Category: Police

Stress is defined as anything that can place an adjustive demand on any living organism (Charles etal, 2012). Distress refers to negative stress while eustress refers to positive stress. Hence, not all stressful events are depressing. For instance, stress can excite a gambler and thrill a matador athlete. In other words the occurrence of stress does not necessarily mean that there will be any sort of distress. However, the escalation of stress can eventually incapacitate an individual. There are clear signs that indicate the presence of such kind of stress which can eventually lead an individual into committing suicide.

A police officer like any other person is not immune to stress. Studies indicate that a police officer is more likely to commit suicide than a civilian. A police officer who was performing well and who drastically fails to perform for a prolonged period of time may be going through severe periods of stress (Charles etal, 2012). In such a situation, urgent action should be taken to help the police officer to cope with stress before it is too late. Severe depression among police officers has been known to result in homicide involving a close relative or friend and eventual suicide of the police officer. Officers who appear depressed, sad, hopeless and discouraged should be supervised and accorded necessary help. A sign to look out for is a flat mood during an interview. The officer could be feeling anxious and may be experiencing bodily aches that do not go away easily. Other signs of severe stress among police officers include a history of suicidal attempts and mental illness.

There are five phases in a critical incident and individuals react differently in each phase. In the first phase, the police officer is concerned about pulling the trigger. Failure to pull the trigger can lead to the loss of the life of a fellow police officer. The second phase involves actual killing which takes place reflexively. The third phase known as exhilaration tests an officers ability to put theory into action (Charles etal, 2012). Vast amounts of adrenaline are released at this stage. This has the potential of affecting an officers nervous system. The result is that the officer that was involved in the killing will in future hesitate to use deadly force where it is highly recommended or use it where it is not required. This is referred to as combat addiction.

The recoil, remorse and nausea phase is the forth phase and is associated with a killing that takes place in close range. It is characterized by rush of exhilaration. Most police officers who confront their adversaries in close range end up experiencing this type of response. A police officer may suffer from feelings of guilt where he or she feels that the decision to shoot was not well made. The officers in this phase often seem preoccupied and detached. They are often easily annoyed or hypersensitive even when complemented. Other post traumatic symptoms exhibited in this phase include; panic attacks, anxiety, depression, distorted memories, insomnia, fearfulness, helplessness, guilt feeling to name just a few (Charles etal, 2012. This takes a couple of days or weeks prior to killing.

The fifth phase involves rationalization and acceptance of what took place. This is a very long process. In the worst case scenario an officer may not completely recover from the trauma. A police may later come into understanding that the use of deadly force was justified and inevitable. The officer may experience periodic traumas if the resolution he or she arrived at was partial. This happens often during moments of crisis. Nonetheless, an enthusiastic officer is often capable of feeling confident. After all, killing criminals is the prerogative of police officers (Sheldon, 2011). However, things may take the wrong turn and an officer may become incapacitated by the traumatic experience. This eventually leads to the end of an officers career. Treatment can help relieve an officer from temporary traumatic experience.

There are several negligent theories that are applicable to police supervisors and managers. This is made clear under vicarious liability or doctrine of respondent superior where a supervisor can be answerable to an officers acts or omissions (Sheldon, 2011). The theory of negligent hiring requires supervisors to identify and weed out a police officer who can risk lives. Hence, a police officer who is hired on the basis of forged documents should not be allowed to work and a plaintiff who files a case against such an officer does so against the hiring authority that is held liable for the injuries caused.

The theory of negligent assignment, retention and entrustment requires police administrators to be on the look out of behavioral anomalies of a police officer. Hence, a police officer discovered to be physically abusive and malicious should not be allowed to work in a police force. The administrators will be vicariously liable for any damages that such an officer may cause to the public or fellow police officers. Theory of negligent direction and supervision requires police administrators to develop sound policies and procedures. Everything manual should be in writing and widely published (Charles etal, 2012). Hence, an officers actions that deviate from the directions of the manual will exonerate the police administrator from any wrong doing. The theory of negligent training holds police administrators vicariously liable in the event that an officers actions stemmed from poor training.

References

Charles, R. S., Territo, L. & Taylor, W. R. (2012). Police Administration: Structures, Processes and Behavior, 8^th Ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall Publishing Co. Pearson.

Sheldon, R. (2011). A Critical Introduction to the History Of Criminal Justice. Secaucus, NJ: Chart well Books, Inc.

Control and Flexibility in Policing

Police discretion is a necessary element of the policing activity. Many situations which officers encounter on a daily basis require judgment and appropriate decision-making. To reduce the possibility of unlawful actions, possible decisions are codified in policing policies. However, the diversity and complexity of social and legal environment characteristic for law enforcement inevitably creates situations where existing policies are ineffective, not explicitly recognizable, or do not apply at all. This results in situations where excessive discretion creates a possibility of a regulation breach. On the other hand, extensive policies remove the possibility of appropriate reaction in unusual settings.

To balance this uncertainty, policies need to be formulated with several aspects in mind. First, the policies which are designed with the intention to increase flexibility need to emphasize education and training. In this way, the officers who are working in the field will have previous experience of dealing with similar situations and will thus be able to assess the situation correctly and make an appropriate decision. Naturally, training must be adjusted to social and cultural conditions of a police institution to actualize the knowledge. Such approach must also be mirrored by the hiring policies of police departments.

