics that target specific interest of a nation.
The economic well being of a nation is dependent on resource base. The natural resource base of the United States has also been a key point of interest for the government when making vital decisions and taking important steps. The scarcity of natural resources has been a major source of concern for the United States when actions are being taken.
For instance, the rising oil prices in the world market has brought along several implications in regard to energy requirements for the nation. Economic whiplash is one of the impacts that the U.S government may not accommodate at all. The 2007/2008 global recession was a clear indicator how scarcity in resources coupled with poor economic performance led to instability in government.
Moreover, the American national debt is another key area of focus that has been used to direct decisions since it is closely attached to resources. There are myriads of challenges that the American government can hardly deal with especially when the debt question is put into consideration. When the debt limit is exceeded, it is hardy possible for any government to protect its interests and affairs across the board.
Are these different trends going to be viable going forward of is the United States going to have to make significant changes to the way it thinks about national security?
Some of these trends may fail to be viable in the long run especially when they are not executed well. For example, the national debt affecting the United States government has been a major cause of concern. Improper application of the above trends may eventually culminate into capitalism.
The latter may be the worst system of governance. For example, this form of governance may not united people within a country. When a government pursues a system or tradition that tends to alienate the economic well being of its people, it may lead to gross violation of basic human rights.
It is vital to mention that national security largely relies on how well a government organizes and utilizes its resources. For example Democracy highlights that there exists total independence of participating parties when decisions are being made. When past researches are keenly explored, especially in regard to capitalism, democracy requires that the inception of guidelines into the policy making and execution of these be solely a government responsibility.
It should also be free from any interruptions emerging from the state and non state actors. However, with the emergence of capitalism, the expected benefits are yet to be attained bearing in mind that there is intense competition among nations even as political globalization is gradually taking shape. In terms of scarcity of resources, there are myriads of large companies that are fighting for the markets (Gartenstein-Ross, 2012). Hence, small establishments are left with no possibility for growth.
How do these trends affect American national interest?
Every American citizen today is overly concerned with the status of the country’s national security especially following the events of the September 11, 2001. Indeed, as United States continues to fund its military action in Iraq among other unpopular foreign policies, the worry is that a repeat of terror attack might be in the offing. Right from the very beginning, the war on Iraq was presumably misguided, at least according to the critics of former President Bush Administration (Jordan,Taylor, Meese & Nielsen, 2009).
It is definite that the state of national security hangs in the balance following the 2003 aggression on Iraq (Marshall, 2010). The United States government and the general public is living in fear of being attacked by organized terrorism. No wonder, the Department of Homeland Security was immediately formed in 2002 after the 9/11 incidence and thereafter followed by the 2003 invasion.
Sincerely speaking, the threat to WMDs is glaring even as the government is trying to cushion itself by creating systems and structures to monitor and fight terrorism. The earlier prediction by the then vice President Dick Cheney that oil and gas prices would soon resume to normal did not come to pass. The total oil output from Iraq stagnated at 1.5 million barrels per day contrary to the expected 3 million barrels per day.
The drop in oil and gas production went down by 50% immediately after the onset of the war, thereby leading to skyrocketing of prices of this rare commodity in the international market. By 2006, the global output of oil was anticipated to increase by about 0.8 million barrels per day (Bolt, Coletta, & Shackelford, 2005). However, the shortfall experienced in Iraq as a result of the war was significant enough to derail the expected output.
References
Bolt, P., Coletta, D. & Shackelford, C. (2005). American Defense Policy. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press.
The decision by the United States government to use force against Syria as an intervention to deter Syrian government from using chemical weapon against civilians is timely and highly welcome. It is a factual that for a military intervention to be considered legal, there is always a need to get the approval of the United Nations Security Council as stated in the United Nations’ Charter.
Two permanent members of this Security Council, Russia and China, have already given their disapproval for a military intervention. This means that basing the argument on what the United Nations’ Charter states on when and how such intervention should be made, the United States does not have a legal mandate to make this intervention.
However, there is need to take a keen analysis of what is going on in Syria before making a judgment on whether or not the United States has the right to intervene. This study will look into some of the cases where the United States failed to act to save humanity and the result of such moves. The study will also look at cases where the West acted and the result of their move.
