The role of law enforcement and police in the United States of America has been significantly changed during the last several centuries. The need for criminal justice was recognized during colonial times when first communities were organized by volunteers to define and enforce the law in society (Mosteller). Officially, the first police department was introduced by Boston authorities in the middle of the 19th century (Mosteller). New York City was the next state to found a similar agency, now known as the New York City Police Department or the NYPD. Possessing exclusive power and opportunities, it is expected from police departments to encourage law, remove inequality, and keep order. Unfortunately, modern police activities are associated not only with such concepts as justice, trust, and safety but also brutality, cruelty, and corruption. In this essay, the analysis of the NYPD history, structure, values, and goals will be developed to understand the impact of the department on American society and clarify if American policing works effectively today.
Department History
The history of the NYPD is closely related to the events during the beginning of the 19th century. According to Chadwick, one of the critical moments in American law was the year 1834, also known as “the riot year” when civil disturbances emerged (1). Many New Yorkers were not satisfied with the presence of Irish immigrants on their land, the work of political parties and churches, and the impossibility to solve racial concerns (Chadwick 1). Constables were official legal bodies to preserve control and order. Cops and volunteer military units assisted constables in the cases of emergency. Still, these activities were not enough. The relationships between Native Americans and immigrants were not stable, and New York was in need of serious changes and improvements. In about ten years of public concerns, a new law enforcement reform was introduced by Mayor William Havemeyer (Chadwick 193). The decision to replace constables with “a force of over one thousand police officers” was made, and “a police chief, several assistant chiefs, and captains” were signed to each of eight precinct houses (Chadwick 193). The municipal police gained legal powers and responsibilities in the city.
The first attempts to establish police control in New York are frequently defined as successful ones. Such American ideas as “limiting government power, distrust of a standing army and belief that municipal institutions should be close to the people” prevailed (Czitrom). Not to be corrupted, first police officers and chiefs were appointed for a one-year period only. It was legal to collect fees in order to serve warrants, detain suspects, and reclaim stolen property (Czitrom). However, police officers gained certain freedoms, and it was important for the country and society to identify the rules, standards, and norms in regard to which the department could work. The NYPD was formed, and the city was protected by specially prepared people with clearly defined goals, values, and missions.
Goals and Values
With time, American society, as well as the NYPD, underwent considerable changes that touched upon economic, political, and cultural aspects. At this moment, this police department has a clear mission to be recognized by all police officers and their chiefs. The NYPD aims to improve the quality of life by “working in partnership with community to enforce the law, preserve peace, protect the people, reduce fear, and maintain order” (New York City Police Department, “Mission”). American citizens expect the NYPD to promote the existence of a safe and fair city where it is possible not only to solve problems but to establish strong interpersonal relationships. Nowadays, there are many technological devices and strategic innovations that are used to facilitate life and enhance communication. The NYPD employees must follow technical progress and keep people informed about recent achievements and future intentions. Police use social media to share their values, including the importance of fighting crimes and respecting human life and dignity (New York City Police Department, “Mission”). Despite the existing concerns and problems associated with the work of the department, leaders continue improving their working conditions, which contributes to high-quality living standards.
Organizational Structure
Being one of the oldest police departments of the country, the NYPD is also one of the largest organizations, including about 36,000 officers and 19,000 civilian workers (New York City Police Department, “About NYPD”). It is not an easy task for one organization that consists of such a number of people to control the city and promote safe and working culture. Therefore, an understanding of the core structure and responsibilities of employees is extremely important. Police commissioner is the head of the department who is involved in discussing and solving public and police issues within the law enforcement sphere. This person is responsible for appointing other chiefs and deputy commissioners. In the NYPD, there are one first deputy commissioner and a chief of department who control the quality of the work and run the entire department. The police department consists of other departments, like employee relations, information technology, legal matters, public information, etc., and each of them is run by a deputy commissioner (New York City Police Department, “Leadership”). Finally, there are many police officers, detectives, and other personnel who work within a specific bureau that is guided by a chief.
Impact on Society
The NYPD has to protect over 8 million citizens of New York every day, and many expectations are identified in society. However, despite the intention to follow the best purposes and serve fairly, many concerns about the quality of the department’s work exist. For example, instead of considering police officers as guardians and protectors, the American public treats them as warriors and enforces (Mosteller). Police have a number of tasks and responsibilities, but their current job includes tax collecting and military enforcement activities. People want to be sure that their police department enhances safety and peace without being involved in various financial aspects. Still, the NYPD continues frustrating society because of the impossibility of combining their true responsibilities with their organizational tasks.
Another important aspect of the work of the NYPD is the development of new policies and the improvement of the already established standards. There are many discussions about the effectiveness of the stop and frisk policy (SQF) of the NYPD. During the eleven-year-old period (between 2003 and 2014), the NYPD recorded about 5 million stops, 2.5 million frisks, 400,000 searches, 300,000 arrests, and 7,000 pistols recovered (Ferrandino 119). On the one hand, police control weapons on the street and reduce the rates of crimes, predicting dangerous situations and identifying suspicious individuals. On the other hand, not all people are satisfied with the fact that now it is the police who make decisions and follow their intuition. The privacy of citizens is challenged, fear-based behaviors are developed, and stereotypes matter in checking people. Police officers use the law to excuse their actions and may abuse people who seem to be suspicious but have not to be such.
Finally, police brutality and corruption cannot be neglected and influence the quality of life. Police officers may shoot innocent people and explain their behaviors as an attempt to protect society and keep order. They underestimate their responsibilities and rights and use the law. In the majority of cases, society is not ready to accept such decisions and activities and organize meetings and debates to define the role of police in everyday routine. New Yorkers want to leave their house without fear of being stopped, checked, or arrested just because a police officer has some thoughts and suspicions. The NYPD has to be the place where trust, fair, and honest relations are developed within a team, as well as with society. Governmental control and fines must be elaborated to predict complications and unnecessary hassles.
Conclusion
The role of police in society remains ambiguous and unclear because of the level of control officers may have over people. The NYPD is one of the oldest and biggest facilities in the country with a rich history and a specific vision. Although it is expected that the department works to protect people, promote safety, and enhance order and justice, many citizens of New York admit that the work of the police is characterized by a number of negative aspects. For example, corruption, brutality, and the possibility to rely on intuition and ambitions provoke many concerns and questions. At the same time, the stop and frisk policy helped to prevent crimes and reduce the number of gun-related accidents on the streets. The NYPD may be not a perfect organization, but its impact has to be recognized as an attempt to improve the lives of Americans.
Works Cited
Chadwick, Bruce. Law & Disorder: The Chaotic Birth of the NYPD. Macmillan, 2017.
Ferrandino, Joseph A. “The Effectiveness and Equity of NYPD Stop and Frisk Policy, 2003-2014.” Journal of Crime and Justice, vol. 41, no. 2, pp. 119-135.
Mosteller, Jeremiah. “A Brief History of Policing in America.” Charles Koch Institute, Web.
New York City Police Department. “About NYPD.”NYPD, Web.
New York City Police Department. “Leadership.”NYPD, Web.
New York City Police Department. “Mission.”NYPD, Web.