A growing body of evidence suggests that the correct decision making depends on the level of intelligence of an officer as well as the acquired competence (Eitle, DAlessio, & Stolzenberg, 2014). Thus, the policy must include an opportunity to assess and control both factors as well as offer a possibility to improve on the latter via educational means. Finally, the policies in question should include transparent and comprehensive metrics which could be used to assess the appropriateness of decision-making and formulate meaningful recommendations on how to improve the situation in case the outcome does not meet the level suggested by the policymakers.

Policing Strategies

Crime control policing is a strategy that is loosely defined by the focus on efficiency of police interventions. This is most often done by allocating additional resources and conceiving more appropriate tactics to address a specific issue. The ultimate goal of crime control policing is a setting where the perpetrators are discouraged by the introduced interventions and, therefore, cease unlawful activity. Such direct approach creates a solid and easy-to-apply framework but is often criticized for targeting the effect rather than the cause of crime. Community-oriented policing is an attempt to address this criticism. It views discrepancies and inadequacies in a social environment as a cause for criminal activities and addresses them rather than the outcomes.

Thus, community-oriented policing involves identifying biggest concerns of the community and attempting to prioritize them. As a part of this strategy, partnerships are sought with various organizations, such as schools, healthcare institutions, and government agencies to provide for additional support. Such approach allegedly creates a safer environment, which was proven by several community-based initiatives (Gill, Weisburd, Telep, Vitter, & Bennett, 2014), although the complexity of operations in question does not allow for exact measurement of its role in overall success. In addition, community-based policies are thought to improve the psychological climate between law enforcement and the community. Finally, the problem-oriented policing emphasizes systematic approach and addresses the root of the problem.

It commonly includes identification and analysis of the issue followed by designing an intervention, implementing it, and assessing the result. Admittedly, upon closer inspection this approach reveals several similarities with the previously discussed ones  crime control policing also relies heavily on analysis and systematic assessment while community-based approach targets the cause of criminal activity. Conversely, problem-oriented policing often addresses social reasons behind crimes. Thus, we can conclude that community-based policing is expected to address the community concerns of the community. However, the reduction in crime and improvement in public safety are observed as a result of any of the said strategies (or, more precisely, their combination). Thus, their role in the two said outcomes remains largely speculative.

References

Eitle, D., DAlessio, S. J., & Stolzenberg, L. (2014). The effect of organizational and environmental factors on police misconduct. Police Quarterly, 17(2), 103-126.

Gill, C., Weisburd, D., Telep, C. W., Vitter, Z., & Bennett, T. (2014). Community-oriented policing to reduce crime, disorder and fear and increase satisfaction and legitimacy among citizens: a systematic review. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 10(4), 399-428.

Abstract

Police action is a common phenomenon in the whole world. While there are some people who support this concept and the others who are opposing the same, the concept of police action is an integral part of many states. It only waits for its time to erupt. This paper seeks to address to what extent, if any, age influences the support for police action. The underlying hypothesis is that old aged people are in support of the idea of police action. This is contrary to the position being held by the young people who, according to the hypothesis, are not in favor of police action. The paper analysis shall depend on the analysis conducted through the SPSS methods of research analysis.

Introduction

This analysis seeks to determine the support that the use of police action gets based on the age demography. The analysis shall focus on how age influences the support and opposition to the use of police action. Different surveys have shown that, indeed, age has a major influence on whether a certain group of people supports or opposes the police action (Sullivan, 2008). According to Sullivan, the research stated that around 73 percent, which is more than two-thirds of those people are over fifty-five years of age, supported the need for the use of police force. This is comparable to 54 percent, which was from the eighteen to thirty-four age groups favoring the same. This is also comparable to 63 percent of those between 35 -54 of age. From the trend, it is quite obvious that police action enjoys more support as the age increases. Young people may also tend to think that police action sometimes infringes on the means through which change and revolution may be arrived at.

The paper seeks to address the connection that exists between the difference in age and the support or opposition to the concept of police action. In the analysis, the paper shall aim at trying to unveil why is it that old age groups are in support of police action while the young people are not. In doing so, the paper shall investigate the underlying factors pinning the difference in taking a stand as to whether to support police action. In addressing this, the analysis shall rely on two variables. These are age and the extent of the police action involved.

Restating the Hypothesis

In Restating this hypothesis, the research shall try to create a link between the Dependent Variable and the Independent Variable. The hypothesis is that old people support the use of police force more than the younger generation. The link that the analysis shall be seeking to find is whether age has an impact on the position held regarding the police action concept. The main difference in the line of thinking here is attributed to the age of the involved people. In most cases, older people are likely to favor the use of police force. The younger people are likely to be against the use of force. One of the main reasons behind this is that old men believe that the use of police force is normally directed to rowdy and very prone to cause chaos, which may call for the use of police force to quell it. Young people are energetic, and this makes it easier for them to be able to use force that needs to be countered by police action.

For instance, it is more likely for a young person to forcefully risk arrest compared to an old person. Another reason could be because the old people know that if the police do not use force to the rowdy and rioting youths chances are they (the old people) might end up being the victims of violence from the young people. On the other hand, young people believe that the police do not have to use force whenever they are dealing with them. The young people have the tendency to use force whenever they encounter the police. This is not common with the old aged people. Sometimes the old age people fear the young age people. Although there are some other factors that come into play when discussing use of police force, this analysis shall be limited to the nature or extent of the police force and the age of those supporting or opposing it. In order to have an analysis for the determination of how age affect the police action, we first need to clearly set out the variables. The two variables involved here are age and the police action itself. To commence, I will investigate age as an independent variable on its own. In order to be able to measure a variable it is important that the empirical observations to be made are clearly set out and decided upon (Johnson et al, 2008). In this case age shall be the number years that a person has since birth.