The Rwandan genocide in 1994 will be a clear point of reference for those who are still opposed to military intervention in Syria. In Rwanda, Prunier (56) observes that the United Nations did not find a legal ground to make a military intervention in the war against the Hutus and the Tutsis. The argument then was that genocide was a civil war that did not necessitate United Nations military intervention. The world watched as millions of Tutsis and Hutus died in the hands of the government and militia forces.
It is estimated that the Rwandan genocide resulted into massacre of about 20% of the country’s total population (Annan 67). The United Nations did not take any action because some members thought that military intervention was not necessary. Another catastrophic scenario is the Darfur War, which has dragged on for years registering loss of life. The United Nations has not made a move to end this war. The region remains volatile.
The United States has a responsibility to protect humanity. It is a fact that in the current world, military intervention into a sovereign state may be considered as barbaric. However, it is important to protect humanity from a possible destruction at all costs. The government of Syria has the responsibility of protecting its citizens.
If this government turns against the people it should protect, then it fails to act in the interest of the Syrians (Landman 89). In such a case, the government’s legitimacy is questionable. Russia and China will always want to appear special by opposing any decision of the West, especially if it is proposed by the United States.
This is a selfish move given that these two countries do not act in good faith to protect humanity, but to attract sympathy from corrupt and oppressive governments so that they can find larger markets for their produce, especially government tenders. The United States should act to save Syrians from a possible destruction by its own government (Teitel 79).The need to protect humanity should supersede any bureaucratic law. This means that the United States is justified to make military intervention in Syria.
Works Cited
Annan, Kofi. The Media and the Rwanda Genocide. London: Pluto Press, 2007. Print.
Landman, Todd. Protecting Human Rights: A Comparative Study. Washington, D.C: Georgetown University Press, 2005. Print.
Prunier, Gérard. Darfur: The Ambiguous Genocide. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2007. Print.
Teitel, Ruti G. Humanity’s Law. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011. Print.
Mobile or handheld devices have changed the way people live and conduct business. This is a feature of mobile computing which was once a dream because of its intricacies and complexities. With the advancement of technology, particularly nano-technology, this is now a reality and has aided many disciplines, to include science, medicine, and now governance.
We all know mobile device is very effective and now an important part of ordinary living. People cannot proceed with ordinary chores without a cellular phone in their hands. The introduction of the smart phone has made computing ordinary part of life. Communication is so easy and fast that mobile technology, mobile communication in particular, is the most important phenomenon that has occurred these past years.
Improving government services by means of mobile phones and handheld devices is indeed revolutionary but commendable. The question is how effective is this method to bring the government to the heart of the people and how can this be measured and assessed of its effectiveness. This is one of the highlights of this essay – to know the efficiency and effectiveness of what is now called m-Government, or governance with the application of smart phones, websites and other wireless technology known as smart objects.
There have been studies about mobile technology adapted to various areas in business, education, and other disciplines. But empirical studies regarding the efficiency and effectiveness of mobile technology, particularly smart phones, adapted to government functionalities cannot be readily obtained.
Governments, however, have been enthusiastic in adapting smart phones to their daily governance, probably to improve governance and fast-track services for their constituents. One of these is the government of United Arab Emirates. The UAE is fully committed to the adoption of m-Government, precisely to improve their service and enhance government-people interaction.
The objectives of this study are:
To know the meaning and function/s of m-Government.
To understand how this can be applied.
To know the advantages and disadvantages of m-Government.
To investigate the importance of smart phones and its application and use on m-Government.
Literature Review
The term m-Government refers to the use of electronic and handheld devices to improve government services. Handheld devices are covered in the general subject of Information and Communication Technology (ICT). Citizens can use their mobile phones to access government services, or through the government website which is connected online or the Internet. This form of government-citizen interaction has been used by many countries to provide immediate delivery of government services. (Gasmelseid 88)
The UAE government is trying to improve its services by way of providing an extension of e-Government platforms through mobile technology. The platforms include electronic document interchange by means of e-learning, e-business and other similar applications to enhance e-government or m-Government. M-government is the term that refers to the use of mobile devices to access to e-government. These terms are interrelated. Mobile technology refers to cellular phones and other handheld devices used for effective communication.
The primary objective of m-Government is to improve and enhance government services by cutting process costs, connecting with the appropriate office in government and attaining empowerment within “the government architecture” (Gasmelseid 88).