The basic strategies of police workers are inherently connected with local citizens and have a diverse nature. This study examines the issue of police officers’ general acceptance of tactics and principles of broken windows and community problem-solving policing. It is crucial for evaluating diverse support for each police officer’s characteristics, including ethnical, gender, educational, and assignment factors. The analysis of this study contributes to assessing the critical concepts of the broken windows perspective, as well as the essential community problem-solving linkage to the police and citizens.
Theoretical/ Conceptual Development
The theoretical approach requires the gradual passage from the definition of the issue to the detailed examination of its core points. According to Jenkins (2015), the researchers unevenly distinguish between community policing, broken windows policing (BWP), and problem-solving, although these concepts tend to be implemented coupled with each other. Thus, community policing and problem-solving policing form the essence of community problem-solving policing with the BWP as the crucial factor. After the rapid growth of crime and reassessment of the police profession in the 1960s, the community problem-solving aspects were progressively enacted.
Three mentioned concepts are regarded as “three main movements characterizing this era” (Jenkins, 2015, p. 222). Based on Welsh, Braga, and Bruinsma’s (2015) research, there is little evidence that handling the disorder decreases fear of crime or increases community controls. Despite the theoretical mechanisms, the overall idea of arranging disorderly conditions to control crime is maintained by the available evaluation evidence. Besides, the available empirical evidence on the linkage between disorder and subsequent crime is extensive.
Methodological/ Statistical Approach
The methodological approach of this study implies data collection, analyses, and results. An electronic survey instrument was used to “227 sworn officers in two urban police departments” (Jenkins, 2015, p. 225). With that said, univariate analyses disclose the support levels that police need for specific police tactics and theoretical principles of BWP. Regression analyses, on the other hand, trace the correlation between support for these tactics and principles and respondent race and ethnicity based on the other characteristics, such as “gender, education, rank, years of service, and assignment” (Jenkins, 2015, p. 227).
As described by Weisburd, Hinkle, Braga, and Wooditch (2015), to enhance the ability of the community to exercise informal social controls, the police should follow certain methods. Those include responding to minor disturbances and crimes and immediately fighting against physical dilapidation.
Explanation/ Substance of the Findings and Discussion
Jenkins’ exploratory analysis of the community problem-solving tactics connected with the broken windows theory discloses critical findings regarding the current state of policing. Three significant findings include unambiguous support of the respondents for community problem-solving; however, with further focus on some traditional methods of policing. The second finding implies a delay in detectives’ and investigators’ approval of tactics part of community problem-solving. Ultimately, the third finding includes differences by officers’ characteristics at a certain rate concerning broken windows policing tactics and principles, as well as an important reform strategy tactic.
Other Approaches or Viewpoints
Considering different viewpoints, Skogan, Hartnett, Comey, Dubois, and Kaiser (2019) examines the police and problem-solving issue. They suggest that the police play a pivotal role based on the unique trust of society. Hence, implementing a problem-solving strategy increases the responsibilities held by police that reflect the broader conception of policing. Referring to the broken windows policing, Kohler-Hausmann (2018) explores the case of the New York City experiment in the BWP regime, which resulted in a “higher number of arrests and lower number of convictions” (p. 172). With that said, the central approach implies forming a strong partnership between the police and the community.
To sum up, the exploratory findings, together with other researches, revealed that Latino police officers are more prone to accept those elements that force the police to take an active role in forming relationships with society. Therefore, it is possible to sustain orderly communities, as well as recognition of communities’ capacity to deal with disorder and their definition of uncivil behavior. Altogether, it is a significant approach for future research and policy development.
References
Jenkins, M. (2015). Police support for community problem-solving and broken windows policing. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 41(2), 220-235. Web.
Kohler-Hausmann, I. (2018). Misdemeanorland: Criminal courts and social control in an age of broken windows policing. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Skogan, W., Hartnett, S., Comey, J., Dubois, J., & Kaiser, M. (2019). On the beat: Police and community problem solving. New York, NY: Routledge.
Weisburd, D., Hinkle, J., Braga, A., & Wooditch, A. (2015). Understanding the mechanisms underlying broken windows policing. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 52(4), 589-608. Web.
Welsh, B., Braga, A., & Bruinsma, G. (2015). Reimagining broken windows. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 52(4), 447-463. Web.
Law enforcement organizations and individual officers should be responsible for their actions whenever providing security services to community members. They ought to promote concepts or aspects of fairness and equality. Different departments expect police officers to maintain order and prevent crime in accordance with the existing laws. Unfortunately, deviance remains a major predicament many enforcement agencies have to deal with. A proper understanding of this problem can make it easier for different leaders and policymakers to present evidence-based solutions to mitigate it. The purpose of this paper is to give a detailed analysis of Walker’s new framework for police accountability, the model for understanding deviance, and body-worn cameras.
Framework for Police Accountability
Law enforcement organizations and individual officers should be responsible for their actions whenever providing security services to community members. They ought to promote concepts or aspects of fairness and equality. Different departments expect police officers to maintain order and prevent crime in accordance with the existing laws (Shilston, 2015). Unfortunately, deviance remains a major predicament many enforcement agencies have to deal with. This discussion gives a detailed analysis of Walker’s new framework for police accountability.
The concept of accountability describes how police officers have to be responsible for their engagements and undertakings when maintaining law and order in their respective societies. Walker and Archbold (2014) present a powerful model or framework for ensuring that all enforcers remain committed and ready to do what is right always. The theory is known as Policy, Training, Supervision, and Review or PTSR (Walker & Archbold, 2014). The application of this tool has delivered positive results in many departments because it provides guidelines and punitive measures for individuals who act without considering their responsibilities.
There are specific elements that define this framework. The first one is that of policy, and it focuses on laws and rules that dictate the way police officers pursue safety, life, and liberty. According to this theory, law enforcement agencies should strive to develop superior policies that are acceptable, supported by emerging technologies, and capable of reducing risks for both citizens and officers (Walker & Archbold, 2014). Another aspect of this framework presents is that departments should revise their policies continually. Various measures are essential to ensure that there are appropriate rules to inform police behavior. For example, agencies and stakeholders can complete new research studies to develop superior laws for guiding police work.
The second element described in the new framework is that of training. According to Shilston (2016), this idea supports in-service skills that can encourage police officers to avoid the utilization of deadly force. The use of data analytics is proposed as an evidence-based approach for mitigating emerging challenges through continuous training. Most of the existing programs were insufficient and incapable of equipping officers with appropriate competencies (Walker & Archbold, 2014). The example of data-driven aspects can ensure that training procedures are aimed at tackling existing or identifiable challenges.
Supervision forms the next element of this framework for accountability in the field of law enforcement. Those in leadership positions should support, guide, and back officers who complete their duties diligently. They can also offer evidence-based ideas for promoting desirable results. A good example is a departmental leader who should intervene before negative issues emerge and provide timely solutions (Walker & Archbold, 2014). The promotion of discipline among officers becomes a critical element for maximizing police accountability and performance. The concept of a positive culture can minimize malpractices and ensure that positive outcomes are recorded.