My dependent variable shall be the police action itself. Police action had been defined earlier in this paper. In this case what I consider is the fact that there are people who support police action and those who oppose. That is why police action forms the basis of my dependant variable. This shall be my ordinary variable. An ordinary variable is always a variable that is measurable from low to high. The extent of police action can be said to be variable because the extent which the government agencies, that is the military and the police can be measured.

In order to start the methodology, I need to bring in the independent variable which is the age factor. Next is to try and make a connection between age and the support for the concept of police action. The test for whether a connection exists can be done through cross tabulation of the variables that are being used. In case a connection exists, then the next step shall be to carry out a cross-tabulation of the two related variables. Cross tabulation refers to a certain matrix which usually shows the distribution of a single variable in a category of another variable to which they are related (Babbie & Zaino, 2010).

The next step shall encompass the measurement of association. This is very important as it is used to determine any relationship that exists between the two variables. It is important to determine the extent of any association between the two involved variables. The establishment of a connection is important in the analysis.

Identifying the independent and dependent variables

The variables that will be involved in this analysis shall be police action and age. Police action shall be a dependent variable. On the other hand, age shall be an independent variable. The rationale behind this is that the police action shall depend on the action as well as the age of the person to whom the action is inflicted upon. On the other hand, age is the independent variable because age does not depend on any other independent factor. This means that while we can clearly increase the intensity of police action, the same cannot be said about age.

Police action refers to action of war undertaken by a countrys military. The special case for police action is that there is no formal declaration of war. Sometimes this is taken in order to quell a certain uprising or political upheavals in a nation. It is important to note that this is normally legal within the premises of international law. According to Websters Dictionary police action is said to be a localized military action that is undertaken in the absence of any formal declaration by the regular state police against those people who are suspected to be gross violators of international peace and order. The age is an independent factor as it is not associated with any other factors.

The dependent variable that shall be used is the police action (POLHIT), while the independent variable to be used is the age. While police action is legal there is a need to find out the public opinion about it. After all, the police action is normally invoked for the sake of peace. The irony is that sometimes even this peace that is desired. Also to be taken into account is the effect and the impacts that are associated with the police action. Ideally, police action is supposed to leave the population happy. The concept of police action is closely connected to the concept of third party policing which was described in the broad sense to be:

&. Police efforts to convince or coerce non-offending persons to take actions which are outside the scope of their routine activities, and that are designed to indirectly minimize disorder caused by other persons, or reduce the possibility that crime may occur. Though the ultimate target of police action remains a population of actual and potential offenders, the proximate target of third-party policing is an intermediate class of non offending persons who are thought to have some power over the offenders primary environment. The police use coercion to create place-guardianship that was previously absent, in order to decrease crime and disorder opportunities. Third-party policing is both defined and distinguished from problem- and community-oriented policing by the sources and the targets of that coercive power (Buerger & Mazerolle 1998).

The province of police action is meant to protect the citizens from any uprising that would disturb the peace that exists in the society. The police action is sometimes questionable as to how it accomplishes its intended target. The government normally plays politics with the whole concept of police. For instance in case of protests against the government in the running of public affairs, the government may usually invoke this concept as a means of repressing these uprising groups. A good illustration is shown when the government machinery such as the police and the military to disperse protesting crowds. In some cases these protests may be the foundation of a very fundamental change that maybe is needed by the nation in order to move forward politically. Therefore police action actually undermines these protests as a precursor to change.

According to Reiss (1971), that police authority is normally weakest when officers have the leeway to act on their own initiative. On the contrary, the authority is strongest when they are acting on the behalf of a citizen who has requested assistance. The police normally act not under the request of any citizen but rather acting under the direct and the authority of the government.

The Analysis

The police intervention is not in all cases justified simply by the failure on the part of the place managers to ensure that they fulfil their part of the contract with other parties such as the tenants or even place-users. These are left to be covered by the providence of civil matters which are always enforced in accordance with the priorities as well as the schedules that exist and in the appropriate agency. Third-party policing is important because it is invoked only when the managerial sector has gone and neglected matters which create additional problems for the public peace as well as other third parties. Especially those are not party to the primary agreement may be between landlord-tenant or sometimes owner-customer relationship and other related examples.

Police action sometimes includes police hitting citizens on this issue of hitting the citizens there are divided views. There are some who are in support of this while there are others who are against this. The views differ in age groups generally. It is also important to know that other factors such as personal experience. Some may also support the use of police action in certain neighborhoods which have more incidents of violent crime or rowdy rioting. Others would not support the police action at all owing to the fact that they have experienced the violence of being hit by the police and would not like any other person to go through the same. The age is not really a great influence on its own as variable. People of different ages have gone through different experiences which end up shaping their views as to whether or not support police action.

The analysis shall delve into the response towards police action. From the test carried out the conclusion shall tell whether indeed the hypothesis is actually supported by the available data or not. The connection between the age and those who are in support or in opposition shall be considered. From the tabular result shown below we shall be able to deduce whether indeed there is a connection between age and supporting or opposing the concept of police action. These are the foundational ingredient of the whole analysis.