Some people aim for shortcutting but the term shortcutting does not mean changing the process but it means avoiding the long-process of attaining government service. Through this technological process, the relationship between the government and the citizens is improved. But one thing should be clarified, it does not mean that the promised benefits are there and can be perfectly attained.
Failure in leadership and weak infrastructure results in poor m-Government. Successful implementation of m-government depends not only on availability of resources but on having “the necessary implementation-oriented paradigms that describe the growth and evolution of e-governments” (Gasmelseid 88).
UAE’s m-Government Initiatives
An increasing growth is seen in the mobile technology, with 14 million mobile devices entering UAE, m-Government will become fully operational this year and is accessible by ordinary citizens; all government offices and departments can be accessed by way of smart phones.
ICT use is a significant step of the government toward heightened sustainable economic development and its dream of serving every Emirati who should feel the gains of the advancement of the economy. Through m-Government, fast communication between people and government is made possible. This also helps in improving the image of the government as ordinary citizens can ask questions through their mobile phones.
The Five Phases of m-Government Implementation
Implementation of m-Government has five phases. The first is on publication of information. Government posts information through its website or through other means of advertising and mobile phone users respond by way of their smart phones. An interaction ensues – this is the second phase. Government personnel (or website administrator) also interact.
The third phase may consist of instructions from the website, or actions that the individual should take. This would depend on the type of request or information the individual needs. The mobile user may be asked to fill up some forms. The fourth phase consists of a full integration and the fifth is participation. Here, the individual is empowered by participating in government, although by just asking questions or giving suggestions. (Maranny 35)
The Smart Phones
Smart phones, or smart objects, know their environment and perceive the world around them through sensors and other wireless technology composed of complicated circuits and integrated circuits, which are features of nano technology. Smart phones provide awareness services to users in areas where wireless technology is available, which are called smart environments. (Siegemund, Floerkemeier and Vogt 69)
Through smart phones, users can retrieve data from a remote location as long as there is signal. Interaction between smart object can be conducted anywhere. Smart phones can connect to the Internet and to government websites which provide services. The UAE website is open 24 hours a day, seven days a week. That is a big help for the citizens and a big boost in terms of reputation for the government.
Remote interactions can be attained when a smart phone user is in proximity of a wireless object, or smart object. When not in proximity, the user can use the Internet to have a wider proximity. An interaction stub incorporated in the smart phone can provide a remote interaction. The user can write text messages, or SMS, through interaction stubs. Smart devices other than cell phones, which can interact with smart objects, include personal digital assistants (PDAs), laptops and tablets.
These new smart devices have higher installed memory which allows users to download and upload larger contents or documents and images. The server contents that are requested by the client or user should be adaptable by the receiver. There are adaptation methods that should be met by both server and user. The elements to be adapted in the process are data that may or may not include other media such as images, audio and video. (Adzic, Kalva and Furht 383)
Advantages and Disadvantages of m-Government
As pointed out in the above paragraphs, the application of m-Government for the UAE government has advantages and disadvantages. Government service to Emirates will be fast tracked and the government’s reputation is enhanced. The citizens will no longer go to the government office concerned where they need services but instead they only have to access to government websites. This is economical for the citizens. On the other hand, respective government offices will be decongested of people asking for service.
Disadvantages point to security. G2C and SMS come in handy for hackers. Mobile phones have little security to boast of while hackers are always ready to do their “craft”. What about Internet connection? The UAE has high penetration of Internet, as revealed by Director General Mohammed Al Ghanim (“Emiratis 24/7: 1st Edition of UAE m-Government Guidelines Ready for Review” par. 4). So, with this application m-Government will provide a big advantage in terms of downloading and uploading of data and images for users.
Investigation
This third part of the essay concerns about the effectiveness of smart phones. The questions that need to be answered here are:
Why should the UAE government adapt m-Government in its services to the people?
Is government infrastructure ready and prepared for m-Government?
How secure is the connection between smart phones and government websites?
What are the problems users might encounter in the application of m-Government?
The efficiency and effectiveness of smart phones have been tested by users themselves. But empirically, there’s not much that can be taken from the connectivity and how reliable are the data. There were some studies however that determined how server, clients, and adaptation systems were doing. Investigations suggested that server-based functions should be improved. On the other hand, there are devices that do not have capabilities to access to the Internet through smart objects in a smart environment, and this needs help from the government.