The fourth element outlined in this new theory is that of review. Shilston (2015) supports this idea since it empowers leaders to monitor the behavior and performance of every officer continuously. For example, a person whose conduct is problematic will be identified and monitored. The individual will also receive timely guidelines and support in order to become more productive. A disciplinary review team will also dictate whether a specific officer has violated the outlined policies or laws in the department (Walker & Archbold, 2014). This element is necessary since it presents insights that agencies and heads can apply to strengthen the nature of the established PTSR framework. The final section can also become a powerful approach for borrowing best practices from other states or agencies and eventually delivering sustainable changes (Shilston, 2015). For example, a police agency that continues to record minimum cases of malpractices can become a model for influencing or formulating a superior PTSR framework.
From this analysis, it is appropriate for leaders to consider various strategies that can ensure that the PTSR model is implemented successfully to improve accountability. Firstly, agencies should be aware of emerging technologies if they are to benefit from data-based analytics. Secondly, the idea of cooperation will streamline supervisory and training practices in the targeted organization. Thirdly, departments should engage in continuous research since there will always be new evidence-based practices to borrow from theorists, scholars, and states (Walker & Archbold, 2014). The acquired ideas will be implemented to become part of the PTSR framework and eventually empower police officers to act in accordance with the established policies.
Fourthly, the presence of punitive measures is an effective approach for making sure that individuals who are unaccountable do not repeat such malpractices. This achievement will also guide other officers to remain committed and always act in accordance with established or existing policies (Walker & Archbold, 2014). Finally, the concept of continuous improvement is crucial for every PTSR model. According to Walker and Archbold (2014), agencies should transform this model depending on the changing needs of the targeted beneficiaries and officers. Such an approach will minimize potential challenges and eventually support the effectiveness of every police department in the United States.
Framework for Understanding Police Deviance
Police deviance has remained a major obstacle affecting the integrity and performance of many officers. This outcome makes it impossible for them to achieve their potential and meet the changing demands of the people they have to serve. In the book “Forces of Deviance: Understanding the Dark Side of Policing,” the author offers a powerful framework that analysts and scholars can consider to understand the nature of this problem (Kappeler, Sluder, & Alpert, 1998). According to the presented framework, deviance is a problem that is usually triggered by these three factors or forces: nature of the organization of policing, roles and duties of the police, and the diverse expectations of members of the society (Kappeler et al., 1998). Every strategy aimed at minimizing this problem should, therefore, be informed by the described elements. This happens to be the case since each element will determine or dictate the way different police officers act in an attempt to address the needs of the people they serve and achieve their potential.
Using this framework, it can be possible for departmental heads to highlight various aspects or attributes that facilitate deviance. Firstly, organizational elements can make it easier for officers to engage in certain malpractices that can affect the integrity of the entire force. A good example is the presence of improper leadership and guidance systems in a given department. The failure of leaders to promote desirable organizational cultures will create disagreements and make it impossible for officers to do what is right (Pavelka, 2016). Secondly, societal expectations have been observed to influence or encourage these professionals to engage in deviant acts. For example, a community that is opposed to welfare officers will compel them to apply brutal or intense force against them (Alang, McAlpine, McCreedy, & Hardeman, 2017). Similarly, societies that promote inappropriate behaviors will make it easier for these individuals to engage in deviant behaviors, such as corruption.
The complex nature and organization of police work become a new opportunity for engaging in unacceptable behaviors and actions. For example, many officers tend to be empowered and required to act in accordance with the existing ethos, culture, and rules or themes. Since they are free to arrest and detain individuals who commit offenses, the chances of overstepping their mandate are usually high (Kappeler et al., 1998). The problem escalates when there are not adequate measures to supervise and hold different officers accountable for their respective actions.
This problem of deviance has persisted in many societies and regions, thereby making it impossible for many citizens to receive high-quality services from different departments and agencies. The involvement of multiple stakeholders makes it easier for community members to compromise officers. The existing challenge of racism in the United States has catalyzed this challenge of deviance. Consequently, cases of prejudice, wrongful incarceration, and conviction continue to be reported in this country (Pavelka, 2016). A proper understanding of different causal factors of police deviance becomes the first action plan for resolving this problem.
Fortunately, managers of departments and law enforcement agencies can consider the power of police subculture and the rules that govern them in order to address this predicament. The most important thing is reinforcing such attributes and ensuring that all individuals act and pursue their goals in accordance with the law. Members of the police force pursue their duties in accordance with the outlined ethos (Huff, White, & Decker, 2018). This concept is defined as values that are applicable and appropriate for every institution. Such statements focus on a number of issues, such as never quitting, perceiving integrity and honor, placing the demands of community members first, and supporting each other (Pavelka, 2016). These attributes of police ethos are informed by various traits or values, including authority, cohesion, strength, discipline, and sacrifice. Those who uphold these attributes will be acting in accordance with the established subculture.
These are specific rules or themes that guide this kind of behavior. For example, police officers will never search for citizens’ houses or arrest individuals without official warrants. They should always intervene when they encounter criminal or unlawful incidents. They are also required to detain individuals who might be against the established policies or causing disturbances in their neighborhoods. They are to act decently, avoid bribes, and provide their services to all people without prejudice or discrimination (Kappeler et al., 1998). Such ethos and themes have continued to support the effectiveness and performance of many officers when pursuing their duties.
The outstanding observation is that there is disunity between leadership and performance in the field of law enforcement. The proposed model of accountability can become a powerful tool for examining the true causes of deviance and mitigating them using evidence-based measures. For example, reinforcing the true meaning of police subculture and the existing rules is a strategy that can empower more individuals in this sector to perform their duties diligently (Huff et al., 2018). Continuous supervision and improvement are powerful strategies that will minimize the predicaments associated with deviance and ensure that more people receive high-quality services.
Body Worn Cameras
Body-worn cameras or videos (BWCs) are powerful technological systems capable of recording moving images and audio. Since they are manufactured in different designs and shapes, BWCs have become useful and applicable in a number of fields, including policing. Their projected benefits and applications explain why they have become a hot topic in this field today (Fan, 2018). A detailed analysis of the unique advantages and challenges of these devices can inform proper guidelines for using or avoiding them to improve the delivery of security services.
Police and law enforcement agencies have been interested and willing to have a clear knowledge of the importance of using modern technologies. Several benefits have emerged that make BWC appropriate for this sector. The first one is that such devices are capable of increasing confidence among police officers (Adams & Mastracci, 2019). This happens to be the case since they will have their encounters and experiences recorded. Those in charge will determine if their followers have acted in accordance with the established policies. The second benefit is that the number of cases involving misconduct among officers will reduce significantly (Shilston, 2016). This will be possible since many citizens and members of the public will no longer present erroneous reports to the relevant authorities.
The third advantage is that the adoption of these technologies can reduce the costs incurred by individuals pursuing criminal justice services. This is possible since they will identify all offenders and hold them accountable due to the presence of recorded evidence (Hardy et al., 2017). The fourth benefit associated with BWCs is the ability to reduce antisocial or delinquent behaviors among members of the public. This outcome is possible since many people will no longer be willing to engage in crime.
Another outstanding advantage is that the presence of cameras will discourage more citizens from attacking or injuring police officers since they will remain accountable for their actions. This achievement creates a new opportunity for these workers to complete their duties diligently. Finally, the insights gained after examining such videos can deliver evidence-based insights for improving performance (Fan, 2018). For example, the acquired insights will ensure that various training programs are based on emerging knowledge and capable of delivering desirable results.