From the table it is quite evident that from the different percentages that have been exhibited, it is possible to see which age group is more restrictive. From these percentages it becomes quite axiomatic that indeed most of the old aged people indeed are in support of the issue of the police action.

The values expressed above are not assuming any null hypothesis. A null hypothesis normally assumes that there is typically no any relationship between two variables. In this case, we have totally ignored the null hypothesis. This is because while there might be no relationship between age and the support of police action there could be some other factors that are involved which come to play. There if a relationship is to exist, chances are other factors are also to be involved. These factors could be race, gender or even area from which these people live. All these come to play when the decision to support or oppose the police action is involved.

The value of the error involved is the asymptotic error. This is normally an approximation and not the real value of the error. This is important since it covers for small errors that might have occurred during the conduct of the whole research and its analysis. These allowances for errors make the analysis be realistic and also acceptable. There is no perfect research and therefore a perfect analysis without any allowance for error is not realistic at all. The errors allowed provides for errors that could have arisen during the computation of the figures from the data set. It also allows for errors that may have arisen when the research was being conducted. There are normally some people who are not sure of whether they are in support of the police action or if whether they are in opposition against the same.

The importance of the null hypothesis as well as the allowance for the asymptomatic error cannot be ignored since they form an important part of the whole analysis. They particularly make the analysis to be realistic and true.

Conclusions

The results are matching with the hypotheses. Important to note, is that there are some other factors which are not included in the testing. While age is uniformly applied, the tests have not taken into account other variations such as gender, race and other demographic variances. However from the tests and results were expected to show that the police action is indeed gets more support with the increasing age. This would have been so if the hypothesis were true. The hypothesis is therefore proved negative by that particular test. However, in the actual world too, there is a tendency of the old age people to be afraid of any protests and uprising which are normally the precursor of the use of police action (Sherman, 1987). The youth or younger people are against the use of police action since it basically seeks to kill of the right of people to protest as well as have an opportunity to stage a revolution.

My hypothesis was that old people support the use of police action more than young people. This means as one grows older they are indeed prone to support the police using force to quell any uprising that may arise then. The fact that old people are in support of police action means that they disfavour the protests usually led by the youths to foster change or express themselves against tyrannical acts of the state or the government that exists in charge.

The tests from cross tabulation have clearly shown that there is no connection between age and the support and or opposition to the police action. This is shown by the trends that are shown in the tabular representation of the data analyzed. Therefore in order to support or oppose any police action age is not an influencing factor. This could be attributed to the fact that the police is action is normally influenced by other factors. These factors could be other things such as race, gender and other politically motivated reasons. Most people will favour police action only where it is used to quell protests triggered by some actions he is in support of. In some instances difference in opinion will determine whether or not to support the factors that bring the protests.

References

Babbie, E. H. & Zaino, J. (2010). Adventures in Social Research Data Analysis Using SPSS 17.0 and 18.0 for Windows, 7th Edition. California: Pine Forge Press.

Buerger, M. E. &. Mazerolle L.G (1998). Third-Party Policing: A Theoretical Analysis of an Emerging Trend. Justice Quarterly 15 (2): 301-327.

Johnson, J. B., Reynolds, H.T. & Jason M. (2008). Political Science Research Methods, 6th Edition. Washington DC: CQ Press.

Reiss, A.J., Jr. (1971). The Police and the Public. CT: Yale University Press.

Sherman, L.W. (1987). Repeat Calls to Police in Minneapolis. Washington, DC: Crime Control Institute.

Sullivan, S. (2008). 63 per cent of respondents support the creation of a regional police force. Web.

Police organization is based on strict rules and delegation of authority, a span of control, and stipulated duties. The organization is important for the police department because it allows it to delegate and separate functions and maintain strict control of overall activities. For the police department, the establishment, evaluation, and systematic review of organizational priorities become acute needs. Priorities must be considered on a range of issues, from the overall goals agency to specific programs or line items in the budget to be eliminated, cut back, or funded as originally conceived (Doerner and Dautzker 1999).

The organizations function stipulates rank structure, personal relations, and compensation system. These can help managers, and administrators more clearly and objectively manage the complex problems which arise in an environment of uncertainty. The purpose of the organization is to ensure approaches to establishing priorities: the nominal group technique. Like other organizations, the police department operates in turbulent environments that impose numerous, rapidly changing demands and require substantial capacity. In order to manage the future direction of the organization and to establish the most effective direction for achieving organizational goals, the police department should understand the dynamics of strategy in organizations (Doerner and Dautzker 1999).

Organization by area stipulates posts and sectors, zones of control, and precincts. Thus, an organizational structure is important in achieving performance. The organization function can be described as a process perspective, focusing on systematic analysis and effective planning. It enables us to become aware of the demands of particular events and the conceptual schemes or mental models operating in specific contexts.

Organization by area accounts for the ability to reframe our experiences in different terms, so that police officers and administrators can evaluate our operative models and critique role demands. As a free reflection, Organization by area helps in developing fresh interpretations of particular scenarios and creating new perspectives. Organization by area enables us to integrate theory into the decision.