The first question deals with the question why. Why should the UAE government adapt m-Government?
The UAE government prepared for this. UAE leadership wanted to fast track government service and that through this system every Emirati who needs help will surely have it. The administration also knew that m-Government is the answer to the nation’s dream of having fast and immediate delivery of services.
Another question is: Are the people and government ready for m-Government? The readiness aspect refers to the device, whether most of the Emirates, if not all, who need government service are ready for m-Government and have smart phones that can access smart objects. As mentioned earlier, there was an entry of about 14 million cellular phones, mostly smart phones which can access government websites.
It seems the government of the UAE has been preparing for this. A special team from the telecommunications department was formed to provide a smooth transition, but the technology is all set. What is really needed is a go with all the agencies, public and private, to collaborate to make the implementation of m-Government effective and serviceable to the people.
From this point, this paper sought the opinion of some personalities who were knowledgeable about smart environment, their uses, and m-Government application for the UAE. According to Mohammed Al Ghanim, a high telecommunications official of the government, major stakeholders have shown their enthusiasm and cooperation in the initial activities and processes of the smart application.
People and government were ready to accept m-Government. Public forums and conferences were held and the people have been very enthusiastic about it. Awards are also being readied to motivate employees and government agencies into making m-Government a primary tool for governance and government service. (Al Bustani par. 6)
The platform and the infrastructure as a whole have been set. The government agency responsible published the guidelines for the different government departments to follow in their m-Government application. Of course, this initial move is a transition but everyone seems acceptable to the change for better service to the people.
The full m-Government application will be completed within two years, i.e. for the national level. The move was also in collaboration with the governments of Abu Dhabi and Dubai which have experiences in e-government applications. (“Emirates 24/7: 1st Edition of UAE m-Government Guidelines Ready for Review” pars. 3-5)
When it comes to readiness, this paper cannot question the leadership and people of the UAE. Their enthusiasm and joy in having a major government project come into fruition cannot be undermined. The top leadership of the government and government officials, along with the people of the UAE, all showed their support for m-Government application. It really appeared they were ready for this.
Works Cited
Adzic, Velibor, Hari Kalva and Borko Furht. “A Survey of Multimedia Content Adaptation for Mobile Devices.” Multimedia Tools and Applications. 51.1 (2011): 379-396, Springer. Web.
Siegemund, Frank, Christian Floerkemeier, and Harald Vogt. “The value of handhelds in smart environments.” Personal and Ubiquitous Computing. 9.2 (2005): 69-80, Springer Verlag London. Web.
It is believed that the members of the United States Congress are supposed to represent the will of the American people. They can sometimes be regarded as those people through whom voters can express their views on social problems, economic development of the country, its national security, and many other issues.
To a great extent, this assumption is quite justified because citizens are able to deny politicians access to power. Therefore, legislators are accountable to the American people. Nevertheless, one can argue that these policy-makers have to make compromises in the course of their work. Moreover, they can also be affected by lobbyists and interests groups. Therefore, they may not be able to promote the interests of people who elected them. These are the main issues that should be examined more closely.
First of all, one should know that the members of the U.S. Congress may not always reach an agreement regarding specific policies. Therefore, they have to discuss and sometimes change the provisions of certain laws or bills so that they could be accepted by the majority. They can partly accept the ideas of their opponents. It should be kept in mind that these legislators may represent different political or economic ideologies.
As a result, these people have to make concessions to one another. This is one of the main aspects that can be identified because it is vital for describing decision-making in the United States Congress. Additionally, it should be taken into account that American citizens may various interests or priorities, and they cannot easily be reconciled. Thus, some compromises or concessions are inevitable.
Apart from that, it is necessary to remember that lobbies and interest groups can play an important role in the political life of the United States. They can donate capital to political parties as well as candidates. These lobbies can represent various industries or companies. Through lobbying these organizations can also promote their interests. This issue is also important for understanding the work of the U.S. Congress. Certainly, the activities of lobbies or interest groups are often criticized; nevertheless, the role has not decreased.