Unfortunately, these devices present various challenges that different stakeholders should not ignore. Firstly, they put officers at risk because chances of assault increase when criminals realize that they have them (Hardy et al., 2017). This means that such professionals will experience negative psychological and mental outcomes. Secondly, BWCs are capable of invading the privacy and rights of unsuspecting community members, thereby damaging the effectiveness of the existing public-police relationships (Adams & Mastracci, 2019). Those who consider the benefits of such BWCs should take this critical issue into account. Thirdly, the use of such systems means that the government will incur numerous expenses. Adams and Mastracci (2019) go further to argue that there are other alternatives that can deliver positive results without necessarily having to put the lives and liberties of many citizens at risk.
With these insights and observations, I personally believe that BWCs are appropriate for policing work and other areas of the criminal justice system. While there are specific challenges and gaps that make them inappropriate, their perceived benefits appear to offer numerous opportunities to many people in different societies. The best example is that they can tackle the problem of crime by discouraging citizens from harming their neighbors or police officers (Pavelka, 2016). Such technologies improve the speed at which courts and other systems meet the needs of the targeted individuals. The evidence acquired through the use of such technologies makes it easier for many police departments to pursue their roles diligently.
The above sections have focused on the issues of accountability and deviance among police officers. With the application of these devices, the chances are high that cases of malpractices will increase because all individuals will be willing to do what is right. The acquired information from such cameras can ensure that wrongdoers in enforcement agencies are identified and disciplined accordingly (Maskaly, Donner, Jennings, Ariel, & Sutherland, 2017). This achievement will encourage more officers to pursue their duties and roles while at the same time minimizing cases of deviance (Adams & Mastracci, 2019). Finally, there is hope in such technologies since they are capable of providing superior insights for improving police work and performance.
With increasing cases of malpractices and deviance, the use of cameras and modern technologies can inform powerful strategies for enhancing positive behaviors and mitigating the problem of crime. For example, departments and regions that have introduced and implemented superior systems have continued to record positive results (Fan, 2018). The adoption of BWCs is, therefore, an effective move that is capable of meeting the demands of both police officers and members of different communities (Adams & Mastracci, 2019). Such devices will also present superior ideas for improving the activities different law enforcement agencies in this country undertake, thereby transforming the United States’ criminal justice system.
Conclusion
The above discussions have answered the identified questions and presented evidence-based ideas that different stakeholders can consider to transform the quality of security services available to different citizens. With increasing cases of malpractices and deviance, the two frameworks can inform powerful strategies for enhancing positive behaviors and mitigating the problem of crime. The discussion has gone further to support the adoption of BWCs to empower both citizens and police officers. This is possible since more professionals will be in a position to transform the United States’ criminal justice system and deliver justice proportionately. The government should, therefore, consider the above issues and insights in order to present superior models for improving the accountability of police officers. This achievement will empower all stakeholders in this field to provide sustainable services to every citizen and eventually promote economic performance.
References
Adams, I., & Mastracci, S. (2019). Police body-worn cameras: effects on officers’ burnout and perceived organizational support. Police Quarterly, 22(1), 5-30. Web.
Alang, S., McAlpine, D., McCreedy, E., & Hardeman, R. (2017). Police brutality and Black health: Setting the agenda for public health scholars. American Journal of Public Health, 107(5), 662-665. Web.
Fan, M. D. (2018). Body cameras, Big Data, and police accountability. Law & Social Inquiry, 43(4), 1236-1256. doi:10.1111/lsi.12354
Hardy, S., Bennett, L., Rosen, P., Carroll, S., White, P., & Palmer-Hill, S. (2017). The feasibility of using body worn cameras in an inpatient mental health setting. Mental Health in Family Medicine, 13, 393-400.
Huff, J., White, M. D., & Decker, S. H. (2018). Organizational correlates of police deviance: A statewide analysis of misconduct in Arizona, 2000-2011. Policing: An International Journal, 41(4), 465-481. Web.
Kappeler, V. E., Sluder, R. D., & Alpert, G. P. (1998). Forces of deviance: Understanding the dark Side of Policing. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press.
Maskaly, J., Donner, C., Jennings, W. G., Ariel, K., & Sutherland, A. (2017). The effects of body-worn cameras (BWCs) on police and citizen outcomes: A state-of-the-art review. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 40(4), 672-688. Web.
Pavelka, S. (2016). Restorative justice in the states: An analysis of statutory legislation and policy. Justice Policy Journal, 2(13), 1-23.
Shilston, T. G. (2016). Six dimensions of police accountability: An aid to needs assessment in international police development missions. International Journal of Police Science & Management, 18(1), 37-46. Web.
Walker, S., & Archbold, C. A. (2014). The new world of police accountability. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
In the year 1994, a group of police officers from the New York police department projected that crime prevention and order maintenance could be attained with ease through the adoption of an integrated problem-solving strategy (McDonald & Greenberg, 2002). Later that year, the police officers developed and implemented a crime strategy identified as COMPSTAT. The strategy makes use of information technology, operational approach, and managerial accountability to manage crime. This strategy utilizes Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to identify crime-prone areas. This article seeks to evaluate the effectiveness of COMPSTAT and other related information technology strategies in policing.
COMPSTAT comprises of four basic information system functions. These functions are input, processing, output, and feedback. Input entails the collection of precise and appropriate crime information. Through this, the police departments can evaluate what type of crime is to occur, the scene of the crime, the time of the crime, and the causes of the crime. Precise and appropriate information is very vital for the efficiency of COMPSTAT strategy since responsive choices are to be made from them (Silverman, 2009). In this regard, input data should be credible. Sources of crime inputs include crime reports, crime scene photographs, and witness interviews. The next information system strategy employed by COMPSTAT is processing. Processing begins after the acquisition of timely and accurate information. This process entails the formation, development, and execution of crime mitigation policies to reduce the occurrence of the recognized crime. Having understood the recurring problems and their solutions from the experiences, police officers would be able to communicate and delegate duties to their juniors to ensure that the best solution is achieved. For processing strategies to be effective, commandants should delegate appropriate resources at all facets of the problem.
The third information system strategy employed by COMPSTAT is output. The output comprises of rapid deployment strategies. After a problem has been recognized and suitable resources put together into a strategic plan, control personnel are supposed to deploy some personnel before their target leaves the crime scene. Since the adoption of the COMPSTAT process, rapid deployments have helped the police officers tackle crime incidents such as riots and active shooters. The last information strategy is feedback. Feedback involves follow up and assessment. This requires the commandants to review the impact of their strategic plan on the target. Regular follow-up meetings will come in handy for such needs. During this process, those in control will evaluate whether the plan met or accomplished the desired objective. If the goals were not met, relevant recommendations on whether to change or repeat the plan should be implemented.
In the recent past, information systems have allowed police departments to respond and mitigate crime faster. Information systems have allowed police departments to store crime information in a single location. Through this, information from the previous crime scene can be accessed with ease. Equally, the adoption of information systems has enabled the police department to apply logical calculations on the collected information. Through this, the police can predict when and where the next crime will be carried out, enhancing their mitigations. Compared with patrolling, COMPSTAT has enabled the police to fight crime with ease. As such, patrolling enables the police to collect limited information; hence no accurate predictions can be made. With the emergence of new crimes, more information will be collected and stored in the database to create precise information for future crimes.