Organization by time helps the police department to maintain four tour conditions and systems. Organization by time allows police departments to anticipate untoward consequences and project new practical solutions that take into account a variety of points of view and respond to or even create demands. Finally, organization by time accounts for the possibility of interaction between similar cases, new data, and moral rules, so that police officers can rethink traditional solutions to similar problems and revise the rules that justify evaluative judgments.

The organization thus is an enabling mechanism for the ongoing process of deliberation and judgment that is not merely reactive or sentimental (Newburn, 2003). The day tour occurs during the normal business hours in the United States. Generally, the second-highest amount of police activity occurs on this tour, and the second-largest number of police officers are on duty. time, although in some large cities a good deal of commerce and business occurs (Dempsey and Forst 2004, p. 76).

Organization by purpose ensures line and staff relations and establishes the police department units. Organization by purpose demands that police administrators examine carefully not just the case but also perspectives and biases. One needs to develop more critically evaluative perspectives even in engineering and scientific analyses and most surely in the use of statistics. Given that all our activities are embedded in a conceptual scheme and framed by the organization, are such critically evaluative perspectives possible.

Organization by purpose ensures this process of engaging in a critical perspective. It involves asking difficult questions and attempting to place oneself in a different perspective so as to regard events from another point of view, individual, organizational, and social. Police unions are predominantly local organizations that bargain and communicate with the local police department and the mayors or chief executives office (Dempsey and Forst 2004, p. 71). There is no guarantee that one will always achieve a sufficient distance from a particular dilemma or derive the best decision because distancing oneself may also lead to distancing so that the moral implications of the dilemma are bracketed as well (Reiner, 2000).

In sum, the organization is a core and framework of effective performance and strict delegation of authority and functions within the department. The organization allows the police department to ensure effective management and organization of human resources. Organization function ensures division of labor, a chain of command, a span of control, a delegation of authority, unity of command, strict rules, regulations, and discipline. These situations are typical of much of the program and policy planning that takes place in government today. Unfortunately, many decisions must be made in an environment where the goals, constraints, and consequences of possible actions are not precisely known.

Reference List

1. Dempsey, J. S., Forst, L.S. (2004). An Introduction to Policing. Wadsworth Publishing; 3 edition.
2. Doerner, W. G., Dautzker, M. L. (1999). Contemporary Police Organization & Mgmt. Butterworth-Heinemann.
3. Newburn, T. (2003). Handbook of Policing. Willan Publishing.
4. Reiner, Robert. (2000). The Politics of the Police. Oxford University Press; 3Rev Ed edition.

It is safe to say that 2020 is the year of social unrest, part of which the defund the police movement. The reason why this movement emerged was the police brutality towards people of color. The death of George Floyd became the trigger that prompted many people to protest and criticize the police (MacNeill, 2020). This work aims to explore the meaning of defunding the police and arguments and counterarguments surrounding this initiative.

The Meaning of Defunding the Police and Its Relation to Police Brutality, Corruption and Mismanagement

It can be said that defunding the police has two meanings. It means the complete abolition of police funding and the disbandment of the entire police institution. The second meaning is cutting the police budget and reallocating funds to create new independent militia-like law enforcement entities. Defunding the police originated from defund the police, which is a public slogan that emerged and was popularized as a reaction to the police brutality towards the Black people (MacNeill, 2020). The very existence of such a phenomenon as police brutality is a symptom of corruption and mismanagement in the police institution.

Arguments for Defunding the Police

One of the arguments for defunding the police is that it is a dysfunctional institution. Put differently, the police spread violence and act as a threat, especially to people of color, although it was created as a system to stop the violence and keep the communities safe. According to Zerkel (2020), despite the billions of dollars spent every year on policing, more than 15,000 people were killed by gun violence in 2019 alone  disproportionately young people of color (para. 10). Therefore, the police, being a dysfunctional institution, must be reorganized through partial defunding or abolished entirely.

Another argument for defunding the police is that the police have discredited themselves and lost public trust. The researchers note that when communities experience over-enforcement of minor infractions and under-protection from violence, trust in law enforcement plummets (Giffords Law Center to Prevent Gun Violence, 2020, p. 2). In order to restore trust in the police institution in the eyes of society, it is necessary to carry out a significant reform, which is the redistribution of police funding to create oversight organizations.

Arguments against Defunding the Police

There are also valid arguments against defining the police here. One of them is that defunding and abolishing the police would lead to an increase in violence and crime (Johnson & Gagliano, 2020). It is worth mentioning that there was not a single complex society without police or a similar law enforcement entity in human history. There were politia in Ancient Greece and the Cohortes Urbanae in the Roman Empire who performed police functions (Ancient police compared to todays police, 2019). The abolition of the police or even its defunding would lead to tragic consequences. Moreover, some experts believe that the polices money should not be cut but directed at creating more rigorous and community-oriented training programs for police officers (Johnson & Gagliano, 2020). It would improve fair police officers professional skills, identify unsuitable candidates, and punish those who abuse their powers.

Conclusion

The author of this paper explores the essence of defunding the police and why it should or should not be done. It has been found that people think that the police should be defunded because it is a dysfunctional institution that has discredited itself. Opponents of defunding the police believe that this will lead to a spike in crime and that it would be much better to spend police funding to standardize the training programs of police officers.

References

Ancient police compared to todays police. (2019). Central Alarm Inc. Web.

Giffords Law Center to Prevent Gun Violence. (2017). In pursuit of peace: building police-community trust to break the cycle of violence. Web.