Still, it is not reasonable to say that the members of the U.S. Congress are not accountable to American people. Such an assumption can hardly be called accurate. In this case, one should speak about such a mechanism as direct election through which citizens can express their disagreement with the policies of the Congress. They can simply refuse to vote for a politician who fails to meet the expectation of people.
Therefore, voting can be viewed as a system of checks and balances that prevents these people from getting out of their commitments to American people. This point is also vital for understanding the interactions between citizens and legislators. One can argue that the efficiency and integrity of legislators depends on the activities of citizens and their willingness to monitor the work of politicians. This is the main condition for the effective functioning of the U.S. congress.
On the whole, this discussion indicates that American politicians cannot always serve only the interests of voters. Their work can be distorted because legislators have to reach compromises and respond to the needs of particular interest groups. Nevertheless, legislators are also accountable to citizens who can evaluate the performance of policymakers through the process of voting. These are the main points that can be made.
Asia is one state which presents a very dynamic region in the third-world countries over the past twenty years. The dynamics includes Chinese growth, the coming up of India, regional collaboration, economic, trade and security issues.
A case study of Southeast Asia reveals that its governance has greatly influenced the political, economic and social environment of many states. The Southeast Asian Nations have developed new models of economic collaboration and new political roles which have in effect sculptured international systems of the world (Wurfel and Burton, 1996).
The recent global crisis and the subsequent melt-down of powerful economies is what triggered the Association of Southeast Asian Nations to seek more international cooperation. Other than economic cooperation, this partnership is also being sought in the political arena (in fighting terrorism), knowledge and technology transfer, and support for development projects.
Asia is hopeful of providing a compact economic alternative due to regional integration with powerful economic giants like China and India and Russia. The trend of the rest of the world is in fact towards the Asian Nations (Wurfel and Burton, 1996).
The New World Order
The new World Order refers to the coming together of the world’s most powerful nations to secure and sustain world safety, peace and security. The other terms that can be used interchangeably to mean the new world order include globalization, one world government, and global governance. There are many people who dismiss it as just a mere theory, but a closer investigation into the history, clearly reveals its establishment as a fact. The coming up of the new world order was in fact prophesied in the Bible (Lineman, 2007).
The New World Order’s intention is to create a one world government which will control and regulate all the other nations under an international law.
The setting up of this global government is slowly taking its roots in the political arena and especially in the United Nations. There is a Commission for global governance established in the United Nations which forecasts a world court, a one police force and a global tax.
In addition, there are several organizations that have so far been set up which ascribe to the New World Order philosophy which include: the media personalities, the Club of Rome, the Trilateral Commission, the Royal Institute of International Affairs, the Council of Foreign Affairs, etc. The economy is also affected since there are free trade agreements among nations, International Financiers like the International Monetary Fund, Bank of International Settlements, etc.
The third area of concern is religion, where there are plans to come up with a new world religion. This is evidenced by the existence of such organizations as the World Council of Churches, and the Parliament of World Religions. Moreover, there has been a growing concern over the environment. Moreover, there are talks of global warming, which is an environmental problem, as well as proposals to adopt socialism in order to curb this menace (Johnston, 2008).
Arguments for the New World Order
There are arguments that the New World Order bring about positive ethical changes. For example, nations have embraced the positive normative behaviors and beliefs which create more space for moral interaction and acquisition of desirable concepts. In addition, institutionalization has resulted to articulation of the wrong cultures into better practical and credible practices.
For instance, gradual integration of colonies led to the abolishment of slave trade and forced labour (Crawford, 2002, p. 99). Many non-consented humanitarian interventions by regional organizations have resulted in more effective methods of fighting overwhelming catastrophe (Johnston, 2008).
Arguments against the New World Order
It is viewed that the New World Order will result to socialism/collectivism/Maoism or capitalism. This capitalistic form of governance reserves no rights for an individual thus all rights and powers emanate from the state itself. Socialism is deprives individuals the freedom to expression and instead enslaves them.
The involvement of an international body to fight global warming is viewed as a loophole to taking over ownership and exploitation of resources. Additionally, when it comes to execution of justice, the International court is empowered to deal to deal with the guilty without the interference or protection by the nation (Gjelten, 2009).
Case study: India and China
The strategic political partnership in alignment with the New World Order
The New World Order has its affiliation in the political arena which is evidenced by the dynamic changes in the structure and customs of global politics (Grammy and Bragg, 1996).