On the other hand, street patrolling does not provide the police with relevant information or guides for future crimes. With the adoption of the information system, police have been able to map crime scenes with ease using Geographic Information System. This has not only enhanced the mitigation process but also ease the deployment process. Therefore, the adoption of an information system in the police department has brought several benefits compared with street patrolling.
SWOT analysis of the COMPSTAT process results in the following information. As illustrated above, predictive policing is a very efficient way of controlling crimes. Therefore, it is apparent that predictive policing would enable the police to control crime with ease, alleviate the collection of crime data, and reduce the incidences of crime in our communities (Willis, 2004). The police would be able to mitigate crime because the use of information system tools such as COMPSTAT would allow them to collect and process accurate and timely data. Despite its usefulness, it should be noted that predictive policing is not error-free. Just like any other information system, humans can corrupt COMPSTAT. As such, the system can be manipulated by feeding in inaccurate data. With the advancements of technology, many opportunities will emerge from this system, and more security agencies would adopt it. In the future, the developments of user-friendly software would progress the advancement and the adoption of this system. Currently, human manipulation is believed to be the greatest threat to the system. As humans continue to feed false data into the system, the more the efficiency of the system decreases.
References
McDonald, P. P., & Greenberg, S. (2002). Managing police operations: implementing the New York crime control model CompStat. Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth Pub.
Silverman, E. B. (2009). NYPD battles crime: innovative strategies in policing. Boston: Northeastern University Press.
Willis, J. J. (2004). Compstat and organizational change in the Lowell Police Department: challenges and opportunities. Washington, DC: Police Foundation.
The New York Police Department is one of the most progressive police departments throughout the world. It is the largest police department in the United States and is responsible for the policing of over 8 million citizens. Policing proves to be very vital for this city especially in light of the fact that it is the 13th largest city in the world and the single largest city in the United States (U.S. Census Bureau, 2007). In light of this, policing is extremely complicated, involves the coordinated efforts of many different factions within the department and requires a clear and concise policing strategy which relies heavily on the use of technology.
One of the most poignant aspects of the policing of the NYPD involves the ability to gather crime related information, disseminate this information and act on it in an expeditious manner. Much of the policing strategy within the NYPD is one that is driven by fear (Silverman and Della-Giustina 2001).
At the heart of the NYPD’s policing strategy is its dedication to publicizing its efforts in fighting crime. In so doing, each initiative undertaken has garnered media publicity. Mayor Giuliani who was the Mayor of New York between the years of 1994 and 2001 along with his hand-picked police commissioner, William Bratton instituted a zero tolerance policy on crime and were assured that this effort was well publicized.
This initiative involved enforcing crime utilizing stringent prison sentences for offenders and was responsible for a 12% decrease in crime rates within New York City as compared to a 2% decrease within the rest of the nation (Grogan, and Proscio 149).
An integral part of the policing strategy is one which involves what many individuals feel constitutes an egregious practice—the practice of profiling in order to apprehend suspects. Profiling is a crime reduction initiative utilized by police departments throughout the United States. This initiative allows police to stop motorists and search their vehicles if there is a “reasonable” suspicion of illegal drugs and/or weapon trafficking. It also allows the police to “stop and frisk” pedestrians if there is a “reasonable” suspicion of illegal activities. This is a perfectly legal practice but it is one that infringes on the civil rights of the individuals in question. This practice is one that proved effective and is currently practiced within the police department (Center for Constitutional Rights 2007).
In an attempt to manage the technological needs of this very large police department, the NYPD has established a strategic partnership with International Business Machines (IBM). The scope of this partnership as delineated by IBM is one which involves the implementation of a real-time Crime Information Warehouse that makes NYPD more proactive in fighting crime (IBM 2006). This was accomplished through a partnership between IBM and its strategic partner, Cognos. This software offers the NYPD the ability to manage the resources within the police force in response to real-time crime data. This system is able to analyze the trends and crime patterns and is able to allow the NYPD to rapidly apprehend suspects while reducing the costs and resources necessary to do so.
CrimeStar also produces a suite of products which is utilized by the NYPD. The NYPD utilizes CrimeStar’s suite of law enforcement organization information systems. The CrimeStar integrated system includes CrimeStar Record Management System (RMS), CrimeStar Computer Aided Dispatch (CAD) and CrimeStar Mobile Digital Communicator (MCD). Utilizing this system, the NYPD is allowed to:
Manage the records within the individual precincts
Dispatch emergency services utilizing a computer aided interface
Manage Jail and inmate custody transactions
Engage in real-time field reporting (CrimeStar n.d.).
Overall, the NYPD utilizes a policing strategy which involves a zero tolerance policy for crime, the extensive publication of its efforts and profiling especially in light of the events of September 11, 2001. These efforts have been instrumental in impacting a drastic decrease in crime within the city especially in the area of violent crimes. Much of this is made possible by the technology utilized within the NYPD. In an effort to manage the massive amount of data, the NYPD utilizes technology products from IBM and Cognos as well as technological solutions from CrimeStar. Utilizing these two technological solutions, the NYPD is able to obtain real-time data which is utilized to develop strategic initiatives to crime reduction as well as rapid response and suspect apprehension.
According to the Philadelphia Police Department (PPD), COMPSTAT is a crime analysis and police management process developed by the New York City Police Department with the essence that COMPSTAT collects, analyze and map crime data and other essential police performance measures on a regular basis and hold police managers accountable for their performance as measured by these data (PPD, 2007).
The Philosophy behind COMPSTAT is considered simple based on four principles that have proven to be essential ingredients of an effective crime-fighting strategy; namely:
Accurate and Timely Intelligence needed in effective crime-fighting requires. It is necessary that officers at all levels of the police department understand when – time of day, day of the week, week of the year – various types of crimes have been committed as well as who, how, where, and by whom they have been committed (PPD, 2007).
Effective Tactics is implemented after collated, analyzed and mapped this crime intelligence. The department’s commanders must develop effective tactics for dealing with the problems it reveals. These tactics must be comprehensive, flexible, and adaptable to changing trends to bring about permanent change in crime conditions and must involve other law enforcement agencies such as the FBI, DEA and ATF, the prosecutors, the probation services, other city agencies not directly connected to law enforcement, as well as the public: community groups, Operation Town Watch, among others (PPD, 2007).
Rapid Deployment of Personnel and Resources. This is achieved as soon as a tactical plan has been developed. The deployment of personnel and resources must be rapid and focused, and that the response to a crime or quality-of-life problem demands that patrol and special units coordinate their resources and expertise and act with a sense of urgency (PPD, 2007).
Relentless Follow-up and Assessment. This means that all actions must be relentlessly followed up and assessed to ensure that the desired results are achieved. This will ensure that recurring or similar problems are dealt with effectively in the future (PPD, 2007).
The COMPSTAT Process
Every state police department consequently has developed its own COMPSTAT process based on the above principles to ensure that each of the departments is actively involved in the fight against crime (PPD, 2007).