Johnson, J. C., & Gagliano, J. A. (2020). Defunding the police isnt the answer. CNN. Web.

MacNeill, A. (2020). Should Boston defund its police? Heres what Marty Walsh said. Boston.com. Web.

Zerkel, M. (2020). 6 reasons why its time to defund the police. American Friends Service Committee. Web.

The police department is the main body of executive power, which is engaged in preserving law and order, ensuring security, and preventing offenses in society. People can feel protected by relying on the work of police departments. An essential factor in the relationship between the public and the police is the trust that must be present on both sides. This work describes the work of the San Diego Police Department, its brief history, and statistics about working there.

Initially, from 1845 to 1850, the military forces were engaged in maintaining law and order and control. Until 1889, law enforcement agencies were under the discretion of city marshals and constables. The San Diego metropolitan Police Department was first established on May 16, 1889 (San Diego Police Department, 2022). Its geographical responsibility is the City of San Diego. The first chief of the police department was Joseph Coyne, marshal of the city. The first police uniform consisted of derby hats, high-collared coats, and seven-pointed star badges (San Diego Police Department, 2022). Subsequently, the departments work has evolved; new departments appeared, and working conditions improved. In 1987, police headquarters moved to the current seven-story building at 1401 Broadway. The current Chief of the San Diego Police Department is David Nisleit. On March 2, 2018, David Nisleit was named the 35th Police Chief of the City of San Diego (San Diego Police Department, 2022). Chef graduated from the University of Redlands with a degree in business and management, and in 2014 Nisleit graduated from the FBI National Academy.

If a person living in San Diego wishes to serve the city and help maintain order, it is essential to disclose the minimum requirements for employment. At the initial stage, the candidate may enter the ranks of the San Diego police in entry-level positions. Mandatory requirements are to be 20 years of age or older, a US citizen or permanent resident alien, and have a US high school diploma or GED (San Diego Police Department, 2022). After applying to serve in the police department, the candidate will have to write a particular test. The written test consists of 100 questions that consider the level of knowledge and skills in reading and writing.

Moreover, the test consists of various sections that determine the level of reaction to any circumstances, the awareness of perceived information, and the possession of special skills. The recruitment process takes an average of three to four months. The use of illicit drugs, traffic violations, and other criminal offenses make it challenging to work in the police department. There are no specific height or weight requirements, but all candidates must complete a rigorous 475-yard obstacle course simulating a chase for no longer than 3 minutes and 15 seconds.

When entering the service, it is necessary to consider the conditions of wages and benefits. Starting salaries for new officers start at about $3,863 a month at the academy and top out at about $6,077 after their fourth year (San Diego Police Department, 2022). Medical benefits are provided to each employee annually, including a certain amount of money for necessary medical expenses. At the same time, each employee is free to choose an individual benefit plan independently. Depending on seniority, the agency provides between 17 and 21 days of vacation for all officers, both for days off and sick leave.

I chose this agency because it seems attractive in terms of its conditions and interesting in its history of origin. Moreover, experienced specialists work in this department, from whom you can learn many subtleties of the profession. If I want to become a qualified specialist in this agency, I need to prepare mentally and physically for the tests and apply for a job. Moreover, I can enroll in the Police Academy, where I will be registered as an employee of the city of San Diego and will be able to receive payment.

Reference

San Diego Police Department. (2022). Police | City of San Diego official website. The City of San Diego.

Most people would prefer their police officers to be capable of making decisions and taking action, especially in tense situations where swift choices are necessary. They would also like their officers to be ethical, with a strong moral compass, so that they do not engage in misconduct for any reason. These ethics must also be aligned with the law, which provides a framework for the polices existence and operation and lets people know what to expect from the police. Communication skills are another essential characteristic, as it is preferred for the police to resolve interactions with as little violence as possible. Officers will frequently find themselves in antagonistic situations, which they need to be able to resolve with minimal harm to all parties involved. To that end, they also need humility and the ability to control themselves so that they do not abuse the power given to them.

To evaluate officer candidates for these characteristics, psychologists perform extensive screenings before the individual is hired. Per Dorian (2016), they perform at least two validated tests (one for normal personality and another for psychopathy), conduct a face-to-face interview, and review the applicants history for any problematic signs. The tests help outline the overall mentality of the person while also screening them for factors that may not necessarily have shown themselves in prior interviews. With that said, standardized tools are prone to error due to their impersonal nature, and the interview helps the psychologists confirm or deny their expectations based on the test. Lastly, a review of the persons history, especially when discussed during the interview, helps identify any discrepancies that may be indicative of underlying mental concerns.

Reference

Dorian, E. H. (2016). Police psychology and its growing impact on modern law enforcement. IGI Global.

Introduction

Rodney Glen King is a black American man who has had several brushes with the law. For example, in the year 1989, this man was arrested and arraigned in court for robbery. Police claimed that he stole from a store and intimidated the owner of the store with a crude weapon. For this, Rodney King was sentenced to two years imprisonment in the state prison (Mullen & Skitka, 2006). This was just one of his several encounters with the Los Angeles Police Department (herein referred to as LAPD).

On 3^rd March 1991, something happened between this man and the police in Los Angeles. This event that happened shortly after midnight on this day snowballed into a political and media sensation. After a police car chase around the city and its suburbs, Rodney was arrested allegedly for driving under the influence. He was accompanied by two of his friend, and they were driving from a basketball match that they had attended in the evening before proceeding to a friends place for drinks. Rodney resisted arrest, and this led to the use of physical brutal force by the police officers. Later, Rodney would admit that he declined to pull over after he was flagged down by the police for fear of what driving under the influence charge will do to the status of his parole for a previous crime (Lou, 2001).