China and Japan have not been left out in this, for instance, China actively sought diplomacy towards India, changing Sino-Indian relationship from one that was of distrust to a strategic partnership. It is however seen like China had other hidden intention other than acquisition of a stable bilateral relation. They promised to co-work together to attain a more cohesive International political and economic order.
The integration between the Chinese and the Indians was formed partly in order to reinforce their international matters by tapping the global market opportunities and developing stable and prospering states, and attain an economic order. The two states further agreed to increase activities in their bilateral trade relations. The United States, for instance, has approached the Southeast Asian Nations to reinforce their security concerns so as to take advantage of their international influence (Wolters, 1999).
China also intends to strengthen the security within a given region in order to acquire a more profitable position to disseminate American dominance Additionally, China has always ensured that it actively participate in regional political, security, and economic organizations in anticipation that China’s influence will dissuade multilateral groups from operating.
It is well documented that China has signed two treaties or agreements i.e. ASEAN’s Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in the South China Sea, and the Declaration on the Code of Conduct at the ASEAN-China 2003 meeting. The signing of these two documents, China pledged for non-violence and non-interference and other problem solving machinery that have been sponsored by ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations).
Additionally, China spearheaded the formation of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) which constitutes the’ Shanghai Five’ group. The Shanghai Five group put emphasis on boosting confidence among its members and fighting terrorism. Current findings reveal that SCO has assimilated India, Pakistan, Mongolia, and Iran as passive members thus expanding their scope of governance to South Asia and West Asia.
Moreover, the SCO, under the control of China and Russia, has supported for the Shanghai spirit which claims that there should be shared trust, equality, coordination, respect for different civilization, and common development. These principles tend to oppose the traditional measures the United States employs to maintain security hence their culture is eroded (Gjelten, 2009).
There emerged a convergence of both India and China on several critical issues. One, they converged in quest for The Asian nations stability. Secondly, they realized that energy supplies required security. Additionally, the convergence was aimed at eradicating any form of dangerous extremism from neighboring states. Moreover, to gain mutual benefits from economic association involves an amalgamation of different colonies.
In spite of the positive achievements in the established ties among these states, there were already established boundaries to which these relations could occur. These limits were a challenge to the involved people since most are the times when they caused frustrations and circumscription in the already established relationships. Therefore the struggle for cultivation of tight security ties with other nations by the Indians continues up to date.
For instance, global war against terrorism has resulted into greater changes, thus leading to more strategic relationships. Furthermore, the relationship between china and other nations is viewed as an instrument for fostering stability to south East Asia as well as other Asian nations. This move is anticipated to be beneficial to all and sundry of the included states, not only in Asia, but the whole world (Chossudovsky, 2003).
Conclusion
The formation of cooperative riparian institutions has faced rivalry. There seems to be a conspiracy by the super powers to acquire power advantages over the less dominant nations. This is because security concern is mostly not the priority of the se lobby groups (Volgy, et al, 2009. The active participation of China has raised concerns among nations since it has done diplomatic manipulations in the governance of many states.
The arms control and disarmament efforts of the superpowers have been accused of being inordinately concerned with propagandistic goals while disregarding the primary goal of promoting stability and peace. It is therefore seen like their primary goal is not the pursuit for national security (Inis and Kenneth, 1994). The stability of the Asian nations is of paramount importance to all other countries. For example, the Iran-India agreement of 2003 has fostered peace and stability, though the strategic principles are still underestimated.
It is strategic in that there is no forced cooperation between the involved countries. This move is of great significance in promoting world peace and calmness, thus all nations all over the globe are encouraged to embrace the new move. Current researchers all over have been enthusiastic in finding out possible channels of global assimilations in order to counteract major rivalries among nations. There are several recommendations that have been put forward, which include; all nations should long for peace and unity.
In addition, every nation should embrace the others regardless of their origin and status. More over, trade cooperation should be enhanced with an aim of boosting the economy. Finally, there should be harmony and co-existence in all aspects of life, i.e., social, political, economical and spiritual grounds, which are an excellent, move for promoting peace and unity (Victor, 2003).
Reference List
Chossudovsky, M. l., 2003. The globalization of poverty and the new world order. 2nd edition. Global Research.