The process begins with the collection, analysis, and mapping of accurate and timely crime information undergone by the Department’s Crime Analysis and Mapping Unit with the help of Federal funds provided through the Local Law Enforcement Block Grant (PPD, 2007). The unit is also staffed by civilians who are experts in the use of geographical information systems. It produces as many as 2000 maps a week. The PPD (2007) suggested that crime in each police District is broken down by type and then further analyzed to identify the place of occurrence as well as the time of day, day of the week, and week of the year of occurrence. Likewise, homicides, rapes, robberies, aggravated assaults are broken down into those committed with and without guns. Aggravated assaults are further classified as domestic or non-domestic, while burglaries are listed as residential or commercial, and thefts are classified as retail theft, theft from a person, theft from auto, and auto theft. In addition, data are also captured involving shooting victims, shooting incidents, gun arrests, and gun seizures (PPD, 2007).
The PPD (2007) reported that each map displays information not only about current crime but also about the previous months’ enabling commanders to assess the impact and effectiveness of anti-crime strategies. Drug patterns are shown overlaying the crime data with the premise that narcotics are often behind violent crimes, so that district maps display narcotic arrests of both buyers and sellers along with reported crime (PPD, 2007).
Incidentally, crime is not the only data analyzed and mapped. The number of arrests and the number of cases still requiring investigation is also shown, while other maps highlight police activity such as vehicle and pedestrian investigations and moving and parking violations. In addition, the 911 calls in each District are also tallied, including the percentage of unfounded reports with the data captured both electronically and through manual means. After the data is aggregated, it is incorporated in the form of a CompStat Process Data Form, and the completed form is transmitted to the Department’s officials and all police district commanders (PPD, 2007).
The San Diego Police Department Community Policing
The San Diego Police Department (SDPD) has divided the neighborhoods of the City of San Diego into regions to track crime, emergency, or crime-related activities. These are:
Northern Division
Northeastern Division
Northwestern Division
Eastern Division
Southeastern Division
Central Division
Western Division
Southern Division
Mid City Division (SDPD, 2007).
Below is the Map of Police Department neighborhoods:
Figure 1. Map of Police Department (San Diego Police Department, 2007).
The SDPD recognizes a shared responsibility and connection between the police and the community in making San Diego a safer, more livable city. In order to provide the best possible service, online and actual requests for additional patrol, report crimes, and giving feedback on officer performance, either positive or negative, are easily accessible (SDPD, 2007). Following are the online links and forms that individuals may retrieve and fill up for any police assistance needed:
Citizen Request Form
Reporting Emergencies
Reporting Non-Emergencies
Employee/Officer Commendations & Complaints
Useful Links
Frequently Asked Questions
The SDPD also revitalized the Neighborhood Watch in all of its communities with the mission to build and utilize all available resources to create a proactive community-police partnership for crime prevention and problem-solving in each community. The rationale behind the program is that there cannot be a police officer on every corner, so that citizen involvement is essential to combat crime.
The Neighborhood Watch is expected to result in the sense of ownership by members of each community as well as the development of a true community-police partnership. This is to reduce police service calls and reduction in crime or the fear of crime. The program aims to provide increased awareness, and when a community perspective or support is needed, Neighborhood Watch groups serve as a valuable resource (SDPD, 2007).
Interactive Mapping Application
In addition, law enforcement agencies in San Diego County, including the San Diego Police Department, have developed an Interactive Mapping Application where citizens can view crime activity in their neighborhoods. Citizens select a geographical area, a date range, and crime types, and a map of the specified activity appears where citizens can click on any incident on the map to get more details. Activity included are crimes, arrests, citations, and traffic incidents (SDPD, 2007).
Discussion
Which method is more effective for the Department for REDUCING CRIME?
The CompStat appears to be more sweeping and detailed when it comes to its planning, detailing crime data and incidences. This may mean reduced crime in the process.
Which style is more Responsive for COMMUNITY NEEDS?
While the CompStat appears to be comprehensive in its tactics and detailing, the San Diego Police Department, however, has directly connected to its private citizens, empowering the individuals to deal effectively on community issues that need police presence and action.
Conclusion
It is to be concluded that each technique of the CompStat and the SDPD has its advantages over the other in addressing crime prevention as well as community responsiveness. Both aim at the same level of efficiency and tracking of activities that needs police intervention but approached these in different and unique ways: CompStat is officer-dependent while the SDPD shares responsibility with the individual members of the community.
This means that while CompStat has its strength on the system and data held and managed by its officers, the SDPD has banked on community cooperation to deal with crime and crime prevention. In the end, both are aiming at crime reduction, although the means are different.
Law enforcement agencies, like any other organization, are prone to such issues as burnout at work, low job satisfaction, and morale, decreasing performance. The lack of morale is a common problem for police departments across the USA (Archbold, 2012). It is often associated with burnout and job dissatisfaction. Researchers have identified several factors that have adverse effects on officers’ morale. These include workload, the lack of resources, lack of efficient and up-to-date equipment, improper rewarding system, inappropriate internal communication (McCarty & Skogan, 2013; Ercikti, Vito, Walsh, & Higgins, 2011). Importantly, researchers stress that workload and insufficient resources, as well as inadequate equipment, are central factors leading to police personnel’s morale. The hypothesis of the present study can be formulated as follows: police officers’ morale positively correlates with the availability of personnel, resources, and equipment.
To check the hypothesis, it is essential to ensure the conceptualization and operationalization of the major variables of the study. To conceptualize such terms as the availability of personnel, resources, and equipment, it is necessary to interview the chief of the department, implement the research and interview several officers working at the department (and chosen randomly). As an illustration of the conceptualization process, it is possible to conceptualize the term availability of resources. In this study, it will refer to the availability of training, time for completing diverse tasks, access to the necessary data. The operationalization process involves the development of particular measures to evaluate the variables identified. As for the availability of training, the number of available training programs will be taken into account. The availability of time will be estimated through the calculations of the time needed and spent to complete reports. As to the availability of data, the cases when it is important to receive approval and confirmation from police managers or other individuals will be considered.
To check the hypothesis, it is also vital to conceptualize and operationalize the primary dependent variable, which is personnel morale. Archbold (2012) defines morale as “the mental and emotional condition… of an individual or group concerning the function or tasks at hand” (p. 224). To address the hypothesis of this study, it is possible to use the modified definition mentioned above: morale is the personnel’s commitment to the organizational culture and goals, their confidence and loyalty, as well as enthusiasm, associated with their daily functions. It is possible to use the following operational definition of the concept. Pope, Lovell, and Brandl (2000) use the scale to measure people’s satisfaction with police performance. The morale can be measured using the scale of satisfaction with job, tasks, and operations, as well as the working environment. This concept is also closely connected with the level of preparedness to work in the same environment.
To address the hypothesis, it is possible to utilize a mixed research design. The data collection process will include the collection of quantitative (through a survey) and qualitative data (through an interview) data. All the police officers of the department will complete short surveys while five officers will be chosen randomly for interviews. The survey will include the questions provided below.
Are you satisfied with your working conditions concerning time available to complete daily tasks?
Totally
Partially
Quite satisfied
Not quite satisfied
Completely unsatisfied
Are you satisfied with the tools provided to maintain order in the streets?
Totally
Partially
Quite satisfied
Not quite satisfied
Completely unsatisfied
Do you agree that officers are overloaded with tasks due to limited human resources in the department?
Totally agree
Partially agree
Quite agree
Not quite agree
Completely disagree
Are you satisfied with the equipment available to do paperwork?