After resisting the arrest, police beat him up with batons and used taser on him to try and subdue him. This would have gone down as another case of undocumented police brutality but for the troubles of an eye witness outside whose apartment the alleged police brutality was taking place. George Holliday recorded the events involving batons raining on Rodneys body. He tried to contact the police department with this tape but was dismissed. He had no option but to turn to the media. The recorded video tape was played on television, and the incident acquired a universal appeal. A great deal of public outcry against police brutality followed.

Four of the officers who were present during the arrest of Rodney were charged in court for use of excessive force. This culminated in the famous Rodney King Police Brutality case. However, the jury acquitted the officers of any wrongdoing, and this led to the infamous Los Angeles riots of 1992 (Martin, 2005). More than fifty people died as a result of these protests, and property worth millions was lost. After this, the police officers were charged afresh in court by the countrys Department of Justice. They were charged with violating federal civil rights, and two of them were found guilty. Rodney was to later secure a 3.8 million dollars settlement for a civil suit filed against the state (Martin, 2005).

These developments have generated a lot of interest in this case. A lot of studies and case analysis had been carried out into this event. However, one issue does arise regarding the police brutality case. What really went wrong with the case? This is especially so in light of the acquittals brought by the 12 member jury in the first case. What would have led to lack of conviction in this case?

These are some of the questions that will be addressed in this essay. The author will try to describe what they believe went wrong with the case. Evidence from other analyses into the case will be used.

Rodney King Police Brutality Case: What Went Wrong

Before embarking on an analysis of what could have really went wrong with the case, it is important to first provide a highlight of the events that took place immediately before and after the arrest of Rodney.

After Rodney was arrested, the police accompanied him into the hospital (Mullen & Skitka, 2006). This was Pacifica Hospital, where he was treated for lacerations and other injuries emanating from the mishandling of the police officers.

Four police officers were charged shortly afterward by Los Angeles district attorney (Elise, 2008). These were Sergeant Stacey Koon, police officers Wind, Powell, and Briseno (Elise, 2008). They were charged with the use of excessive force, which was conceptualized to be a violation of Rodneys constitutional rights. The judge under whom the case was initially filed was substituted, and the incoming member of the bench carried out several changes regarding the case. For starters, the venue and the members of the jury were changed (Mangan, n.d). The following year, the new set of juries acquitted the three officers charged together with sergeant Koon. However, the jury could not come into an agreement regarding one of the charges preferred against Powell (Mangan, n.d).

Several explanations have been suggested as to what went wrong in this case. Martin (2005) draws on the nonviolence theory of crime to analyze what could have gone wrong. This scholar is of the view that when police engage in brutality, there is the likelihood of the action backfiring and coming back to haunt them. Rodneys case is a classic example of police brutality backfiring on them.

The police make use of several strategies to avert the backfiring or to mitigate the effects of this occurrence. Martin (2005) identifies five strategies that the police can use to achieve this. These are as follows:

Covering up the incident

Devaluing the victim

1. Reinterpretation of the events
2. Utilization of official channels to render the occurrence a halo of justice
3. Use of intimidation, including bribery (Martin, 2005)

The use of these strategies might be used to explain what went wrong in this case.

Covering Up

Covering up was one of the potential tactics that would have been used by the police to derail the investigations. However, Rodneys is a unique case where cover-up was not possible. This is given the fact that the video tape-recorded by Holliday captured the actions of the police vividly. The video was made public, and as such, covering up can not be said to be the major reasons explaining what went wrong with the case.

However, there are subtle indications of cover up in the case. When Holliday approached the police with the video tape, he was dismissed. One can not help but try to wonder what would have happened if the tape fell into the hands of the police. With no doubt, it would have been destroyed and police would have claimed it got lost. The dismissal by the police department was also a cover up effort, albeit one that backfired on them.

Devaluing the Victim

Having failed with the cover up, the police used this strategy effectively to discredit Rodney in the eyes of the jury. This is perhaps one of the major reasons why the case went wrong. Sergeant Koon especially harped on the fact that Rodney was under the influence of not only alcohol but also drugs (Martin, 2005: Lou, 2001). The police especially used the criminal history of Rodney to discredit him further. In their defense, they claimed that he was a dangerous criminal, and the force used on him was in fact below that called for by criminals of his stature.

Reinterpretation of the Events

The police tried to reinterpret what took place trying to convince the public that actually, it was not an act of injustice as popularly believed. This strategy was especially effective given that social realities are relative, and they depend on individual interpretations of reality. The interpretation held by the 12 member jury seemed to be quiet different from that held by more than 200 million Americans. For example, police argued that Rodney was a very powerful man, and as such had to use force on him (Martin, 2005; Mullen & Skitka, 2006).

The police also convinced the jury that the force used on Rodney was justified. It escalated in accordance with the provisions of the Los Angeles police department (Mangan, n.d). Rodney was effectively blamed for the beating that was accorded him.

Use of Official Channels

One popular strategy used by the authorities to sate public outcry is the formation of commissions to investigate cases of injustices. This renders the whole process a halo of official justice.

In this case, the authorities came up with a grand jury to look into the matter (Mangan, n.d). An FBI investigation ensued, which was followed by the charges preferred against the four police officers in court. These developments worked until the jury bungled by acquitting the officers in the first case. The authorities made an appearance of a working system by convicting two officers in the second trial, quelling riots (Lou, 2001). The public was hoodwinked, and as such, the case was denied the public support it needed.

Intimidation and Bribery

Intimidation was discernible in this case. This is especially cited by Tom Owens, the chief investigator for the plaintiffs team (Martin, 2005). This former officer was of the view that, every time a key individual in their team became public, scandalous information about them was leaked to the media. This was especially obvious when a doctor who had planned to set up a major investigating operation was exposed as having engaged in fraudulent dealings in the past. The doctor resigned shortly afterwards.

Several witnesses were tracked down, but majority of them could not publicly speak out for fear of police harassment (Martin, 2005). Things took a scary turn for the witnesses when one of the passengers in Rodneys car during the beating died in a car crash a few months into the trial (Martin, 2005). This fuelled fear of police appraisals, and this intimidation may have led to the case not progressing effectively.

Conclusion

Interplay of several factors might have led to the acquittals of the officers in the first trial. This includes the intimidation of witnesses among others, as detailed above. However, despite this, Rodneys case remains a historic example of police brutality.

References

Elise, T. (2008). Rodney King forgives officers who beat him. The Washington Post.

Lou, C. (2001). Official negligence: How Rodney King and the riots changed Los Angeles and the LAPD. 3^rd ed. Boulder: Westview Press.

Mangan, D. (n.d). Police brutality: The use of excessive force. Web.

Martin, B. (2005). The beating of Rodney King: The dynamics of backfire. Critical Criminology, 13(3), 307-326.

Mullen, E., & Skitka, L. J. (2006). When outcomes prompt criticism of procedures: An analysis of the Rodney King case. Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy, 6(1), 1-14.

In the article titled How the Police Use Facial Recognition, and Where It Falls Short, Valentino-DeVries takes the opportunity to offer a guide on how the police use facial recognition and the weaknesses of the approach. In what she describes as the oldest technology, the author accepted that investigators can adopt the Facial Recognition to identify the victims face as evidence (Valentino-DeVries 2). This expertise majorly uses cameras to capture the photos and videos of the suspect. The recorded results are later analyzed and interpreted in the lab to reveal the identities of the perpetrators. Therefore, the police and criminal investigation departments use the approach as a help in revealing the suspects identity.

Nevertheless, despite the benefits of the use of the facial recognition approach, several weaknesses have been recognized. Some law enforcement officers, especially in Florida, do not trust the application of technique as a warrant of arrest. In their opinion, the judges believe that the software used for facial identity has been developed by either local or international companies (Valentino-DeVries 3). As a result, they are more prone to use number manipulation, which may tamper with the evidence. Further, Valentino-DeVries continues to note that changes in the technological trends may modify the nature of the results obtained from such facial recognition exercises. Finally, the author noted that the technology is more prone to discrimination against race, gender, and class. For example, the facial recognition procedure carried out by police often have negative results for black women (Valentino-DeVries 3). The above trend continues to show that the technology tends to be prejudiced.

Based on the presented facts, it is clear that, on the one hand, Valentino-DeVries managed to prove the power of using facial recognition to help in collecting evidence in criminal cases. On the other hand, she succeeded to refute the ability of this technology in promoting accuracy. Therefore, together with other criminal investigating agencies, the police department should carefully analyze the data before using this technology as the ideal way of collecting and presenting evidences it in a court of law.

Work Cited

Valentino-DeVries, Jennifer. How the Police Use Facial Recognition, and Where It Falls Short. New York Times, 2020. Web.

This paper will analyze some of the critical issues found in the investigation of the Chicago police department by the United States Department of Justice. A publicly released video of a police officer shooting a black teenager and its aftermath caused DOJ to look into the work of CPD (USDOJ 2017). The investigation was conducted to assess the practices of CPD and determine if any of them were unlawful and uncover any underlying issues. The article outlines the following areas: Force, Accountability, Training & Supervision, Officer Wellness & Safety, Data Collection &Transparency, Promotions, and Community-Focused Policing.

The report has discovered alarming issues connected with the use of force by CPD officers and their accountability. The CPD officers have been found to  engage in a pattern or practice of using force, including deadly force, that is unreasonable (USDOJ 2017). Such practices were deemed dangerous, as they resulted in shootings and injuries that could have been avoided. Accountability was also extremely low, as 98% of the over 30000 complaints of police misconduct resulted in no disciplinary measures (USDOJ 2017). To address both these issues, DOJ has recommended training and equipping officers for better de-escalation of conflicts. At the same time, the City of Chicago has been carrying out its reforms, such as providing officers with body cameras to enable better investigation of more cases in the future. DOJ stated that CPDs accountability structure needs to provide a fair process to all accused officers.

The measures proposed to reduce the unnecessary use of force by the police seem logical, although they might not eliminate the issue by themselves. However, Chicagos initiative to equip police officers with body cameras should serve well as an incentive to adhere to proper rules of conduct. In combination with a more effective accountability structure, these new regulations are likely to make CPD safer and more responsible.

References

United States Department of Justice Civil Rights Division and United States Attorneys Office Northern District of Illinois. 2017. Investigation of the Chicago Police Department, 161.