Totally
Partially
Quite satisfied
Not quite satisfied
Completely unsatisfied
Are you satisfied with the training opportunities available?
Totally
Partially
Quite satisfied
Not quite satisfied
Completely unsatisfied
Estimate the likelihood of your working in this department within the next two years.
90-100%
60-89%
50-59%
20-49%
0-19%
Please rate the following issues as they affect your job satisfaction (where 1 will be the biggest issue that leads to your job dissatisfaction):
lack of efficient equipment in the line of duty (bulletproof vests, weapons, handcuffs, body cameras, drones, and so on)
lack of office equipment
lack of personnel
lack of resources
ineffective reward system
lack of training opportunities
low salary
The data collected will help identify the police officers’ views on their morale and factors affecting it. The survey will provide quantitative data covering the entire personnel, while interviews will provide some insights into the officers’ perspectives on the matter. The interview questions (open-ended) will be developed based on the survey questions to elicit more information on the subject.
In conclusion, it is possible to note that the examination of the department’s personnel morale will involve the focus on such aspects as job satisfaction, commitment to work in the same working environment, the availability of resources, equipment, and staff. A mixed research design will be used. All officers will complete surveys, and five officers will be interviewed. This approach will enable the researcher to identify the overall morale and factors affecting it with some insights that shed light on the matter.
References
Archbold, C. A. (2012). Policing: A text/reader. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
Ercikti, S., Vito, G. F., Walsh, W. F., & Higgins, G. E. (2011). Major determinants of job satisfaction among police managers. The Southwest Journal of Criminal Justice, 8(1), 97-111.
McCarty, W. P., & Skogan, W. G. (2013). Job-related burnout among civilian and sworn police personnel. Police Quarterly, 16(1), 66-84.
Pope, C., Lovell, R., & Brandl, S. G. (2000). Voices from the field: Readings in criminal justice research. Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning.
Introduction: Police Subculture and Ethical Concerns
Although the area of law enforcement is typically associated with the ideas and essential concepts of morality and ethics, the current environment thereof leaves much to be desired as far as its moral foundation is concerned. Studies show that the present-day realm of law enforcement is infested with the ideas of nihilistic skepticism, which implies that the reasons for an objective judgment should be denied (Reisig & Kane, 2013). Therefore, there is a pressing need to analyze the target environment and reform it so that the essential decisions should be ethical, as well as aimed primarily at facilitating the wellbeing of all parties involved.
Exercising Authority on Vulnerable Population: A Delicate Choice
The issue of power abuse remains among the most common concerns in contemporary law enforcement practice. Enabled to make the choices that a range of people depend on, and that can be used in favor of the police, LA officers often face the temptation to abuse their authority and profit from other people’s lack of experience and information. However, even when taking actions that can be interpreted as fully legitimate from the perspective of the current law enforcement principles, LA representatives may harm vulnerable populations. As a result, police officials face a complex dilemma concerning the choice between acting as required by the police guidelines and meeting the actual needs of the target population.
It would be wrong to claim that the problem is not addressed by the LA officials. On the contrary, programs have been developed to manage the issues related to the vulnerable population members and the dilemmas that police representatives face when dealing with the identified social stratum. For example, extensive programs aimed at vulnerable sector checks have been designed to create a safer environment for the people that face economic, social, or any other concerns which make them vulnerable to the actions taken by the police. Nevertheless, the problem remains topical, and it is necessary to resolve the issue so that the members of the LA department could accomplish their tasks and, at the same time, make sure that the representatives of the vulnerable population should not be affected.
Lies in Reports, During Investigations, etc.: Ends and Means
The notorious Blue Wall of Silence (Johnson, 2013) illustrates the range of reasons for the members of the Law Enforcement Department to resort to lies and deceit in their reports, as well as in an array of other activities, such as retrieving information from witnesses, communicating with suspects, etc. The current police subculture not only fails to prevent the identified situations from occurring but also reinforces them by building a wall between the law enforcement members and the rest of the population. As a result, resorting to lies is not viewed as unethical.
Acceptance of Gratuities and the Subsequent Patronizing
The concept of a gratuity is rather simple, yet it entails an array of complexities in the work of a police officer. By definition, a gratuity is a gift that one is offered based solely on the job that they have and the services that they can provide (Pearce, Hynes, & Bovarnick, 2013). Although the phenomenon of gratuity might seem innocent enough, it serves as the premise for further corruption. The cumulative effects of regular gifts and other forms of gratuity may become the building blocks for more serious deviations from the existing ethical principles with which the members of the police must comply.
Furthermore, the acceptance of gratuities may finally lead to patronizing the institutions that offer gifts and rewards for the services. The phenomenon mentioned above, in its turn, can be viewed as a much more serious breach of police ethics. Refusing from the gift, on the other hand, will inevitably cause the giver to feel rejected, the negative emotions leading to a more complex conflict. Therefore, there is an obvious dent in the LA ethics that needs to be addressed.
Keeping the Confidentiality of the People Involved: The Ones to Protect
Eventually, the dilemma of confidentiality must be analyzed. Although the members of the police department are typically expected to refrain from disclosing people’s personal information, as well as their evidence, to the third party, the principles of non-disclosure may not apply to the underage population. In other words, a law enforcement officer is obliged to disclose the corresponding information to the parents or the legal guardians. Depending on the circumstances, the consequences of the scenario described above may be dire for the underage person in question.
The issue of confidentiality and the necessity to break it may apply to other scenarios, such as the need to locate the whereabouts of the suspect, save the hostage, etc. In any of the situations, as the one mentioned previously, a law officer faces a complex choice between maintaining the confidentiality and following the essential principles of Utilitarianism, i.e., preventing any possible harm.
Conclusion: Ethics as a Construct of the Police Subculture
Following ethical guidelines is part and parcel of a police officer’s job. However, the choice between complying with ethical standards and the principles of the local subculture may become far too difficult. Therefore, it is required to carry out a massive analysis of the challenging situations which the members of the police are forced to encounter.
References
Johnson, O. (2013). Blue wall of silence: Perceptions of the influence of training on law enforcement suicide. New York, NY: Lulu.com
Pearce, J. J., Hynes, P., & Bovarnick, S. (2013). Trafficked young people: Breaking the wall of silence. New York, NY: Routledge.
Reisig, M. D., & Kane, R. J. (2013). The Oxford handbook of police and policing. Oxford, UK: OUP.
Nowadays, Dubai remains to be one of the regions where many crucial changes and improvements occur in almost every field. People use the results of the technological progress, recognize their needs and opportunities, and develop international relations at different levels. The Dubai police department is one of the spheres where considerable changes are observed. For example, in 2016, a certain contribution in the form of crime prediction software was defined. The implementation of software provides ordinary police officers with hope and assistance to recognize crimes and dangerous events before they happen. However, this idea has several pros and cons, and people continue discussing its worth and impact on the modern Dubai population. Therefore, it is necessary to investigate the current state of affairs in the Dubai police department and clarify if any other innovation strategies could be offered to reach the required security level.
Hypothesis
In Dubai, much attention is paid to the technological factor. A human factor continues to be neglected. The examples taken from the American and British police departments show that additional training, the consideration of ethical aspects, and the necessity of cooperation may help police officers a lot. Dubai police officers should have a chance to improve their work.
Research Question
Is it possible for the representatives of the Dubai police department to combine the technological progress inherent to Dubai with a human factor that is frequently used in the work of the US and UK police officers to promote the creation of a new strategy with the help of which the country may reach a high level of security in 2020?
Research Methods
To answer this research question, a mixed research method should be used based on random sampling. First, it is necessary to gather the qualitative data and clarify the current achievements in the chosen police department. It is suggested to interview five to ten police officers and explain the conditions under which they have to work and develop their ideas. Second, quantitative data may be taken from a questionnaire. Eight questions should be posed to ordinary citizens of Dubai, both males, and females, to investigate if they are satisfied with the quality of work of their local police departments. Finally, the analysis of credible literature is required to gather and compare the strategies developed in the US and UK police departments. Annual reports and current news about the US and UK steps and methods since 2013 may be used to find qualitative and quantitative data for the project.
Significance of Research
In general, the worth of this research lies in the possibility to investigate the strengths and weaknesses of the work of the Dubai police department and its current achievements, identify the opportunities and potential improvements, and use the examples from other countries to take the best approaches. The technological benefits observed in Dubai and the attention to a human factor that is evident in the work of the US and UK officers help to promote the strategy for Dubai police. Its results and impact are hard to predict, and this project is the opportunity to not only develop an innovation strategy but also predict its effects on ordinary citizens and police officers of Dubai.
Law enforcement in the United States is counted with confronts of organizing an ethnically and religiously assorted population. With the initiation of ambiguities and courtroom technicalities, the field officials have to pursue the constitution in all phases to send the guilty to prison.
Interrogation of an indicted suspect is frequently an instrument used by law enforcement to obtain a confession. Many methods are used by police investigators in attempts to obtain a confession during an interrogation. The foundation of interrogations, in my opinion, is aimed at finding the truth. One notes certain limitations in determining whether the confession obtained was voluntary.
The limitations governing the police relate to the due process test and that of confessions obtained during custodial interrogations. Many of these interrogations are questionable or in violation of Miranda. Whenever a question is as to the possibility of violation of any limitations in an interrogation, prosecutors usually seek to use impeachment.
According to the text, “Brian v. the United States” the Supreme Court held that for a confession to be voluntary, it must not have been extracted by or obtained by any sort of threat or violence, nor could it have been obtained by any means of direct or implied promises, no matter how slight. The issue at hand, in this case, involved the totality of circumstances in assessing the volunteerism of the confession. (Williams, p – 209)
The next issue at hand when dealing with custodial interrogations is Miranda. Miranda was developed due to issues involving the case of Miranda v. Arizona. The Miranda process was established to ensure that the suspect was adequately and effectively advised of his or her rights, and to ensure that the exercise of these rights was fully honored by the police.” This was an apparent attempt of the court system to recognize or overcome the obvious pressures of police power placed on individuals during the interrogation process. These Miranda warnings are required before any custodial interrogations.
These legal issues pertaining to the limitations of police interrogations have caused many questions by advocates of police who interrogate suspects on a regular basis, as well as attorneys and lawyers who actively defend this individual in court. As some of us are law enforcement officers, it is believed that police should utilize all the legal tactics at hand in order to obtain a lawfully, non-coerced confession. These tactics often include the “good cop-bad cop” routine. In our opinion, this tactic gives the police a sympathetic approach, but also offers an approach favorable to their intention, to obtain a confession. It is agreed this may seem like psychological coercion, but it strengthens the police’s vantage point. (Hahn, pp 13-15)
In today’s judicial society, judge and jury, the courts consider a confession to be a very important piece of evidence. The law enforcement agencies comprised of detectives, police investigators, and prosecutors, rely heavily on this evidence when attempting to solve crimes. Obtaining this evidence is critical even though the practices of police during this process sustain numerous amounts of criticism particularly on the legalities of how the confession was obtained during the interrogation process.
In an article by P.J. Van Koppen wrong and right interrogation practices are discussed. According to the article, the police should be monitored and obligated to focus not only on obtaining just a confession but should be required to enhance good interrogation techniques in order to prevent many injustices of the criminal justice system. He believes to obtain just a confession is not correct, but that there should be sufficient evidence existing to support the confession. Confessions are often difficult to obtain and a real source of frustration because many criminals tend to offer a lack of motivation to cooperate. This lack of cooperation may hinder the investigation process and cause the information-gathering process by investigators to become time-consuming. The investigator’s interrogation techniques may cause pressure on the suspect thus creating a risk of the suspect offering a false confession or statement that may and generally will be used against them. (Feld, p-219)
The efforts of many human rights advocates, as well as legal guidelines, are to ensure that police interrogations are ethical and in compliance with the legal requirements. The legal boundaries are focused on denouncing physical and psychological abuse in order to obtain the confession. When officers abide by the guidelines, interrogations can produce valuable, useful evidence that can be used to properly prosecute criminals from the streets to the courtroom.
Police receive confessions mostly through the interrogation of the suspect. Police detain a suspect and read the suspect their Miranda Rights. The Miranda Rights inform the suspect what rights they have while under questioning by police. The main rights they are informed about are the right to have an attorney and the right to remain silent. The suspect has the right to be represented by an attorney during interrogation. Three out of four people waive their Miranda Rights. This means that the suspects elect to speak to police during interrogation without an attorney. Approximately 62% of suspects interrogated give confessions. American law enforcement personnel are very good at interrogation. Comparing them to Germany’s law enforcement, which produces a 38% confession rate; individuals are probably the leaders of the industrialized world (Gohara, p-791).
One big problem with interrogations is the false confession. Sometimes suspects under interrogation confess to crimes they did not commit. Police sometimes lie, fabricate evidence, or otherwise coerce a confessor. It then must be determined by judges and juries whether the confession was voluntary or coerced and may have made an innocent person confess. A few boundaries to be followed that police have when interrogating suspects. They cannot promise immunity or use brute force. Deprivation of food and sleep, prolonged isolation is also not allowed. If the police conduct any of these types of activities, the confession will probably be inadmissible. Failure to give the suspect Miranda rights can also make the confession inadmissible along with the denial of counsel. If a confession is obtained within the guidelines, it will be the “holy grail” of law enforcement (Gohara, p-791).
In conclusion, due to the ever-changing world of crime, law enforcement has to strive to keep the balance of protecting society and respecting the individuals who comprise it on an even plane. New technology is very important to solving crime, excluding the field officials who inspect are the genuine forefront.
Works Cited
Feld, Barry C. “Police Interrogation of Juveniles: An Empirical Study of Policy and Practice.” Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 97.1 (2006): 219+.
Gohara, Miriam S. “A Lie for a Lie: False Confessions and the Case for Reconsidering the Legality of Deceptive Interrogation Techniques.” Fordham Urban Law Journal 33.3 (2006): 791+.
Hahn, Harlan, and Judson L. Jeffries. Urban America and Its Police: From the Postcolonial Era through the Turbulent 1960s. Boulder, CO: University Press of Colorado, 2003.
Williams, James W. “Interrogating Justice: A Critical Analysis of the Police Interrogation and Its Role in the Criminal Justice Process”.” Canadian Journal of Criminology 42.2 (2000): 209.